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DOMESTIC ABUSE DURING THE COVID-19 LOCKDOWN: A PANDEMIC WITHIN

THE PANDEMIC

Chapter 2: Literature Review

A literature search approach is a process of searching for and discovering articles that are
relevant to a research project in a systematic way. One benefit of employing such an approach
for forming an opinion on a subject for a dissertation is that it reduces the likelihood that a
researcher would produce that viewpoint by relying on biased, dubious, or irrelevant facts or
information. This is one of the advantages of using such an approach. Inadequate search tactics
for relevant literature are likely to be fault for problematic, biased, or insufficient findings. When
doing research for a dissertation or another kind of study, the researcher must use a search
strategy tailored to the demands of the current research subject. The sections that follow give an
overview of the technique for conducting a literature search that was followed throughout the
dissertation-writing process (Weller et al., 2021).

The findings of the study that we have been able to assemble so far indicate considerable
evidence linking domestic violence to economic and social difficulties. By linking the socio-
economic parameters of the perpetrator and victim with the frequency of domestic abuse events,
researchers revealed that economic disadvantage might directly impact intimate partner violence
at both the neighbourhood and individual levels. This was done by relating the socioeconomic
parameters of the perpetrator and victim to the frequency of reported cases of domestic violence.
According to the study's findings, the frequency of violent actions perpetrated against women is
much higher in lower-income homes than in higher-income ones. Based on these data, it seems
that there is an increased chance of domestic violence happening when individuals face pressures
due to the economic and social environment (Usta et al., 2021).

As a result of the adoption of lockdown, a significant percentage of the population now

faces the possibility of losing their job. The financial difficulties that families are already
experiencing will probably deepen as a consequence, which will almost certainly exacerbate any
existing tensions and lead to increased unrest. According to the information now available, the
current COVID-19 recession has had a disproportionate impact on people who are younger, have
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lower incomes, are people of colour, have lower levels of education, have bigger families, and
have younger children. The proportion of people who have been forced to take unpaid leave or
have had at least half of their working hours cut is substantially greater for those without a
degree than for those with a degree. This would indicate that the neighbourhoods with the
greatest incidence of domestic violence in the past are also likely to be the ones most hit by the
current economic crisis. These populations are expected to see the greatest increase in the
severity of the consequences of climate change (Walklate et al., 2022).

Origins and Consequences

The two main schools of thinking on the origins and consequences of domestic violence
are the criminal pattern hypothesis and the routine activity idea. These are sometimes known as
schools of thinking, and each of these ideas has some good arguments. Repeated Action
According to Taub et al., (2020), the risk of a domestic violence event occurring rises when the
perpetrator is motivated, the victim is vulnerable, and a responsible adult is not present. As a
consequence, the victim's routine activities, as well as the offender's, impact the likelihood of
criminal behaviour. A severe interruption in these activities, such as the imposition of lock-
downs, would have a considerable influence on the victim's daily routine and, as a result, would
increase the victim's vulnerability to abuse at the hands of the individuals with whom they are
locked down. Lock-downs are one example of a substantial interruption to these operations. This
would also imply that the ability to seek aid from friends and family who may act as guardians in
the case of abuse by an intimate partner is restricted, which is another negative connotation of
the scenario. Furthermore, we observed a strong likelihood that the lockout would increase the
frequency of complaints of domestic violence in people's homes, which is another conclusion we
came to after doing our study (Smyth et al., 2021).

Area of Criminology
Furthermore, the academic area of criminology has its own body of work, frequently
referred to as a canon of literature, devoted to the research of the elements that contribute to
criminal behaviour. They are useful for understanding the effect of socially isolating tactics since
they rely so heavily on keeping the continual connection in both the physical and social domains.
As a result of the lockdown, a higher percentage of people remained inside their houses than
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usual, resulting in fewer social connections. According to Rhodes et al., (2020), the likelihood of
committing a crime has likely increased significantly, indicating that the bulk of urban crimes
has decreased as a result of decreasing victim density. This is due to the fact that there are more
persons to commit crimes against. Because stay-at-home orders enhance physical closeness, it is
more probable that the contrary is true in situations of violence perpetrated by intimate partners.
While this is true in situations of violence done by past partners, it is more probable in cases of
violence committed by intimate partners to be the contrary (Riddell et al., 2022).

There seems to be a link between stressful situations, such as when the home team loses,
and an increase in the frequency of domestic violence incidents. This is essential for the study of
criminal behaviour during lockdowns since it is expected that levels of emotional stress would
rise and continue to rise during the outbreak. This will create a high-stress environment similar to
that of a sporting event. This is particularly crucial to bear in mind when considering the
likelihood that continuous exposure to stress may compound the consequences (Rengasamy et
al., 2022).

