Chapter 4

ETHICAL THEORY AND CRITICISM

 Introduction
 Social Moral Theory
- Function of Social Moral Theory within the Malaysian society
- Weaknesses in Social Moral Theory
- Social morality in the Malaysian context
 Theory of Personality Virtues
- Development of Theory of Personality Virtues in Malaysia
- Strategies to develop characteristics of personality virtues
- Criticism towards Theory of Personality Virtues
 Teleological Theory
- Utilitarianism
- Criticism towards utilitarianism
- Egoism
- Criticism towards egoism
 Deontological Theory
- Principle of Duty
- Criticism towards Principle of Duty
- Principle of Existentialism
- Criticism towards Principle of Existentialism
 Inculcating ethical and moral theory in the Malaysian context

Reflective session
Reinforcement questions
Time allocated in the syllabus: 9 hours
INTRODUCTION
Ethical theories function as a guide for individuals and society to live a moral
and meaningful life. However, each ethical theory needs to be understood and
analysed according to the morality context in Malaysia. Four main theories will be
discussed in this chapter.

ETHICAL THEORIES

Social Moral Theory

Theory of Personality Virtues

Teleological Theory
- Utilitarianism
- Egoism

Deontological Theory
- Principle of Duty
- Principle of Existentialism

Generally, ethical theories focus on different aspects of virtue and morality.

Social Moral Theory and Theory of Personality Virtues answer the question “What
kind of an individual should I become in a certain society?” Both the theories do not
judge whether the action of an individual is right or wrong but refers to the
characteristics or the personality of that individual. That individual would make moral
decisions based on character that is good and makes an individual a good person.
Teleological Theory and Deontological Theory are ethical theories based on moral
action. Both the theories focus on the moral decision taken by an individual. When an
action is judged morally based on the consequences, it relates to Teleological Theory.
However, when moral action is judged based on value principles then it refers to
Deontological Theory

SOCIAL MORAL THEORY

Social Moral Theory refers to standards or moral measurement in a certain
society based on norms and taboos within that society to ensure the social morality
within. Social life in Malaysia is based on several internal and external factors.
Internal factors are law and regulations, traditions and local societal norms. External
factors which are rising since the development of science and technology are internet
influence, global adolescent culture, and current global development. All these factors
are communicated through individuals in a society. Such communications always
occur and influences individual moral behaviour. At times, external development
influences local societal norms. To ensure that life is peaceful and harmonious, there
must be a mechanism to balance both the factors.
In the situation below, even though the son wants to use black attire which is
his favourite colour, he abides by the Chinese society taboo, respects his parents’ wish
and has compassion for his grandparents’ feelings. However, his parents too
understand the son’s feelings. They provide him the freedom to use such attire when
he goes out with his peers.

How come you’re

Everyone is ready to visit dressed in black?
grandma. Today is New
Year day.

But dad, black is

my favourite
colour…

(Gambar ibu bapa Cina) (gambar bapa menegur anak

perempuan-pelajar kolej..pakai
serba hitam)

Mum understands you like black

but try to avoid that colour on
New Year’s day.
Happy New Year,
grandma, grandpa.

Happy New
Ok. I’ll change Year.
into other
clothes.

Gambar ibu nasihat anak tadi. Ayah Gambar keluarga Cina

di sebelah. melawat nenek di kampung
Function of Social Moral Theory within the Malaysian society

Social Moral Theory plays an important role in reinforcing peace and harmony
in the moral system of our country. Being a multicultural country, Social Moral
Theory exists in two different situations. One is within the homogenous society itself.
For example, in the Malay society there are traditions and taboos such as a
young person need to bend their body slightly when crossing in front of elderly people
as a sign of respect and giving and receiving things using the right hand. In the
Chinese community, there are practices such as inviting everyone in the family during
meal time as a gesture of respect and leaving behind some food on the table as a sign
of respect. For the Indian society, practices such as washing one’s feet before entering
the house and falling on parents or elderly people’s legs to gain their blessings. All
these different homogenous groups are living together as one nation. It is important to
understand and respect cultural differences and practice societal norms which cuts
across different ethnicity groups.

Gambar ibu bapa tua Gambar seoarang pelajar kolej

tunggu di perhentian bas

Aged parents need care, love and attention Promises made to friends must be fulfilled

Social Moral Theory helps individuals in a society to live with others without
emphasising on self interest alone. This theory helps to resolve moral conflicts in
society. For example, there are cases in Malaysia where couples or lovers are
reprimanded and charged in court for behaving indecently in public. Even if the
couple’s behaviour is accepted within one homogenous society, in Malaysia
where Islamic principles are practised, it becomes the responsibility of every
individual to understand and obey the regulations confirmed.

