TROUBLE with PAINT

Trouble with Coating

Structural Concrete: Part II
by Clive H. Hare, Coating System Design Inc.

I
n the first part of our review of
structural concrete, we dis-
cussed many of the unique
Coating
properties of the material as well as
its vulnerability under extreme ser-
vice conditions. We emphasized the DRY SIDE WET SIDE DRY SIDE
material as a substrate for paint, and Hydrostatic
we gave particular attention to the Pressure
cleaning processes required for suc-
WATER
cessful application of a coating sys-
tem on the concrete surface. This
month, we give specific attention to
some of the most common problems
Concrete Wall
associated with coating concrete and Positive Side Negative Side
the structures where these problems Waterproofing Waterproofing
are most critical.

Effects of Moisture
Establishing good adhesion over
properly cleaned and scarified con-
crete involves many of the same
coating and coating system design
techniques needed to optimize adhe-
sion on marginally cleaned steel.
With concrete, however, its porosity
to water vapor, even water, presents
special problems not encountered on
other rigid surfaces. Water and vapor
pressure building up on the under-
side of the coating may have an ef-
fect on the initial adhesion of the
coating over wet surfaces and the
maintenance of long-term adhesion.
Initial leaks and damage to vapor
barriers will cause severe hydrostatic
pressures to develop on the insides
of subterranean vaults, manholes,
pipelines, and basements.
Moisture plays a large part in the
failure of paint systems over con-
crete. Problems may arise from mois-
ture derived from the concrete itself
or from external sources.
48 MAY 1999 / JPCL – PMC
Fig. 1 - Waterproofing strategies
Painting New Concrete
Newly laid concrete is slow to release
all of the excess water employed for
workability. For the first month or so
after pouring, the concrete remains
“green,” meaning it is wet and alka-
line. The painting of newly laid con-
crete has historically been delayed
because of concerns over the effect
of water on paint film adhesion.
The quoted 28-day interval re-
quired between pouring and coating
is, however, more related to engi-
neering concerns over adequate
strength development than to any
specifically directed attempt to avoid
coating film instability.1,2 The period
has been rather blindly adopted by
coatings engineers. However, it prob-
ably had more reality in the past be-
cause of the current use of water-
borne systems and water- and
alkali-tolerant coatings. The actual
delay required is likely to be affected
by compositional aspects of the con-
crete mix as well as by curing condi-
tions and the presence or absence of
curing membranes.
There are justifications in keying
the pre-paint interval to engineering
concerns over strength. During the
early strengthening period, shrinkage
of the majority of the substrate oc-
curs. Thus, cracking and other di-
mensional changes are most likely to
occur during this period. It is better
for these changes to occur before the
paint is applied. The climatological
conditions during the initial cure of
the concrete will largely affect the ac-
tual pre-painting interval. Water
evaporates less in cold, humid cli-
mates than in warm, dry ones. Evap-
oration will affect the cure of the
Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company
substrate and the condition of its sur-
face at the time of painting. While
concrete should not be painted dur-
ing the green stage, this stage may be
shorter or longer than 28 days.
At one time, the primary concern
was the alkalinity of the newly
poured surface. Under wet condi-
Fig. 2 - Cohesive failure of concrete beneath a high-build epoxy/amine tank lining for
high temperature water service. Concavity of delaminating chip (to the system exterior)
indicates a tensile failure, almost certainly related to internal stress development of the coating
during cure, and the inaibility of the concrete to accomodate the induced stress.
tions, alkalinity could induce alkaline
hydrolysis of ester-based oxidizing
systems such as alkyd coatings. This
reaction could lead to softening and
breakup of the paint, and certainly to
loss of adhesion. Today, these mate-
rials are rarely employed directly
over concrete surfaces. Newer sys-
tems will tolerate larger amounts of
water within the concrete at the time
of coating and even at the surface.
Many coating systems are both
“breathable” and alkali-resistant (latex
paints, for example). Water-borne
paints in general, but also high-solids
and 100% solids polyamide-based
epoxies, are less sensitive to both al-
kali and moist surfaces. Some epox-
ies used in the maintenance of un-
derwater piers and pylons may be
Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company
successfully applied with no appre-
ciable loss of adhesion. Adhesion re-
mains a concern with coating systems
that are much less tolerant of moist,
alkaline surfaces. Most coating sys-
tems will adhere better to an entirely
dry substrate. Water within the con-
crete surface at the time of coating
may also have effects on the coating.
Water will react with urethanes, caus-
ing bubbling and frothing from the
evolution of carbon dioxide as well
as severe film disruptions. Water, de-
rived from the substrate during cure,
may cause pinholing and blistering in
the drying film.
Water Penetration of Concrete
Currently, we are perhaps less con-
cerned with water-induced reduc-
tions in the state of the initial adhe-
sion. Instead, we are more concerned
with the entrapment of water within
the concrete beneath the dry paint
film after the structure is in service.
Also, an interfacial buildup of water
vapor from sources behind the film
may weaken adhesion.
Water ingress to the back of the
coating film from the concrete in ex-
ternal service is a problem that will
worsen with time. Hydrostatic pres-
sures add to the cumulative stress
that opposes adhesion of the coat-
ing/substrate system and cohesion of
the substrate. Optimal design prac-
tices, especially the use of positive
side vapor barriers beneath concrete
slabs and barrier coatings do much to
eliminate this type of problem (Fig.
1). These are applied to the exterior
walls of below grade structures and
basements. The practice dates to an-
tiquity. If the coating is between the
water and the concrete, the hydrosta-
tic pressure does not oppose the ad-
hesive forces. Positive side cementi-
tious waterproofing on the interior
surfaces of aqueducts was employed
successfully in Roman times. With
negative side devices (i.e., where
concrete is between the water source
and the coating film), hydrostatic
pressure opposes paint film adhe-
sion. While negative side waterproof-
ing techniques are easier to install,
they are rarely as successful as posi-
tive side techniques.
Coating of Wet Concrete
Coated and uncoated concrete sur-
faces do become wet sometimes (and
continually so) because of water
from external sources. In below
grade applications, ingress of water
to and through the concrete may
occur because the vapor barriers are
missing or damaged. Ingress may
occur through problem areas at the
slab/wall junction, around penetra-
tions such as drains and pipes, and
through cracks in either exterior
vapor barriers or in the concrete it-
self. Water may also access the wall
from higher up, such as from leaks in
faulty roofs, giving problems in
above grade locations. In these latter
circumstances, however, hydrostatic
pressure is usually less of a problem.
continued
JPCL – PMC / MAY 1999 49