As a result of people's reactions to COVID-19 and the resulting increase in criminal

behaviour and domestic violence, a corpus of the written material is taking form. The findings of
this research are inconsistent, with the great majority indicating that there is no increase in
domestic violence incidences during lockdowns. Regardless, the data is inconsistent (Panovska-
Griffiths et al., 2022).

Prevalence of Partner violence

It is well known that there is little time for nurses to engage in communication with their
patients in today's fast-paced nursing workplace. In Nigeria, the prevalence of intimate partner
violence ranges from 7% to 31% for physical violence, 20% to 31% for sexual assault, and 31%
to 61 percent for psychological or emotional abuse (Nigam et al., 2020). The most prevalent kind
of abuse is physical assault. Violence against women and girls is a substantial and prevalent
problem in England and Wales, with serious psychological and societal consequences. The most
recent numbers from England and Wales' Telephone-Operated Crime Survey, as well as police
records of crimes committed against families and individuals (Moore et al., 2022).
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During the period when Europe was putting measures in place to limit the spread of the
disease, the Italian government started paying for hotels to house victims escaping abuse. The
frequency of allegations of domestic violence increased after France approved legislation
mandating citizens to self-isolate and quarantine themselves. As a result, the French government
began giving assistance to pay the cost of hotel rooms for victims of domestic violence who were
on the run. The frequency of accusations of domestic abuse increased from 21% to 35% as
quarantine restrictions were expanded across the United States (Lyons et al., 2021).

Numerous studies have been undertaken and published, all of which reach the same
conclusion: the constraints imposed by COVID-19 resulted in a significant rise in the incidence
of occurrences of domestic violence. The researchers analysed the surge in domestic violence
that occurred during the pandemic and its impact on economic and social contexts in their study.
Their results suggest that the consequences of domestic violence induced by COVID-19 will
contribute to future economic and social disasters. Despite the fact that suggestions were
provided, the efficacy of the guidance presented in the paper to combat the detrimental influence
of COVID-19 on domestic violence was not evaluated (Kellam et al., 2019).

Ivandic et al., (2021), recently published a report in which they analysed incidences of
domestic violence that happened during COVID-19 in selected African nations, one of which
was Nigeria. The researchers concluded that the lockdown exacerbated previously existing
occurrences of DV and that the government failed to appropriately react to the incidence of
incidents. Recent research centred on the United Kingdom investigated the government's shift to
a remote primary care system known as the PRECODE as a tool in reducing domestic violence
during the pandemic.

The enactment of the Domestic Abuse Act 2021 in the United Kingdom occurred at an
opportune moment, coinciding with the pandemic lockdown (Hildersley et al., 2022). One of the
Act's primary goals is to broaden the definition of domestic abuse to encompass incidents that
may not have a violent connotation but are nevertheless abusive. This is one of the Act's main
points. For their investigation, researchers concentrated on South Wales. They collected data on
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police referrals for domestic abuse cases both before and after the first COVID-19 lockdown.
Based on their results, the researchers concluded that the rise in risk level, despite a less obvious
volume increase, might indicate unfulfilled demands. Except in exceptional cases, victims were
less likely to seek aid during the lockdown (Ilesanmi et al., 2020).

Gupte and Mitlin emphasised in their paper for 2020 how COVID-19 responses in poorer
and middle-income nations would have to be more complicated because of their restricted
capacity to react to the risks. In contrast, sophisticated civilizations are better prepared to cope
with such dangers. Articles such as the ones highlighted above will be carefully examined and
critiqued in order to elaborate on the comparative jurisdictional analysis that will be conducted
between the United Kingdom and Nigeria in light of the lapses in response, the effectiveness of
the response, proposed recommendations, and a draught plan of action (Every-Palmer et al.,
2020).

Physical and emotional abuse

According to Abrahams et al., (2022), the vast majority of those who have experienced
physical or emotional abuse in their own households are female. Over the past several years, the
number of cases of domestic violence aimed against black women in London has increased.
According to the study's results, there were two heinous murders of women every week in
England and Wales in 2015. At this rate, a woman will die every three days on average. Even
though the news is very important, it is nearly never broadcast on national television unless there
are special circumstances, such as the death of a well-known individual. Some men feel that if a
man's wife causes him mental pain, he has the right to believe that he is justified in resorting to
physical violence as retaliation for the offence (Akisheva et al., 2021). During the drop caused by
COVID-19, the number of occurrences observed considerably rose. In the United Kingdom,
there are laws and regulations in place to ban acts of violence against women and to penalise
those who commit such crimes.