Weaknesses in Social Moral Theory

There are several weaknesses in Social Moral Theory. Even though this theory
functions to help uphold the social morality within a society, it tends to support
the leaders, especially those who are authoritarian or dictators who cause
sufferings to their society.
 Gambar beberapa orang komunis menendang sepasang tua
yang tinggal di rumah usang.

We want you to get out from here.

We are changing the place to our
operation unit.

But where are we

going to live?
I don’t care!

In a ruling system as above, both the elderly couple have lost their moral
autonomy. They also do not have a place to complain because the ruling system
supports such a social morality. But such situations are becoming scarce because
of global policies such as upholding human rights.

Social morality in the Malaysian context

In the context of our country, social morality is influenced by internal and external
factors. When there is a moral conflict, internal factors are taken into consideration
first before considering external factors. But in certain issues such as child abuse,
universal values like human rights and the rights of the child is upheld.

Mind Google
Why is Social Moral Theory important in upholding the morality of our society?
Explain using specific examples.

THEORY OF PERSONALITY VIRTUES

If Social Moral Theory refers to the standard morality in a certain society,
Theory of Personality Virtues refers to characteristics of personality virtues that
moulds an individual to become a moral agent and accepted by local as well as global
nations. Theory of Personality Virtues constantly makes an individual reflect; “What
should I do to be moral? Why do I need to behave that particular way to be moral?”
Theory of Personality Virtues places importance towards a morally lived live.
Theory of Personality Virtues focuses upon characteristics of personality
virtues that each individual should have. To confirm what one’s personality are
virtues, objectives in life need analysis. If a college student wants to succeed
academically and later in his career, he needs to be hard working. Once into working
life and the student wants to work in a bribe free environment, the person needs to be
honest and trustworthy.
In the situation below, Tony’s character of being honest and trustworthy in his
profession makes him guilty when he is asked to sign a falsified account statement.
According to Aristotle, a Greek philosopher who dedicated much of his thoughts to
the Theory of Personality Virtues, three conditions are required for an individual to be
accepted as a moral agent. First, the individual must know what he is doing. Second,
the individual must choose the action that he wants to undertake. And third, the
behaviour or action must derive from characteristics which are consistent.
In Tony’s case, he realised that he had to sign an important document that
would confirm the strength of his company. Secondly, he knows that signing a
falsified document is not being honest. Thirdly, as an honest person, Tony does not
want to sign a falsified document. Instead, he intends to refuse to his manager’s
orders.
Generally, Theory of Personality Virtues considers an action or behaviour as
right, if the moral agent who does the act does it consistently in any situation. The
moral agent will practise the virtues within him. Virtues are human characteristics that
are essential for human development and a good life. In Malaysia, virtues practiced by
an individual should also be accepted by the local community.

Gambar seorang pengurus bersama akauntannya

Tony, I want Yes, I altered But sir, shouldn’t

you to it a bit. Let our the profit be
approve and Yes, sir. But, company keep returned to our
sign this sir, this the extra head quarters?
account statement is profit.
statement. different from
the original
one.

Akauntan seorang diri berfikir…

Tony, you
are my
accountant. I have never done
Follow my a thing like this
orders. before…
Yes sir.

Akauntan bersama isteri di rumah Akauntan berfikir seorang diri…

Amy, I don’t feel

I have never cheated
good signing a
and I don’t want to
falsified Follow your heart,
cheat in this matter. I
document. dear. If you feel it’s
wrong, inform the will say ‘No’ to my
upper management… manager tomorrow.
Development of Theory of Personality Virtues in Malaysia

In Malaysia, development of personality virtues in an individual can be

analysed at three different stages in life as shown below.
Theory of Personality Virtues benefits the self and also others in a society. An
individual who is honest like Tony in the example given earlier will practise
characteristics of honesty in his career and his life. The same goes for a medical
doctor who has characteristics of compassion, politeness and sensitivity. He would
make a good doctor in curing his sickly patients as well as communicating morally
with them.

Development of Theory of Personality

Virtues

Infant and child stage

At this stage, infants and children are inculcated with personality virtues by
their parents and family members. The children follow the rules and behave
well.

Adolescent stage
At this stage, adolescents are influenced by their peers and people around
them. The adolescents also start to think about the good and bad consequences
of an action.

Adult stage
At this stage, individuals mature and start to think rationally. They start to
value self morality and consequences of their action. Their self morality is
based on global measurement that takes into consideration consequences of
action to own self and others.