For the most part, this type of prob-
lem is an engineering defect. It
should be addressed with engineer-
ing solutions before coatings are ap-
plied. Engineering problems are not
ideally resolved by the use of coat-
ings themselves. Although such diffi-
culties may be addressed in a less
costly manner using negative side
waterproofing techniques, these tech-
niques do not address the basic
problem or the consequences that
may occur within the concrete itself.
For instance, corrosion of the rein-
forcing steel may occur in low pH,
high chloride environments.
A variety of negative side coating
responses has been attempted to wa-
terproof wet interior surfaces. Where
hydrostatic pressures are not in-
volved, 100% solids, high-wetting
epoxies have been applied, often on
wet surfaces, where they effectively
displace water. 3 Perhaps the most
popular response is the use of the
so-called cementitious barrier coat-
ings, essentially latex-modified ce-
mentitious coatings that are mixed in
the field and applied by brush, spray,
or trowel onto the wall in thicknesses
of 0.8 to 3 mils (20 to 75 microme-
ters). These materials can hold back
hydrostatic pressures of up to 7 psi
(48 kPa), but coverage must be com-
plete or water will flow through dis-
continuities. Thicker film variations of
this same technology, available for
new or existing slabs, are suitable for
vehicle traffic. Though not used ex-
tensively in the U.S., they have been
used in Europe on floors, parking
garages, and other high wear areas.4
A much older technique but one
that is very effective is the use of a
cementitious coating that contains
finely divided iron particles. The
coating is applied in two- or three-
coat systems, 6 to 16 millimeters
(0.24 to 0.64 in.) thick, onto interior
walls and three times that thickness
onto floor slabs. As water penetrates
the coating, the metal within the sys-
tem corrodes. (There may be oxidiz-
Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company
Detecting Moisture
in Concrete
A variety of devices can ascer-
tain whether or not water is pre-
sent in the concrete surface before
painting. One type of device is the
moisture meter, which measures
water content in a loosely quanti-
tative manner. It assesses the con-
ductivity of the substrate, either on
the surface or within the concrete.
In the latter case, nails are driven
into the concrete as extension
probes for the instrument.
Other assessments of moisture
within concrete include the ASTM
D 4263, Standard Test Method for
Indicating Moisture in Concrete by
Plastic Sheet Method, which quali-
tatively assesses the presence of
moisture, and the “dome test,” a
procedure more accurate than the
plastic sheet test. In the first test,
an 18-inch by 18-inch (457-mm by
457-mm) sheet of clear 4-mil (100-
micrometer) polyethylene is taped
ing catalysts added to the mix that
stimulate this corrosion.) The conse-
quent corrosion product closes
porosities in the coating, increasing
impermeability. Applications require
much skill, and masons experienced
in using these materials are difficult
to locate.
Yet another response to the same
problem is offered by the
capillary/crystalline waterproofing
coatings developed by Jensen in the
early 1940s.3,4 In this system, a mix
of cement and silica sand is used as a
carrier for a proprietary blend of re-
active chemicals. The chemicals are
capable of reacting with the calcium
hydroxide residues left over from the
cement hydration processes, forming
insoluble crystalline complexes with-
in the upper layers of the concrete.
These crystalline reaction products
TROUBLE with PAINT
to the concrete surface and exam-
ined (the sheet and the concrete
surface itself) after 16 hours for
condensation. In the dome test, a
weighed plastic dish of anhydrous
calcium chloride is mounted on a
coin and covered with a plastic
dome of known surface area for
three days. Moisture from the con-
crete is absorbed by the calcium
chloride, which is again weighed
at the end of the test to determine
the weight of water picked up per
unit area. The dome test is used
only on horizontal surfaces such
as floors. (The test was recently
organized and issued by ASTM as
ASTM F-1869, Standard Test
Method for Measuring Moisture
Vapor Emission Rate of Concrete
Subfloor Using Anhydrous Calci-
um Chloride.) The plastic sheet
test may be used on vertical sur-
faces also. ❍
block the capillaries and microcracks
within the cementitious structure, ex-
panding by up to 0.3 millimeters (12
mils) and sealing the concrete. The
coatings are applied as cementitious
slurries against the concrete surface,
which allows the proprietary reactant
to penetrate the concrete for as much
as 150 millimeters (6 in.).4 In new
concrete, this same approach to in-
creased impermeability may be ap-
plied by distributing the chemicals
over the surface of the concrete
while it is still wet and trowelling
them into the surface, a process re-
ferred to as dry shake waterproofing.
Improving Adhesion of Coatings
to Concrete
With concrete, a key to optimized
adhesion centers on the ability of the
continued
JPCL – PMC / MAY 1999 51
TROUBLE with PAINT
coating system to wet and penetrate
deeply into the surface layers of the
substrate. The coating should thus fill
the porosities that have been opened
up by surface preparation. As has
been noted by Stanfield5, the surface
of the concrete is quite different from
the bulk phase, being less dense, and
containing much larger pores. The
cement skin is, at least, partially re-
moved during blasting. Years ago,
when fast-drying thermoplastic lac-
quers (e.g., vinyl and chlorinated
rubber) were used, wetting and pen-
etration of the opened surface was
often facilitated by drastic thinning of
the first coat with a high-boiling sol-
vent package. The solvent carried the
coating or sealer deep into the sur-
face layers of the concrete before the
solvent left the film completely. This
rather crude technique is continued
today with low-build architectural
“do-it-yourself” finishes for floors.
The technique provides a sound
primer for heavier film build finishes.
The same technique has also been
used with the medium molecular
weight epoxy/polyamide coatings.
Blistering, Chalking, and Acid Attack in
Coated Swimming Pools
Another common source of trouble
with coated concrete in aggressive
service arises from the painting of
swimming pools. Although vinyls,
epoxies, and, at one time, latex
paints have been used on sub-
merged and above water concrete in
swimming pools, the application has
long been the domain of chlorinated
rubber-based coatings. These highly
impermeable compositions per-
formed well, as did other chlorinated
systems, such as the maleic acid-
modified vinyl chloroacetates and
the chlorinated polyolefin/vinyl ac-
etate copolymer compositions. These
lacquer systems adhered well to
properly prepared concrete and
52 MAY 1999 / JPCL – PMC
They also dry by a lacquer-type sol-
vent loss mechanism, at least before
chemical curing. Modern coatings
with low volatile organic compound
(VOC) content have much higher
solids. They can rely less on solvent
for penetration and more on low vis-
cosity liquid binders. These binders
soak into the substrate and remain
wet for several hours until chemical
cure is established.
Many of the modern coatings and
linings are applied to concrete as
thick multicoat thermosetting sys-
tems. The danger in applying thick-
film composites of these finishes over
concrete surfaces arises from thermal
coefficient differentials between mat-
ing components and from the high
shrinkage stresses. Such coatings in-
clude high-strength epoxies, ure-
thanes, and especially the acrylics,
polyesters, and vinyl esters. The
shrinkage stresses occur as the film
cures. They may either pull the coat-
ing from the concrete or more likely
pull apart the substrate itself. To
combat this, several high wetting,
clear penetrating sealers (typically
were readily recoated year after year.
Many are still used where VOC regu-
lations allow. When properly formu-
lated, chlorinated rubber coatings
had the alkali resistance necessary
for use on the concrete surface and
were sufficiently acid-resistant to
handle pool additives. Good light
stability and hardness ensured the
required aesthetics.
Lower VOC systems such as the
epoxies also do well, but they are
subject to chalking as well as blister-
ing in recoats, often because of poor
preparation techniques. Gay19 sug-
gests the use of chlorinated rubber
over 100% solids epoxies on poorly
constructed pools where painting is
epoxies) have been developed that
soak into the surface layers of the
concrete, reinforcing them after cur-
ing. These sealers also provide a
more hospitable surface for adhesion
of subsequently applied finishes.
The modern epoxy penetrating
sealers for concrete are formulated as
engineered high wetting systems.
They are based on low viscosity liq-
uid epoxies with relatively slow cure
rates and excellent low energy prop-
erties. These materials effectively
enter the pores of the concrete sur-
face. They penetrate the substrate to
great depths (optimally several hun-
dred mils) before they become too
viscous (with advancing cure) to
penetrate further. After final cure,
they provide an epoxy-impregnated
surface. Very high builds of dense
finishes may be then applied with
minimal risk of delamination or cohe-
sive substrate failure. Long-chain,
slow-converting curing agents (imida-
zoline-modified amidoamines and
polyamides) ensure good wetting
while epoxy diluents and reactive
modifiers further reduce viscosity.
difficult because of wet surfaces and
high water tables. In these systems,
very careful mechanical scarification
is advisable before priming as well
as before the chlorinated rubber re-
coat is applied.
Old films of chalking thermosets
such as epoxies require the removal
of chalk before recoating and should
be sweep blasted between coats.
Waterjetting may also work where
energies are high enough to remove
the chalk. This practice was not as
necessary with chlorinated rubber
because of the better chalking resis-
tance and the solvent weld advan-
tage.
New concrete for swimming pools
Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company

