Soils Manual

CONTENTS
PREFACE vii
1. Laboratory Test and Preparation ol Report 1
2. Determination of Water Content 9

3. Specific Gravity of Soit Sotids 15
4. Sieve Anatysis 23
5. Hyd rometer Ana tysis 33
6. Liquid Limit Test-Percussion Cup Method 49
7. Liquid Limit Test-FatL Cone Method 59
8. PLastic Limit Test 65
9. Engineering Ctassification of SoiLs 73
10. Standard Pioctor Compaction Test It
'i1. Determination ol Fietd Unit Weight of Compaction by
Sand Cone Method 105
12. Maximum and Minimum DryDensitiesof Granutar Soi[ [9andl 115
13. Constant-Head Permeability Test in Sand 125
14. Fatting-Head Permeabitity Test in Sand 135

15. Direct Shear Test onSand 143
16. Uncontined Compression Test 155
17. Consol.idation Test 169
' 18. Triaxial. Tests in CLay 187
E REFERENCES 207
L
L
APPENDICES
A
B
Weight-Vol.umeRelationships
Data Sheets for Laboratory
209
Experiments 215
L C Data Sheets for Preparation of Laboratory Reports 279
L
L
E
l.- Laboratory Test and
u
u Preparation of Report
u
ca:
t: 1.1 lntroduction
l: Proper laboratory testing of soils to determine their physical prcperties is an integral palt in
the design and construction of structural foundations, the placement and improvement of
l: soil properties, and the specifications and quality contuol of soil compaction works. It must
ct:
be kept in mind that natural soil deposits often exhibit a high degree of nonhomogeneity.
The physical properties of a soil deposit can change to a great extent even within a few
hun&ed feet. The fundamental theoretical and empirical equations that are developed in
soil mechanics can be properly used in practice if, and only if, the physical parameters used
iri those equations are properly evaluated in the laboratory So, Ieaming to perform labora-
t: tory tests of soils plays an important role in the geotechnical engineering profession. This
text has been prepared exclusively for hands-on classroom use by undergraduate civil engi-
J: neering and civil engineering technology stude[ts taking the introductory soil mechanics
(geotechnical engineedng) course.
In the United States most laboratories conducting tests on soils for engineering pur-
poses follow the procedures outlined by the American Society for Testing and Materials
,:
l: (ASTM). The procedures and equipment for soil tests may vaiy slightly ftom laboratory to
laboratory but the basic concepts remain the same. The test procedures described in this
L manual may not be exactly the same as specified by ASTM. However, for the students it is
beneficial to know the standard test designations and to compare them with the laboratory
L work they have performed. Fot this reason, some selected ASTM standard test designaiions
are given in Table l-1.
E
l;
/
SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY

MANUAL
!
Table 1-1, Some lmportantASTM Standard Test

Designations*
Chapter No.
Citation
Taboratorl Determination ol Waler I Moi.ture.J
Contenl
or sorl and Rock bv Mars
Specific Gravity of Soil solids by Warer pycnomerer
Particle-size Analysis of Soils
Liquid Limir, Plastic Limir, and plasricity

?
D-3282 Standard Practice for Classiflcation
tndex of Soils
ofsoils and
?
Soil-aggregate Mixtures lbr Highway
Construction ?
Standard Practice for Classification
of Soils and
ry
Soil aggregate Mixtures for Engineering purposes
(Unified Soil Classiflcation Systen) ry
Slandard Tesl Melhod for Laboratory
( haracreri\lic\ ofsoil-U5ing
Comparrton
Standard Etfon J t.1.,100
ry
fr.lbfftr (600 klv.nr/m3)l P
D-1557 Standard Test Method lor Laboraror;
( haraclen5dcs olSoilÛsing
Compacuon P
N4odified EtTon i56,00U
fr.lbft3 (2?00 ktv.nrlm3)l )
TeslM:rhod lor Densirl and unir \\eishr
:tl:9af
Sorl in Place by rhe
ot )
Sand Cone Merhort
J
Standard Test Merhod for Density and
Unit Weighr of )
Soil in Place by the Rubber Balloon Method
Test Method for

Marimum Index Density and
-Standard
Unir Weigbt of Soils Using a Vibrating Table
Standard Test Method for Minimum

lndex Densitv and
J
)
J
Unit weighr ot S"jl" und aatcrtarion of
netaL;, e 6en_il
Standard Tey Melhod lor permeability
ot Granular Soilr
l( onstanl Head)
Standard Test Method for Measurcment

of Hydraulic
Condlctivity of Satuated porous Materials
4
J
J
Using a
Flexible-wall permeameter
I
l-
L
u Laboratory Test and Preparation of Report
t: Tabte 1-'1. lContinuedl

ChapterNo.
):
L
ASTM
Standard ASTM Titte Citation
t: Standard Test Method for Direct Shear Test of Soil under

D 30U0 15
Consoiidated Drained Condition
L D 2166 Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compression

Strength lbr Cohesive Soil
16
L D 46,18 Standard Test Method fbr Laboratory Miriature Vane l6
L D 257:l
Shear Test lbr Saturated Fine-grained Clayey Soil
Standard Test Method lbr Field Vane Shear Test in