Skills and characteristics of personality virtues are two different matters. Even
though both can be learnt, characteristics of personality virtues are more important.
Without skills for a certain work, one still can lead a good life, but without
characteristics of personality virtues, one is like an “immoral living species”.
However, with specific skills, like conflict resolution skills, our personality virtues
would be reinforced because we know how to achieve or strengthen the noble values
within us.
Strategies to develop characteristics of personality virtues

Teaching and
learning process Experience in life

Strategies to
develop
characteristics of
personality
virtues

Rational thinking
Reward and and maturity
punishment

From a young age, children are advised and taught to be morally virtuous by
parents and members of the family. The process of morally educating the child
informally at home is continued formally in school. It also includes the process of
teaching and learning, reward and punishment that increases the students’ moral
maturity. The process continues through daily experience when moral matters learnt
formally and informally is practised in students’ daily lives. As students become
adults, characteristics of personality virtues become stabile in an individual until
rationality and maturity begins to take important roles. Individuals become aware that
characteristics of personality virtues are good and abstains them from bad action
which is not accepted by the local society.

Criticism towards Theory of Personality Virtues

Theory of Personality Virtues refers to personnel characteristics to achieve a
good life by practising moderation between two extreme stands. For example, the
statement “Do good unlimitedly” can be viewed differently. There have been
instances where social workers are so devoted to social activities that they forget their
responsibility at home. One of the weaknesses in Theory of Personality Virtues is to
identify situations which are moderate in practising characteristics of personality
virtues.
 Gambar seorang wanita membuka pintu rumahnya Gamabar seorang lelaki dengan parang ketuk pintu
dan seorang pelajar kolej perempuan meminta sama dan bapa pelajar tadi di depan pintu.
tolong.

Is there Did my
a daughter come
Sis, please help me. My problem here?
dad is going to kill , uncle?
me…

Masih gambar bapa dan tuan rumah. Gambar satu tanda soal yang
besar.
I sent her to college to
study but she is busy
falling in love. I want to
kill her…

In the situation above, in Aristotle’s perspective, the owner of the house must
tell the truth and inform the man that his daughter is hiding in her house. The issue
here is “To what extend we must be truthful?” Should the owner of the house tell
the truth and allow the man to kill or hurt his daughter? Or should the owner of
the house tell a lie to save a life?
What is important here is how the character of personality virtues helps in
living a good life? However, if one is too extreme in upholding characteristics of
personality virtues as in the situation above, it make the situation worse.

Mind Google
Theory of Personality Virtues helps individuals to become good moral agents.
Explain several ways to resolve the weakness in this theory based on situations in
Malaysia.

Teleological Theory
One more ethical theory that provides a guide to living a moral live is The
general assumption in Teleological Theory is the value is ‘right’ or ‘wrong’
depending on the consequences of an action. This moral theory existed from the need
and obligation about what is good and needed as a result of an action or behaviour.
Teleological Theory can be analysed from two different perspectives: utilitarianism
and egoism.

Teleological Theory

Utilitarianism Egoism
To maximise the Value is good if it
happiness to the highest benefits one self and
number of people vice versa

Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is part of Teleological Theory which states ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ of
an action is based on the importance of an action and the happiness that the action
brings to the greatest number of people. Utilitarianism is a form of consequentialism
that confirms which action is right based on the greatest goodness that is brought
overall.
In the incident below, the United States of America bombed two cities in
Japan to weaken their military strength and at the same time to bring the World War II
to an end. Bombing Hiroshima and Nagasaki ended the continual sufferings and
effects of war by people all over the world, though many people in the two cities died,
suffered and are facing the effects of the bombings up to today.
Gambar pengguguran bom atom di
Hiroshima dan Nagasaki

City of Hiroshima, Japan, after the atomic bombing incident

Criticism towards utilitarianism

Based on the example above, one of the main criticisms of utilitarianism is, it easily
contradicts with the principle of moral justice because of the way activities are
rationalised and accepted. The main aim of bombing Hiroshima and Nagasaki was to
end World War II. But by using nuclear weapons like atomic bombs causes many
innocent lives to be killed and injured. Such weapons also cause diseases and bring
the immunity level of the war victims to deteriorate.
Mind Google

To what extend does utilitarianism functions in the morality system in our country?
Explain by using specific examples.

Egoism

Egoism

Psychological Egoism Ethical Egoism

Another section of Teleological Theory is egoism. Egoism assumes that something is

‘good’ if it brings goodness to one self and something is ‘not good’ if it brings
badness to one won self.