Monofunctional epoxy diluents
such as the alkyl glycidyl ethers and
glycidyl neodecanate can reduce vis-
cosity and extend cure without the
need for solvent. These materials par-
tially chain stop the amine cure,
thereby reducing crosslink density
and adding flexibility and stress at-
tenuation to the system. The disad-
vantage of these techniques is an in-
evitable reduction in chemical
resistance, but this is less critical in
sealers because they are used be-
neath high builds of more chemical-
resistant finishes. Many of the alkyl
glycidyl ethers (especially the lower
alkyl moieties such as butyl glycidyl
ether) are also biologically active and
readily absorb into the skin. Use of
these materials is declining in favor
of higher homologues such as linear
C11-C13 and C13-C15 glycidyl ethers
(epoxide 7 and epoxide 8). C11-13
refers to alkyl glycidyl ether with 11-
13 carbons in the alkyl chain. C13-15
refers to alkyl glycidyl ether with 13-
15 carbons in the alkyl chain.
In many applications, especially
where sealers are to be used beneath
is best prepared by abrasive blasting.
While often successful, acid etching
requires careful rinsing to avoid sub-
sequent osmotic blistering because
of soluble salts at the interface. Blis-
tering may also result where pools
are filled too quickly after painting.
Many coatings, particularly high mol-
ecular weight systems such as chlori-
nated rubbers, retain solvents for
several weeks. If pools are filled be-
fore the coatings are sufficiently free
of solvent, osmotic blistering is likely
to be produced by retained solvent.
Coatings containing hydrophilic high
boiling solvents may be especially
prone to this defect. Thinner films
drying under good air flow and
higher temperature may facilitate
solvent release. Large amounts of
residual solvents may be detected
by opening (removing a section of
Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company
monolithic toppings, or thick tank
linings, solvents are not effective. In
other less critical applications, they
may be used. Where solvents are em-
ployed, these are often high-boilers.
The volume of most solvents that
may be used is, however, limited be-
cause of regulations on VOCs. Many
solvents are also restricted because
they are regulated as hazardous air
pollutants (HAPS). One new, if ex-
pensive, solvent that may eventually
find value in some of these applica-
tions is the VOC-exempt, non-HAPS,
non-ozone depleting substance
(ODS), parachlorobenzotrifluoride. It
is much slower to evaporate than
other permissible non-VOC materials
(such as acetone) and allows for
good wet films to be laid down.
The use of reactive silanes as addi-
tives may also be employed to fur-
ther improve the bond between the
concrete and such penetrating seal-
ers. It is preferred that the silanes be
added to the epoxy component of
epoxy/amine systems using an
epoxy-terminated silane such as
gamma glycidoxypropyltrimethoxy-
the film). Solvent odors are then
detected.
Other blistering problems often
originate from poor pool design. The
absence of a secure waterproof
membrane on the backside of the
concrete is a major cause of prob-
lems. The pour should be densely
compacted, just as is required for
other water-retaining structures.
High water tables around pools
without vapor barriers will allow the
access of water to the backside of
the film. There, the high imperme-
ability of the chlorinated rubber
coating effectively stops the flow.
The accumulating interfacial water
will eventually result in adhesion
failure, although well adhering sys-
tems over good surfaces may last for
several years.
Repair and recoating may be diffi-
TROUBLE with PAINT
silane. Addition of silanes such as the
amino silanes to the amine compo-
nent may result in diminished shelf
stability (the formation of gelled ma-
terial).
Epoxy sealers of this type may
provide additional value when the
concrete is wet, as is often found in
subterranean applications. Moisture
will interfere with the cure of many
polymer finishes, diminishing initial
adhesion. Under rising temperatures
(in sunlight or within a newly heated
building), moisture may also be
drawn from the concrete as vapor.
Along with occluded air from porosi-
ties, the vapor will produce bubbling
and pinholing in the finish. Some
epoxy penetrating sealers displace
air or moisture from the pores as
part of the sealing process. These
sealers allow the formation of more
homogeneous finishes and lining
systems. Finally, such sealers can be
formulated so that their coefficients
of thermal expansion lie between the
values for concrete and for the de-
sired finish. In this case, they mini-
continued
cult where the water table remains
high. Epoxies rather than chlorinated
rubber may be a better choice of
system. It is, however, desirable that
recoating be delayed until water ta-
bles are low enough to allow the ap-
plication of coatings to well-blasted
dry surfaces. Wherever the vapor
barrier is defective or missing, and
water tables are high, coating will be
a problem. In some cases, success
on poorly constructed pools, subject
to underfilm water accumulation,
can be achieved by using more per-
meable flat coating systems of higher
pigment volume concentration
(PVC). These types of films may be
harder to keep clean than conven-
tional pool paints. ❍
JPCL – PMC / MAY 1999 53
TROUBLE with PAINT