Cohesive Soii
16
t:
):
D 2435 Standard Test Method for One-dimensional 1',7
Consolidation Propelties of Soils Using Incremental
l; D-2lJ50
Loading
Standard Test Method lbr Unconsolidated t8
1- D-476',7
UndrainedT axial Compression Test on Cohesive Soils
Staldard Method for Triaxial Compression Test on t8
t:
): Cohesive Soils
*B{sed on Amedcan Society fol Testing and Materials (2010)
t: There are several other standards for testing of soil in various other countries' ot'which
the most quoted is the British Standards BS 1377 (1990).
):
t:
,:
a:
1.2 Use of EquiPment
Laboratory equipment is never cheap, but the cost may vary widely For accuracy of the
expedmental lesults, the equipment should be properly maintained The calibration of cer-
t:
v
tain equipment, such as balances and proving rings, should be checked periodically lt is
also essential that all equipment be cleaned-both beforc and after use More accurate
results will be obtained when the equipment being used is clean' so always maintain
the
vL equiprnent . il il !\erc )ourown

Some of the equipment for the direct shear test (Chapter 15), unconfined compression
test (Chapter 16), consolidation test (Chapter 17), and hiaxjal test (Chapter 18) may
vary
fron laboratory to laboratory lt is possible that, in a given institution, more modern and
L
t;
4 sOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY
MANUAL
sophislicated equjpment
is placed in, re.F., r" r-L^--,
laborarory compared ro
rory. The phorographs ;;;'J;;;".;: 'i"*'rch
in tfiis manual are
a reachine rabora.
to-d in u r"u"r,injiooo"ruaf,'u"*"' 'no*n lairly consi)renl $ i!h rhose
1.3 Safety
:
There js always a possibiljty
rhat an ma) occur $ hile one i5 perrorm;ns
tt" tubo.uroryun,rioi";;;"'i.il'#jf::'1":nr a resr in )-
Der care mu\t be taken to prevent
occumng. "uch
accidents lrom
,-
1.4 Data Recording

-
In any expedment lt js
always good pt
arer) after rhe) have been *t:io'l dah in rhe proper rabte imJnedi-
,7
ra-ken. ,"rili]'-"I]"
on scratch paper mav later
mirplaceo. which n'rr';;;
, ili::'e'
.- ,._.,,19 to conduct rhe
bi irtegibte or eren
experiment again orin
inaccurate reslrlts. '; obtaining -
,-
1.5 Report preparation
In lhe clasjroom laboratory,
mosl exner.
in smatl sroups. n"'"in
wirl probably be conducred ,)
*tiv n'i, ;' ""-"1",j*.i"i.ljll,lt-"1t9t:.nl:o
,*"i';;; __,..* .-,r rmprove their shourd be wrirren bv each
student individ-
"""
should contain: "';J#lJ::]?j"lon
l. Cover page-The cover page
,z. **:l:Tg
shoul
";#;:;"':##:ii';"lT#il:j"
techrical writing skills. Each report
*'erimenq name, group

J
,)
J
a.
b.
rolo\{,rng the".
report:
corer page, fre loljo
Purpose of experiment
Equipment us.,t
wrng ltems should be included
in the body of the
J
J
c. Schemarjc diagram oI majn equipment
d. Briefdescripdon olrest procedur'c
,J. Kesulrs_These
g,aph,,r. c.aph"
shouJd include rhe r
an-d-l;il:;J;'f
u.ed
-l"er(s'' sample calculation{s,.

and required
J
J
J
prepared as neatll a' possible.
;;r;*; ;, tJ.":
rhe unirs. craphs Atwa.^ Ei\e
Possible'. ana thev should be labeled
;".0;";l;# ;lf^]s
erlv. when , prop-
J
verified. -- ;aw a graph, its authenticity should
be ploperly
4. Discussion-Depending
J
on the labor te\t' lhis section of rhe repon
.o,npr.i'on orrn" i.rr il;;,:; t'#:iill'l empirical relationshjp(i).
mav involre
and other derails not in"tuil
;'i;.?;:ff sources or error.
J
1
L--
l-
L.
u
Laboratory Test and Preparation of Report
u 1.6 Units
u
Two syslems of units are commonly used around the world now They are: (a) the English
units and (b) the SI units (Le SystEme Intemational d'Unit6s). Since 1950, the SI units
u
(which is a modem folm of the metric system) are increasingly used in all countries. In
1972 the United Kingdom converted to the SI system. Both systems ofunits are commonly
u
used in the United States.
ln the SI system, the base ullits for length, mass, and time are in m (meters), kg
u
(kilograms) and s (seconds). The units for all othe. physical quanlities are derived units
such as
u .
.
Newton (N) for force
Pascal (P) for pressure
u . Joule (J) for work done
Table 1 2 gives some of the preflxes used in the SI system
u. As an example,
u I kilometer(lkm) : (1 n)(103) : 1000 m
u I millimeler(lmm) = { I m){10 tl:0.u01 rn
u For conducting laboratory tests and prepadng rcports, the conveGion of onits may be
necessary. Tables 1-3 and l 4 provide, respectively, the conversior ofEnglish to SI unjts,
u and SI to English units.
t- Tabte 1-2. Some Prefixes Used in Sl Units
tj Prefix Factor.
u glga
mega
t0e
106 M
G
1- kilo kilo
u
r
103
hecto 102 h
deca 10r da
e deci 10-r
102
d
u. centi
milli t0 3
c
1;
l-
MANUAL
Tabte l-3. Conversion from Engtish to St Units
25.4 rrarr
0.3048 m
304.8 mm
6.4516 x 1O arf
6.4516 cm2
645.16 mm2
929 x l}-a m2
929.03 ar?
92,903 llr,m2
16.387 cm3
0.028317 m3
28.317 mm3
304.8 nm/s
0.3048 m/s
5.08 mm/s
0.00508 m/s
6.9 kN/m2
47.88 N/m2
Coef,fi cient of consolidation 6.452 ctl: ls