Regardless of the criterion employed, data reveal that one in every four women in the UK
will experience domestic abuse at some point in her life. The London police get one call for
domestic abuse every minute, despite that only around 35% of domestic violence cases are
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reported to the authorities (Barchielli et al., 2021). Fear of retaliation, concern for their children's
well-being, optimism that their partners will change, a lack of family or other economic support,
hope that their partners will change, and shame associated with divorce are reasons women stay
in violent relationships. Other factors include a desire for their relationships to change and a
desire for their partners to change.

Cases of domestic Violence

According to data obtained by the British police department, there seems to be an
increase in cases of domestic violence. According to the findings, the number of reported
incidents of domestic violence rose by 13% between March 2018 and March 2019. In addition,
approximately 9,000 more infractions of the law were registered by the police. According to
statistics from the metropolitan police forces and the Crime Survey of England, the number of
recorded incidences in London is fewer than the predicted number of victims each year
(Akisheva et al., 2021). The figures were taken from data provided by the English Crime Survey.
A comparison of the two data sets was performed in order to ascertain this. According to the
HMICFRS crime data integrity study, the number of sexual assaults and documented incidents of
domestic violence against women both increased in 2014. Furthermore, the frequency of
incidents of domestic violence against men has grown (Carrington et al., 2021).

In October of 2000, the Metropolitan Police Department sponsored the first in a series of
lectures on domestic violence. Despite being the ones leading the effort, black women in the
United Kingdom were dissatisfied with the conference since their issues were not prioritised
above those of other groups. Instead of addressing the matter in front of the whole conference,
their law enforcement officers have chosen to attend extra special seminars in order to disguise
their worries. Despite the fact that the panel was formed, considerable improvement has been
made in the way law enforcement handles domestic abuse cases. Domestic violence has
progressed to the point that it is now regarded as a significant kind of criminal offence by the
police department. Previously, they saw it as a minor issue that did not need the intervention of
the judicial system in any manner. This was a watershed moment in the Metropolitan Police
Department's policy for investigating and prosecuting domestic abuse cases (Brooks-Hay et al.,
2022).
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Tremendous progress
Despite the fact that the metropolitan police force has made tremendous progress in
combating crime, there is still space for improvement, particularly in the protection of black
women from abuse at the hands of intimate partners. As a result, the researchers concluded that
the police sought to take advantage of the women's movement and feminism's relative quiet on
the criminal justice system's treatment of black women. Because of these demographic
differences, the experiences of black women, who constitute a minority population, and white
women, who constitute a majority population, in terms of becoming victims of domestic violence
vary significantly (Elhadi et al., 2022).

Surface of myriad
This article just scratches the surface of the myriad types of abuse that may occur inside
intimate personal relationships, such as human trafficking, sexual assault, and genital mutilation,
all of which are typical occurrences for women. Domestic violence, when applied to the setting
of the home, refers to any behaviour that willfully causes physical harm to another person.
Women and girls who are victims of domestic abuse are in danger of enduring mental torture in
addition to physical injury. Domestic violence may take many forms, one of which is verbal
abuse. It is important to remember that any member of the home, from newborns to elderly
persons, is vulnerable to domestic violence (Every-Palmer et al., 2020). Consequently, putting an
end to domestic violence is everyone's responsibility to limit the number of incidents in which
women and children disappear without a trace. The major focus of this research is a physical
assault on women and young girls, as opposed to any other kind of domestic violence. Abusing
another person in any manner, shape, or form is never suitable behaviour for a devoted partner,
spouse, or anyone else. One example of an external element that may contribute to the incidence
of violent actions is the zeal with which the police execute the law. Whatever prompted a person
to choose to abuse another person, especially a woman, that person does not have the right to act
in such a way towards another person, regardless of the reasons for doing so (Hildersley et al.,
2022).
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Women are among the most defenceless people in society since they are unable to defend
themselves. When a woman is abused in the context of a domestic relationship, her mental and
physical health might suffer significantly. Sprains, strains, dislocations, and fractures are
examples of injuries that may occur in many sections of the body. It is unlikely for a person
holding a sophisticated object to get brain damage or other types of head trauma as a
consequence of using the weapon, especially if the weapon is a firearm. In addition to physical
injuries, victims of domestic abuse often have depressive episodes that exacerbate their existing
medical concerns, such as high blood pressure, anxiety, and eating disorders (Nigam et al.,
2020). Those who have experienced domestic abuse and acquired post-traumatic stress disorder
have a difficult time going on with their life.