problematic in high shrinkage sys-

tems in which free radical-induced
Prestressed Concrete crosslinking occurs at sites of unsat-
uration (e.g., vinyl esters, unsaturat-
Concrete gives optimum mechanical performance under compression,
ed polyesters, and acrylics). Internal
when it is much more resistant to cracks and checks that form during
shrinkage. In the compressed condition, the surface is also most stable
stress is stored as a tensile strain in
and makes the best substrate for coatings. Compressive stresses the composite after cure. Tensile
are induced into concrete by prestressing. In this process, the steel strain thereafter compromises the
reinforcement is stretched before the concrete is poured. This ability of the system (including the
tensioning of the reinforcement is maintained throughout the curing concrete substrate) to tolerate the
process and only released after the concrete has hardened. At this point, imposition of hygrothermal and
the forces created as the steel attempts to regain its original length are other in-service stresses.
transferred through the steel/concrete bond to the concrete itself, induc- Hygrothermal stresses may be ex-
ing a compression. acerbated by the large differentials in
coefficients of thermal expansion be-
tween the concrete and strong high-
build liners. In response to applied
mize stress from high differentials of ings are 100% solids polymeric ma- stress, such systems may fail cohe-
thermal expansion between substrate terials applied as a seamless layer at sively by cracking. Even more prob-
and lining. high film thickness (>1⁄8 in. [>3 mm.]) lematic may be their effect on the in-
and often filled with a chemical-re- terface or on the concrete. Many
Problems with Linings and sistant aggregate. failures have occurred where shrink-
Monolithic Flooring on Concrete In maintenance applications, ing stresses (or later-induced hy-
Stress resurfacing floors with monolithic grothermal stresses) have been too
Industrial floors in light manufactur- topping or polymer concrete of this great for the concrete substrate, caus-
ing service that utilize the types of type is often favored over installing ing spalling and delamination of the
low-build coatings discussed above new floors because resurfacing re- coating system (Fig. 2).
may, with maintenance, require re- quires less down time than new in- Great care is necessary to maxi-
placement every ten years or so. stallation. Monolithic self-leveling mize adhesion and minimize the
These same coatings may not last 12 toppings and protective lining mate- amount of stress in the coating. Most
months, however, when used on rials are generally aggregate-filled or of the above mentioned polymers are
floors in more demanding services reinforced composites. They are high modulus materials with limited
such as those found in the chemical based on 100% solids epoxies (often elongation at break. Stress relief is
processing industry, pulp and paper cured with aliphatic or cycloaliphatic predominantly engineered into the
plants, and food and beverage pro- amines), polyurethanes, vinyl esters, system with a range of coarse fillers
cessing plants. In facilities such as and unsaturated polyesters or (including silica) known as aggre-
oil refineries, exposure to chemicals, acrylics. They require application gates. These aggregates diminish in-
constant cleaning regimens, impact by skilled applicators at very high ternal stress buildup on cure and the
loads, and abrasion will rapidly de- film thicknesses (1⁄8 in. to 1⁄4 in. [3 mm thermal coefficient of expansion. Lin-
stroy these thin coatings and the to 6 mm]) in one, two, or more ear thermal coefficient of expansion
concrete they protect. Physical coats. Still higher film builds (up to values as high as 40 x 10-6 in./in./de-
abuse and chemicals frequently 1
⁄2 in. [13 mm] thick) using larger ag- gree F (73 x 10-6 cm./cm./degree C)
erode the concrete matrix, so that gregates are applied as polymer for the unfilled system can be re-
cleaning becomes difficult, bacterial concretes where service is particular- duced to something like 12-15 x 10-6
growth increases, and the floors be- ly demanding. At these higher film in./in./degree F (22-27 x 10 -6
come unsafe. Concrete surfaces can thicknesses, stress becomes the cm./cm./degree C) after filling. The
disintegrate so severely under these major concern. latter values are much closer to val-
conditions that reinforcing steel as While the lack of solvent does ues for the concrete substrate (ap-
well as stone aggregate is exposed. much to reduce stress, the internal proximately 6 x 10-6 in./in./degree F
To prevent this type of attack, stress that accompanies shrinkage [11 x 10-6 cm./cm./degree C7]).
monolithic polymeric linings are on polymerization (even in 100% The danger in minimizing unwant-
now used as floor toppings, as well solids systems) may be very signifi- ed stress accretion or improving
as tank linings.6,7,8,9 Monolithic lin- cant. Internal stress is especially stress relaxation is that permeability
54 MAY 1999 / JPCL – PMC Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company
 TROUBLE with PAINT