Egoism is divided into two that is psychological egoism and ethical egoism.
Psychological egoism is based on the doctrine that individuals take an action based on
self-motivated interest. Ethical egoism is based on the doctrine that states what a
moral agent should do based on self-interest.

Gambar seorang tokoh kebajikan sedang ditemuramah Gambar tokoh kebajikan/aktivis membantu
mangsa tsunami
Why do you I feel happy and
like to become a contented helping
social worker the natural disaster
during natural victims.
disaster?

Ethical egoism stresses that an individual has an obligation or moral

responsibility to make a decision and take action by referring to the moral standards
that increases self-welfare. In the situation above, as a social worker, the individual
feels it’s her social responsibility to help the natural disaster victims. By rendering
such services, she feels happy and satisfied. That satisfaction brings goodness to her.

Criticism towards egoism

One of the criticisms towards egoism is that when an individual react based on
egoism, other’s priority is abandoned. That individual only thinks of himself and the
satisfaction that is received based on his action. For example, putting one self in the
front line in the promotion process even though there are other more deserving
candidates.
Mind Google

Egoism is always linked with hedonism and the characteristics of self-priority. Do

you agree with this statement? Provide examples in your own life experience that
support or oppose the statement.

Deontological Theory

Deontological Theory is an ethical theory based on moral principles and moral

obligations. To choose the right moral action, we need to understand our moral
obligation and what are the right rules existing for us to execute our obligation. The
underlying assumption in Deontological Theory is that when we follow the obligation,
we are moral and when we fail to follow the obligation, we are behaving immorally.

Deontological Theory exists in several forms. One is deontological action and

the other is deontological rule.

Gambar sejarah ‘Perang

Salib’

Conquer of the city of Antioch during the First Crusaders War

Deontological rules state that the right and wrong of a certain action is based on one
or more regulation. An action that is consistent with the regulations is accepted as
moral and if vice versa is considered immoral.

Deontological Theory is an ethical theory that analyses our responsibility and

obligations towards the way we treat others and our responsibility towards them. This
is the relationship between deontological action and deontological rules which was
explained earlier. This theory is based on action and behaviour but rules are also taken
into consideration. In this theory, the individual’s action and not the consequences of
the action (Teleological Theory) that takes into consideration the morality of an
individual. Thus, one issue that arises is relativism, i.e. an action that is accepted as
moral in one society might contradict with the value system of another.

Even though all religion teaches about goodness, the difference in ideology
and religion caused the Crusaders War. Until today, many similar incidences occur
because of contradiction in duty and regulation.

Mind Google

Provide several characteristics of Deontological Theory which you understand and is

different from Teleological Theory.
 Deontological Theory can be divided into two main principles: Principle of
Duty and Principle of Existentialism.

Deontological Theory

Principle of Duty Principle of Existentialism

Principle of Duty

Kant (1724-1804), a Greek philosopher introduced the Principle of Duty which

assumes duty is executed for the sake of duty. According to Kant, moral duty is based
upon rationality. To judge whether an action is right or wrong, the action needs to be
parallel with universal morality. There is no need to make assumptions about the
consequences of our action (Teleological Theory) before we act. The principle of
Duty has been explained by Kant in several ways.

Principle of Duty

Concept of Goodwill
Goodwill will lead towards action that is right, good and moral. For
example: A college student who donates blood with goodwill does a good
moral act.

Principle of Categorical Imperative

At this stage, adolescents are influenced by the local society and their
peers. They also start to think about the pros and cons of an action. For
example: Do not lie in any situation is a universal law.

Criticism towards Principle of Duty

Even though from the beginning it has been acknowledged that duty is accomplished
for the sake of duty, when two duties or responsibilities conflict, it becomes difficult
to prioritise the more important one. This is one of the weakness in the principle of
Duty.
 Gambar seorang pelajar kolej

I have to complete my
Psychology assignment
which is due tomorrow
and mum is not well. If
possible, I want to do the
house chores and let mum
rest…

In the situation above, the student has two different duties. As a student, he
needs to complete his assignment. As a son, he needs to help his sick mother. When
there is a conflict between two duties, the Principle of Duty is ambiguous and duty or
responsibility is prioritised according to other ethical principles.

Mind Google

If the Principle of Duty is practiced absolutely in the system of a country, what are the
consequences towards individual in that country? Discuss.

Principle of Existentialism

Principle of Existentialism which is part of Deontological Theory states that good or

bad values are based on the free choice of an individual. Sartre (1905-1980), a French
philosopher who contributed much towards the Principle of Existentialism says that
human beings do not have a creator and their function has already been confirmed.
Whether an individual becomes moral or immoral depends on the choices one make
in the different stages of life.