A woman must be watchful if she is to determine if her spouse is physically or

emotionally abusing her and take proper action. It is critical for women to leave violent
relationships as soon as possible since being in such a relationship may end in significant injuries
or even death if the woman does not leave as soon as the first indications of violence appear.
Governments must investigate complaints of domestic abuse and impose harsh penalties on those
who engage in such behaviour. Domestic violence is something that governments all around the
globe confront (Lyons et al., 2021).

Implementation
According to the researchers' findings, the implementation of lockdown limitations in
Los Angeles has not led to a substantial drop in the incidence of assaults on intimate partners.
Similarly, when ARIMA modelling methodologies were applied, researchers in the Australian
state of Queensland reported that the rate of domestic violence during lockdown was not
substantially different from their expectations for the period, given the historical data for the
crime (Walklate et al., 2022). This was true despite the state being under a state of emergency.
For yet another study, researchers examined data given by the Dallas Police Department and
concluded that there was no statistically significant rise in the number of occurrences of domestic
violence. They were unable to discover any sustained rise or ongoing higher levels of domestic
violence despite using trend analysis and ARIMA forecasting models to quantify increases in
domestic violence and anticipate future incidences. They discovered an initial rise in domestic
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violence in the days after the stay-at-home order but no persistent increase or ongoing higher
levels of domestic violence. Despite using these models to forecast increases in domestic
violence and predict future occurrences, they found what was indicated above (Rhodes et al.,
2020).

Favourable impacts
Other studies, on the other hand, show that there are favourable impacts. A difference-in-
difference strategy was employed in the academic study that was conducted to document the
effect of the COVID-19 crisis on domestic violence. According to their findings, pandemic
response actions were responsible for a 10.2 percent rise in the number of calls reporting
domestic violence (Smyth et al., 2021). They determined that this spike started before the stay-
at-home orders were implemented, indicating that it was not a reaction to enforced quarantine
and, as a consequence, it may not reverse itself immediately when the restrictions are withdrawn.
According to their data, the growth does not seem to be driven by any one demographic group.
Furthermore, researchers in India utilise temporal and geographical heterogeneity in the
harshness of government-enforced lockdowns to assess the effect of confinement measures on
domestic violence. This enables the researchers to assess the influence of confinement measures
on the issue of domestic violence. They discovered that the rate of domestic violence rose solely
in places with harsher lockdown requirements, and the rates increased by 0.47 standard
deviations when compared to districts with the least stringent measures (Usta et al., 2021).

Investigation
Researchers conducted an investigation of the impact of COVID-19 lockdowns on
domestic violence incidents in Argentina. The authors discovered a statistically significant rise in
the number of calls after the implementation of mobility restrictions in Argentina. This
investigation also discovered a switch between several reporting systems, which resulted in a
decrease in calls from police and a rise of 82% in calls directly from victims (Weller et al.,
2021). Further study being conducted by scholars in Argentina gives a greater knowledge of the
subject at hand. It addresses the worry that an increase in the reporting rates of violent acts
perpetrated by intimate partners might be the underlying cause of the increase in the number of
violent acts performed by intimate partners. The research compares the experiences of women
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whose husbands or boyfriends were exempt from the quarantine rules to the experiences of
women whose husbands or boyfriends were not exempt from such a limitation. According to
Panovska-Griffiths et al., (2022), the amount of violence that happens inside intimate
relationships and the limits put on people's access to lockdown areas are directly proportionate,
with restrictions leading to increasing levels of partner violence.

Inconclusive findings
As a consequence, studies on the issue of domestic violence in many regions of the world
throughout the time period yielded inconclusive findings, with some reporting a drop in the
incidence and others alleging a surge in the frequency. Our research is distinct from others for
two main reasons. Because none of these research discriminated between abuse by a current
spouse and abuse by a past partner, they are unable to provide a comprehensive explanation of
how abuse might evolve over time. Another important factor to remember across all of these
research is that determining the prevalence of domestic violence is challenging. This is
something that should always be kept in mind. The oscillations in the number of domestic
violence calls to police may be ascribed to changes in the incidence of abuse or changes in
reporting. Alternatively, the changes might be the result of both processes. When there is social
isolation between the persons involved, the likelihood of a third person reporting via neighbours
increases. However, when there is social isolation, the chance of victims reporting the incidence
decreases. The fundamental goal of this research is to provide insight into how reporting has
evolved throughout time (Kellam et al., 2019).
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