and, therefore, resistance properties

of the lining to penetrants may be
a.) Elastomeric Coating Elastomeric Coating
too greatly compromised. The inclu-
sion of aggregate will generally di-
Crack
minish the impermeability of the lin-
ing, although platey fillers such as Elastomer
Rigid Coating
mica and glass flake will have the b.) Elastomeric
Underlayer
least negative impact. Permeability
Crack
concerns are also minimized by high
film thicknesses. Bondbreaker Tape
Flat, platey pigments (such as mica c.) Bondbreaker Rigid Coating
and, especially, glass flake) are used Tape
where impermeability is a primary re- Crack

quirement. These systems may be Reinforcement Bondbreaker Tape

valuable in tank floor linings for
high-temperature immersion service.
Aggregates are normally added on
site as part of a multi-component
mix. In some cases, the polymer may
be poured onto the concrete directly
and applied by squeegee. Next, the
aggregate itself may be broadcast
into the resin. The excess is swept up
afterwards. This type of application
may be repeated until the required
buildup in film thickness is obtained.
A final coat of polymer may then be
applied. Fiberglass in the form of
chopped mat or woven cloth is wide-
ly used as reinforcement. These ma-
terials add great strength to the lining
and reduce the propensity of the sys-
tems to crack.
For specific purposes, other fillers
may also be included in place of
fiberglass. Substitutes include carbon-
based fillers and tin oxide-coated
mica doped with antimony10 for elec-
trical conductivity (electrostatic dissi-
pation)11 of floor coatings. Synthetic
textile fibers may improve resistance
to hydrofluoric acid and strong alka-
lis. The aggregate type will also affect
the wearing properties of the top-
ping, and coarse aggregate may be
included in the final application as an
anti-skid device. In this application,
harder materials such as silicone car-
bide and aluminum oxide give better
abrasion resistance than do quartz
and sand. Sand is, however, inexpen-
sive and provides good chemical re-
sistance and workability.
d.) Bondbreaker Rigid Coating
Tape with
Reinforcement Crack
Fig. 3 - Crack accommodation devices in monolithic flooring system
Coating or Lining Expansion Joint Compound
Concrete Slab Termination Point Fig. 4 - Design to
(e.g. Doorway) prevent lifting of
coating at
termination point
The danger in minimizing unwant- of the free radical-induced systems
ed stress accretion or improving and have lower shrinkage on poly-
stress relaxation is that permeability merization. Flexibilizers such as reac-
and, therefore, and the resistance tive and non-reactive diluents may be
properties of the lining to penetrants incorporated into the epoxy system.
may be too greatly compromised. There are many more curing agent
The inclusion of aggregate will gen- options with epoxies. These include
erally diminish the impermeability of • aromatic amines,
the lining, although platey fillers such • aliphatic amines and their adducts,
as mica and glass flake will have the • cycloaliphatic amines,
least negative impact. Permeability • mannich bases,
concerns are also minimized by high • polyamides,
film thicknesses. • amidoamines, and
Stress minimization or dissipation • polyoxypropylene amines.
may also be achieved by careful selec- The above list is given in order of in-
tion of the binder. Epoxies allow creasing flexibility and, therefore,
more formulating latitude than do any continued

Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company JPCL – PMC / MAY 1999 55

TROUBLE with PAINT

agents, the use of these materials is

now discouraged because of con-
cerns about their carcinogenicity.
Somewhat more limited are the op-
tions for changes in the basic epoxy
type. Bisphenol F resins and certain
phenolic novolacs decrease the vis-
cosity of the 100% solids mixes and
improve resistance to acids (not the
strong suit for epoxies). Vinyl esters
and unsaturated polyesters employ-
ing a free radical-initiated cure are
more acid-resistant than the epoxies
and have good general chemical re-
sistance. Vinyl esters built on novolac
intermediates are also used in these
applications for improving acid resis-
tance and solvent resistance com-
Fig. 5 - Delamination of a latex-modified cementitious waterproofing beneath an epoxy finish pared to Bisphenol A epoxy resins.
from a below grade gallery wall of a sewage treatment plant. Note concavity of epoxy Chlorinated polyesters give good re-
indicating tensile stress development as the driving force. sistance to mineral acids. The epox-
ies, including the fumarate esters of
stress dissipation and decreasing amine are the most widely used. Bisphenol A, have the best alkali re-
chemical resistance. For lining work, While the aromatic amines are the sistance. Furan resins, which are dark
the aliphatic amine and cycloaliphatic most chemical-resistant of all curing continued

56 MAY 1999 / JPCL – PMC Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company

TROUBLE with PAINT
and have been used as polymer con-
crete binders, have even higher
shrinkage than do vinyl esters.
Urethane elastomers based on
polyether polyols are applied at 40 to
200 mils (1 to 5 mm). They are used
on concrete surfaces, as are amine-
cured polyureas. These materials are
more effective crack-bridging agents
than many of the polymer species
58 MAY 1999 / JPCL – PMC
noted above.12 Polyurethanes are de-
scribed as being useful in the protec-
tion of concrete in high H2S environ-
ments such as those found in
wastewater treatment facilities. Here,
more conventional protection has
been obtained from solvent-borne
epoxies, coal tar epoxies, and vinyl
systems, although again vinyl esters
and polyesters are used.13
Cracking
Under normal circumstances, con-
crete is much more dimensionally
stable than metal. That is, concrete is
not as subject to dimensional defor-
mation resulting from environmental
changes (humidity and especially
temperature) as are metals (especially
light metals and thin walled metal
sections). Stress from substrate move-
ment will generally not exceed more
than a few hundredths of a percent.
The exception is, of course, where
the substrate is cracked, or where it
cracks in service after coating. Crack-
ing due to shrinkage may be mini-
mized where the concrete is pre-
stressed (see box.). This practice
maintains the substrate in a perma-
nent state of compression. It is used
in the manufacture of tanks, cells,
pressure pipe, and similar items. In
other cases, tensile cracking is not an
unusual occurrence because of the
minimal tensile strength of concrete
(250 to 450 psi [1,700 to 3,100 kPa]).
The possibility of structural crack de-
velopment as a result of settlement,
impact, or other tensile stress effects
in service is very real.
Cracks are active when the width
of the crack will open in cold service
relative to the width of the crack
when the lining was applied. (Cold
service is service in temperatures
lower than those under which the
lining was applied.) When cracks are
active, strains will tend to result in
the propagation of the crack into the
lining. Active structural cracks, cer-
tainly those wider than 2 millimeters
(80 mils), must be fixed before appli-
cation of any topping or lining mater-
ial. Repair requires opening up the
crack, priming the concrete, and fill-
ing it with a flexible sealant (for ex-
ample polysulfide) using a caulking
gun. In one method, the cracked area
is then covered (3 in. [75 mm] on
both sides of the crack) with a glass
cloth embedded in the resin solution,
and the laminate is allowed to cure
before finishing. Flexible coatings
Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company