There are two schools of thoughts in the Principle of Existentialism. One is the
group of atheist thinkers and the other is the group of Christian thinkers. Both these
groups have different views but similar beliefs are shared that is human beings exist
before their functions are identified.
 Principle of Existentialism

Thinking of the atheist philosophers

God does not exist and the good values practised by human beings are
subjective, individualistic and depends on situation. Human beings
choose good values not just for self but also for everyone.

Thinking of the Christian philosophers

The belief that a Creator exist and human beings need to identify
ethical and religious/spiritual needs in making choices for actions.
Religious regulations such as the Ten Commandments in the Bible
need to be followed when making decisions and taking actions.

Criticism towards Principle of Existentialism

Since the Principle of Existentialism assumes the notion that good and bad
values are based on free individual choice, the issue of relativism exists. According to
Sartre, the French philosopher, rules and principles are too abstract and there are no
rules that can be used by human beings to confirm what action will be taken or what
is right. In this situation, individual relativism is considered absolute.

In the situation below, Jaysha has made up her mind to make a decision based
on the current local situation and wants to become a guest relation officer (GRO). In
her opinion, such a decision would lighten her parents’ financial burden and at the
same time, provide her with some lucrative income. However, such a decision might
not be good morally because Jaysha’s parents and the local community might have
different moral standards compared to Jaysha.

Gambar ibu dan anak sedang berdialog

I’ve decided to quit college. The fee

is expensive and the knowledge I get
Why are you is limited. I’ll become a GRO in a
behaving like night club. Its easy income and I
this, Jaysha? won’t be a financial burden to you
and dad…
Inculcating ethical and moral theory in the Malaysian context

Ethical and moral theories that are analysed in this chapter cannot be used
‘wholesale’ in situations like Malaysia. An effective system is to choose moral
principles that are suitable to be used. In Social Moral Theory and Personality of
Virtues Theory, factors such as multicultural society, rule of law, and cultural norms
practiced for centuries need to be taken into account. From the Teleological Theory
and Deontological Theory perspectives, religion, culture and Malaysian way of life
should also be analysed. By understanding ethical theories and morality, an individual
becomes more critical and is able to understand actions or make choices based on
values, principles of values and moral decisions made by own self, employer, and
others.

Reflective Session
In groups, discuss the issues below and present your findings to members of other
groups.
1. Discus the similarities and differences between:
a) Social Moral Theory and Theory of Personality Virtues dan
b) Teleological Theory and Deontological Theory.
2. What is the significance of ethical theories and morality in our lives?
3. How ethical theory helps you to resolve moral conflicts in your daily moral
dilemmas?

Reinforcement questions
Multiple choice questions
1. Below are types of ethical theories EXCEPT:
A. Teleological Theory
B. Social Moral Theory
C. Deontological Theory
D. Teleocapital Theory

2. Social life in a society is influenced by regulations, societal norms and

communication between individuals in that society. The statement above
refers to
A. Theory of Personality Virtues
B. Social Moral Theory
C. Teleological Theory
D. Deontological Theory

3. The standard moral system in a society recognises the situation where

_______ avoid self-interest and prioritise a behaviour system that encourages
________ to self and others.
A. individual, goodness
B. society, goodness
C. others, badness
D. leaders, goodness

4. In Theory of Personality Virtues,

I. children who follow the standards of morality behave as such due to self
interest
II. young adolescents behave morally for fear of punishment
III. adults behave morally because they are mature and rational
A. I and II
B. II and III
C. I and III
D. I, II and III

5. Action or behaviour is right if both the deed brings the greatest amount of
happiness to the greatest amount of people. This principle refers to
A. duty
B. egoism
C. utilitarianism
D. social morality

6. Teleological Theory states that the right and wrong of a value depends on the
final decision of
A. feelings
B. thinking
C. statement
D. action

7. These are characteristics of Teleological Theory EXCEPT

A. consequences based on an action is prioritised
B. duty is carried out for the sake of duty
C. right or wrong depends on the consequences of an action
D. goodness and badness of an action is analysed from multiple perspectives

8. ________ states that a value is good if it benefits one self and it is a bad value
if it brings loss to one self.
A. Hedonistic
B. Egoism
C. Individualistic
D. Utilitarianism

9. _____________ Theory prioritise the duty of completing a task and not the
consequences of completing the task.
A. Teleological
B. Social Moral
C. Deontological
D. Personality Virtues

10. According to the Principle of Existentialism, positive and negative values

must be based upon the _____________ of an individual freely.
A. choice
B. action
C. decision
D. needs