and elastomers with glass transition
temperatures [Tg] well below service
temperatures can deform with struc-
tural crack movement. This allows
the coating to bridge the opening
without lowering adhesion or crack-
ing themselves (Fig. 3). The phenom-
enon is discussed by Pfoehler, et al.14
Specially designed flexible base
coats such as polyurethane elas-
tomers, flexible epoxies, and neo-
prene-based primers are also used
on these cracks. These materials ab-
sorb the shear stresses of the crack
movement and dissipate the stress
effects over the much larger area of
the repair. The more diffused stress
centers are tolerated more easily by
the high modulus finish layers. The
beneficial effects of such flexible
coatings are increased as their film
thicknesses increase.
Bond breaker tapes are also used,
applied over the crack beneath more
rigid coatings. These bond breakers,
which may or may not be used with
a reinforced coating, again accommo-
date crack movement by distribution
of the stress over a wider section of a
rigid coating. These and other crack-
bridging devices are described in ref-
erence 15.
Weakened Termination Point
Problems
In monolithic flooring, special atten-
tion may also be necessary at floor
drains and termination points such
as doorways. In these areas, the
concrete may have chemically dete-
riorated or separated from the slab.
It is necessary to renew the deterio-
rated concrete around the drain, re-
moving the bad sections, and expos-
ing sound aggregate before filling
the concrete groove with topping
material. Along termination points,
the concrete is best V-grooved and
the monolithic flooring led over the
edge of the groove and into the val-
ley. The valley (the groove) may
then be filled with expansion joint
compound.
Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company
Cracking and Chemical Attack in
Secondary Containment
In recent years, a major new market
for chemical-resistant concrete coat-
ings, that of secondary containment
applications, has emerged.8,15,16,17,18
Concern over toxicological and envi-
ronmental contamination and regula-
tions to enforce controls have greatly
Many chemical
resistance
requirements
for containment
are identical
to those of
flooring.
expanded the use of secondary con-
tainment dikes as preventatives
against the spill of virtually all chemi-
cals, solvents, oils, and fuels.
These containments (vaults, pits,
sumps, spillways) are designed as
backups to the primary storage units
(usually tanks) in the event of leaks,
connection failures, gasket and seal
problems, as well as more cata-
strophic accidents. The containments
must hold the spilled chemicals until
they can be retrieved, neutralized, or
permanently disposed of. Construct-
ed primarily of concrete, secondary
containment dikes are internally lined
with coatings that are resistant to the
chemicals involved and capable of
protecting the concrete substrate.
Many of the chemical resistance re-
quirements for containment are identi-
cal to those of the flooring applica-
tions noted above, although
containment, wear, and abrasion are
far less problematic. The coating
should, however, be capable of sus-
taining short-term immersion service
TROUBLE with PAINT
(generally less than 72 hours). Some
of the chemicals involved (98% H2SO4
and glacial acetic acid, for example)
may be exceptionally aggressive. Most
of the same high-performance coating
systems employed on floors for chem-
ical process plants, pulp and paper
mills, and similarly aggressive indus-
tries are also useful in secondary con-
tainment applications. These include
epoxies, the fumarate esters of
Bisphenol A, other unsaturated poly-
esters, vinyl esters, phenolics,
polyurethanes, and furan-based mate-
rials. Epoxies, including epoxy no-
volacs, are cured with aromatic amine
and, more recently, cycloaliphatic
amine. Systems may range from thick
(1⁄8 in. [3 mm]) fiberglass-reinforced
systems (such as those described
above for tank linings) to thinner films
(40-80 mils [1-2 mm]) with or without
flaked filling and unfilled low-build
systems (10 mils [250 micrometers]).
Low-build systems may be employed
where the anticipated attack is less ag-
gressive although care is necessary to
ensure that all peaks and burrs are
ground away from the concrete be-
fore the coating is applied. Thin film
spots over these peaks represent
weaknesses in the barrier protection
of the concrete.
Flake glass is attacked by caustic
and certain strong acids such as hy-
drofluoric acid. Special synthetic mats
instead of glass may be required. Se-
lection of a coating system will de-
pend upon the nature of the anticipat-
ed spill, the projected contact time of
the spill, and the expected delay be-
fore it can be neutralized or removed.
In many systems, two or more materi-
als (in their respective primary con-
tainment tanks) may be contained to-
gether. In this case, the coating system
for the common secondary contain-
ment area must resist all possible spill
combinations but as such, may com-
plicate liner selection.
Secondary containment facilities
may also fail by cracking, which al-
continued
JPCL – PMC / MAY 1999 59
TROUBLE with PAINT
lows the chemicals to escape and ac-
cess the concrete. There, degeneration
and more severe containment wall
failure may follow. If perforation goes
unnoticed, some chemicals may quiet-
ly destroy the concrete beneath the
coating. Anomalies of this type must
also be accommodated by coating sys-
tem design. Small fixed cracks (from
hairline to 1 or 2 mm) may be easily
filled and bridged, especially where
flexible liners and mat reinforcements
are employed. Large cracks may need
special attention and may be treated
as noted above or as expansion
joints.15 More so than thick systems,
thin films will tend to crack with the
concrete. Thicker, more flexible films
(polyurethanes, polyureas) will bridge
and resist cracking more readily, but
chemical resistance is generally not as
good with flexible systems as it is with
the higher Tg systems such as the
vinyl esters.
In extreme cases, it may be neces-
60 MAY 1999 / JPCL – PMC
sary to employ materials other than
liquid-applied coatings. Sheet liners
of polyolefins, polyvinyl chloride,
chlorosulfonated polyolefins, or fluo-
ropolymers may be necessary. Such
liners are mechanically fastened or
bonded to the concrete at, or after,
the time it is poured. Chemical-resis-
tant materials using thick polymer
concrete linings may also be used.
Sheet liners require sealing at the
seams (often with heat seals). Sheet
liners are often not mechanically
bonded to the concrete, and, when
perforated, allow corrodents to get
into the cavity between the concrete
and the liner. This phenomenon re-
sults in serious destruction if the
leaks are not quickly detected.
Adhesion Problems with the
Finishing of Architectural
Concrete
The finishing of unprotected concrete
in purely architectural applications
involves many of the same problems
of surface preparation noted above.
The service, however, is not general-
ly extreme, and thinner, lower per-
formance coating systems will usually
serve well. Form oils may prevent
good bonding between concrete and
coating, especially where latex
primers/coatings are to be employed.
Hot water solutions of trisodium
phosphate may be effective in re-
moving the oils, but after-rinsing is a
critical step. Sweep blasting or other
procedures may be necessary where
form oils are resistant to detergent
cleaning.
After cleaning, the surfaces are
usually primed with acrylic latex
primers. A wide variety of finishes
may be applied, including latex top-
coats, alkyds, epoxies, epoxy esters,
and urethanes, both solvent-borne
and water-borne. Epoxy primers may
be used instead of latex primers
where strong, more adhesive systems
with higher chemical resistance are
required.
The finishing of new concrete
floors for purely architectural service
involves much the same require-
ments as for heavier duty service.
Many of the same problems (laitance,
contamination) and failure manifesta-
tions are incurred. Coating thickness-
es are lower, however, and fewer
coating layers are used. As a result,
stresses are generally lower. Acid
etching is used more than mechani-
cal abrasion as a surface preparation
procedure. Mechanical abrasion is
typically used only on hardened con-
crete floors where acid etching is in-
effective. Various systems have been
employed on such floors, ranging
from older systems such as chlorinat-
ed rubbers, epoxy esters, alkyds, and
oil-modified urethanes to chemically
curing epoxies and urethanes (mois-
ture-cured and two-pack systems).
Latex floor paints have also been
used in light-duty service. They tend
to pick up dirt more easily. Also, they
may become soft, especially in warm
Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company

locations where film temperatures
may exceed the Tg. On garage floors,
their thermoplasticity can cause film
disruption problems as films are soft-
ened, marked, and even picked up
by hot tires. Brake, transmission, and
similar fluids may also soften and de-
stroy thermoplastic films.
Non-thermoplastic systems are less
susceptible to this type of attack.
Water-borne epoxies, and, more re-
cently, water-borne two-pack
polyurethanes are gaining in-roads as
thin film floor finishes for concrete.
The urethanes20,21 are often entirely
free of solvent (including coalescent)
and are very fast drying. Water-borne
epoxy polyamides have also been
used quite widely on Jersey concrete
road barriers, where they not only
protect the concrete but also enhance
nighttime visibility. They are valued
where short downtimes and minimum
paint odor are important. Initial coats
are preferably thinned (1:1 by volume
and even more). Thinning provides
for penetration into the concrete to
prevent a stress plane from forming
on top of the concrete and causing
delamination in service. Penetration is
often more difficult with the higher
energy water-borne systems.
Clear penetrating sealers that re-
duce dusting and reduce wear on
decorated concrete are also applied
as thin coats. Reactive silanes may be
integrally blended into such sealers.
As noted above, ester-based oleo-
resinous products are still used, but
these systems should be restricted to
floors that do not tend to become
wet. Otherwise, substrate alkalinity
may interfere with coating adhesion.
Problems with Polymer-Modified
Cement (Concrete and Mortar)
The use of polymer-modified con-
crete and mortar has seen significant
growth over the last 30 years. Mortars
have achieved far wider usage than
has concrete because of the better
cost-performance balance. Polymer-
modified mortars have been used as
Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company
high-build coatings and overlay-
ments. Applications include deck
overlays (e.g., on bridges and ships);
floorings and pavements; integral wa-
terproofing (waterproofing agents
that are added to concrete as admix-
tures) and waterproofing membranes
applied as liquids; anti-corrosive lin-
ings in drains, tanks, steel roofs, and
Water-borne
epoxy resins
are finding
increased use
in latex-
modified
mortars.
similar structures; adhesives and re-
pair grouts; and decorative coatings
for walls.
Most applications use latex modi-
fiers in the mortar. These include
thermoplastic latexes, thermosetting
latexes, elastomeric latexes, and bitu-
minous emulsions. Some water-solu-
ble polymers such as the cellulosics,
polyvinyl alcohol, and polyacry-
lamide have also been used, mainly
for improved workability. Epoxy sys-
tems are making significant gains in
this industry. Water-borne epoxy
resins are also being used. The latter
systems are mainly amine- and
amide-cured epoxy materials laced
with enough surfactant for water dis-
persibility and selected additives such
as defoamers to avoid excessive air
entrapment. Initial work has been
done using epoxies without conven-
tional curing agents. The resin hard-
ens in the presence of the alkali in
the mortar (probably a base-induced
homopolymerization).22
Styrene butadiene latex systems are
TROUBLE with PAINT
most favored of all the latexes, al-
though homo- and co-polymerized
vinyl acetate and even acrylic latexes
have been used. Latex additives in
modified mortars are made at levels
of one fifth to equal parts of cement
weight, while sand levels are higher,
generally two to three times the
weight of the cement. Application of
these materials is made at thicknesses
of 5 to 20 mm (0.2 to 0.8 in.), some-
times in several coats.
The reaction of the polymer within
the mortar (or concrete) during hard-
ening and in the fully cured matrix is
discussed by Ohama.23 It appears that
the polymer particles are confined to
the mixed capillaries. There, they coat
the cement hydrate and condense to
produce an interpenetrating network
of polymer phase throughout the ce-
ment hydrate phase.
The properties of the modified sys-
tem will vary to some extent with the
nature and degree of the modifica-
tion. Such modification, however, al-
most universally brings about a
marked improvement compared to
the properties of unmodified con-
crete and mortar. Adhesion is im-
proved as are abrasion resistance,
tensile strength, and flexural strength.
There is little or no change in com-
pressive strength. There may be
some loss in strength with increased
temperature, particularly tempera-
tures above the Tg of thermoplastic
modifiers.
Latex-modified mortar and con-
crete display better workability than
do the conventional materials. As the
pores of the mortar or concrete are
filled and sealed with polymer, the
water absorption and permeability of
the material is lowered compared to
the same characteristics in the un-
modified product. Modified mortars
and concretes are, therefore, more
desirable for waterproofing. Their
strength may diminish somewhat
when they are exposed to water.
This phenomenon results from the
continued
JPCL – PMC / MAY 1999 61
TROUBLE with PAINT
hydrophilic nature of certain poly-
mers (polyvinyl acetate or polyvinyl
alcohol, for example). If latex-modi-
fied cementitious waterproofing is re-
coated with strong thermosets (high-
build epoxies) in this wet condition,
some cohesive weakness may be
locked into the waterproofing. Cohe-
sive failure will occur within the ce-
mentitious waterproofing as the
epoxy shrinks on curing (Fig. 4). Less
hydrophilic polymers such as styrene
butadiene latexes are less susceptible
to polymeric hydration and more re-
sistant to such loss in strength. De-
References
1. T.I. Aldinger et al., “Problem Solv-
ing Forum” JPCL (May 1991),
p. 17.
2. T.I. Aldinger, “Coating New Con-
crete—Why Wait 28 Days,” in
Protective Coatings for Flooring
and Other Concrete Surfaces,
SSPC Publication 91-19 (Pitts-
burgh, PA: SSPC, 1991), pg. 1.
3. J. Kollmer et al., “Problem Solving
Forum” JPCL (November 1988),
p. 63.
4. A. Kessi, “Negative Side Water-
proofing” Concrete Repair Bulletin
(September/October 1996), p. 12.
5. R.F. Stanfield, “Protective Coat-
ings for Concrete” JOCCA (April
1989), p. 150.
6. A.A. Boova, “A Guide to Selecting
Industrial Flooring Systems” JPCL
(February 1990), p. 36.
7. W.R. Slama, “Polyester and Vinyl
Ester,” in Generic Coating Types,
SSPC 95-08, ed. Lloyd M. Smith
(Pittsburgh, PA: Technology Pub-
lishing Co., 1996), pp. 237-256.
8. F. Hazan, “Monolithic Linings
and Coatings for Chemical Sec-
ondary Containment Structures,”
in Protective Coatings for Floor-
ing and Other Concrete
Structures, Proceedings of SSPC
91, Publication (Report # 91-19),
Long Beach, CA, Nov. 10-15,
1991 (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC,
1991), p. 70.
9. F. Hazen, “Repair and Resurfac-
ing of Paper Mill Bleach Plant
62 MAY 1999 / JPCL – PMC
creased porosity of polymer-modified
concrete also provides improved re-
sistance to frost damage.
Modifications with styrene butadi-
ene have shown value in overlay-
ments for bridge decks, reducing
chloride ion ingress to reinforcing
steel; however, the use of polyvinyli-
dene chloride latexes in mortar has
actually caused corrosion of structur-
al steel supporting members.24 The
propensity of such latex systems to
undergo dehydrochlorination and re-
lease HCl in such applications is
cause for discouraging such uses.
Floors for Positive Containment
and Protection,” in Protective
Coatings for Floorings and Other
Concrete Surfaces, Proceedings of
SSPC 91 (Report #91-19), Long
Beach, CA, Nov. 10-15, 1991
(Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC, 1991),
p. 151.
10. R. Vogt et al., “Bright Conductive
Pigments With Layer Substrate
Structure” European Coatings
Journal (July-August 1997),
p. 706.
11. G. Hall, “Controlling Electrostatic
Discharge with Static Control
Floor Coatings” JPCL (August
1996), p. 56.
12. R.E. Foscante and H.H. Kline,
“Coating Concrete—An Overview”
Materials Performance (September
1988), p. 34.
13. H.E. Hower, “Alternative Methods
for Protecting Concrete in Hydro-
gen Sulfide Environments” JPCL
(July 1989), p. 30.
14. P. Pfoehler, A. Zosel, and Baum-
stark, “Elastic Coating Systems for
the Renovation of Facades” Sur-
face Coatings Australia (May
1995), p. 18.
15. SSPC-TU2/NACE 6G197, Design
Installations and Maintenance of
Coating Systems for Concrete in
Secondary Containment, Joint In-
formational Report and Technolo-
gy Update of SSPC and NACE,
SSPC Publication #97-04 (Pitts-
burgh, PA: SSPC and Houston,
TX: NACE International, 1997).
16. C. Stanley, “Chemical Resistant
In addition to latex systems, epox-
ies, polyesters, polyurethanes, and
other resins have also been used to
modify cementitious materials. Redis-
persible powders, initiated and radia-
tive-cured monomeric systems have
also been examined. For details on
these effects, the reader is referred to
the book by Ohama.23
Conclusion
Next, we will review wood as a sub-
strate for paint and examine many of
the unique coating problems that are
encountered on it. ❏
Epoxies for Secondary Contain-
ment” JPCL (December 1995),
p. 17.
17. T. Aldinger and B.S. Fultz, “Select-
ing Coatings and Linings for Con-
crete in Chemical Environments”
JPCL (August 1995), p. 64.
18. P.R. Nau and B.S. Fultz, “Coatings
and Linings for Sealing Chemical
Containment in Power Plants”
JPCL (October 1990), p. 42.
19. P.J. Gay, “Coating Immersed Con-
crete for Swimming Pools and
Sewage Applications” JOCCA (July
1974), p. 252.
20. S.L. Bassner and C.R. Hegedus, “A
Review of Two-Component Water-
borne Polyurethane Coatings for
Industrial Applications” JPCL (Sep-
tember 1996), p. 52.
21. P. Jacobs, K. Best, M. Dvorchak, M.
Schaffer, T. Wayt, and P. Yu, “Two
Component Waterborne
Polyurethane Coatings—Now and
Into the Next Century” Paint and
Coatings Industry (Oct. 1996), .
22. Y. Ohama, K. Demura, and T.
Endo, STP 1176 Polymer-Modified
Hydraulic Cement Mixtures
(Philadelphia, PA: ASTM, 1993),
p. 90.
23. Y. Ohama, “Principles of Polymer
Modification for Cement Composi-
tions,” in Handbook of Polymer
Modified Concrete and Mortar
(Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Publica-
tions, 1995), p. 11.
24. “Dow Faces a Storm of Sarabond
Suits” Chemical Week (March
1983), 13 2(10) p. 14.
Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company