929.03 cmzts
Laboratory Test and Preparation of Report
Tabte 1-4. Conversion from Slto English Units
Ifngth 1mm 3.937 x l0-2 in.

3.218 x 10-3 ft
1m 39.37 in.
3.28r ft
Area I cm2 O.155 rn.'
1.0'16 x 1O-3 tC
7m2 1550 in-2
ro;76f2
Volume I cm3 0.061 in.3
3.531 x l0-5 ft3
lm3 61,O23;74 in.3
35.315 ft3
Velocity I cm/s 1.969 ftlmin

1,034,643.6 ltJyear
Force IN 0.22482lb
1kN 0.2482ktp
Stress I kN/m2 0.1451b/in.2
20.89 tbtfe
Unit weight 1 kN/m3 6.361 thfit3
CoefRcient of consolidation I cm2ls 0.155 in.2/s

2-883 x 103 ft2lmonth
I Mass lkg 2.2046Ib

x 10 3 kip
t
2.2046
L.
u
u
u
,:
li
u
L Determination of
u
u Water Content
u
t:
u
u 2.1 lntroduction
u
u
ASTM Standard: D-2216
Most laboratory tests in soil mechanics require determination of the water content. Water
content is defined as
u
u
weight ror mas.t ofwater presenl in a given soil mas.
weight (or mass) ofdry soil
Water content is usually expressed in percent.

(2.1)
For better results, the minimu t size of fiost soil specimens should be approximately
cu
as given in Table 2-1. These values are consistent with ASTM test designation D-2216.
,:
2.2 Equipment
u
l:
1. Moistue can(s) Moistwe cans are available in vadous sizes lfor example, 2 in
(50.8 nrm) in diametet and1l8 in. (22.2 mm) high; 3.5 in. (88.9 mm) in diameter and
2 in. (50.8 nm) highl.
2. Oven with temperature contol-For drying, the oven temperatu.e is generally kept at
t:
110 + 5"C. A higher temperature should be avoided to prevent the buming of organic
matter in the soil.
t:
L-
10 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL
Tabte 2-1, Minimum Size ol Moist Soit Sampl.es

to Determine Water Content
Partiate Size in
.--l
0.425 40 20 ;J
2.0
4.'7 5
10
4
50
100
;J
9.5 3/8 in. 500
;..1
19.0 3/4in. 2500 ;j
3'1.5 1.5 in. 10,000
,J
75.0 3.0 in. 50,000
:J
J
Tabte 2-2, Required Readabitity
;J
Maximuh Pa.ticte
srze tn sort lmml
ot Batance
J
0.425
2.0
4.'7 5
0.01
0.01
0.1
)
J
JJ
9.5 0.1
19.0
1'7.5
'75.0
I
10
l0
JJ
JJ
JJ
3. Balance-The readability of the balance to be used is given in Table 2-2 (ASTM,
2010). Figure 2-1 shows some moisture cans and a balance having a readability
of
0.01 g.
I
Determination of Water Content 11
Figure 2-1. Moisture cans and batance.
2.3 Procedure
1 Determine lhe mass (g) of thrce empty moisture cans plus their caps, Mi, and also
record the numbers (lines I and 2 of Table 2 3).
2. Place samples ofrepresentative moist soil in the cans. Close the cans with their caps to
avoid loss ot'moisture.
3. Determine the combined mass (g) of the closed cans and moist soil, M2 (line 3 of
Table 2-3).
4. Remove the caps fn)m the top ofthe cans and place them at the bottom (ofthe cans).
5. Put the cans (Step 4) in tho oven to dry the soil to a constant weight. ln most cases
2,l hours of drying is enough.
6. Determinc the combined mass (g) of the dry soil samples plus the cans and their
caps, Mr (lire 4 ofTable 2 3).
2.4 Catcutations
l. Calculate the mass ofmoisture, M2 Mr (li[e 5 of Table 2-3)
2. Calculate the mass of dry soil, M3 - M 1 (line 6 of Table 2 3)
3. Calculate the water content (line 7 of Table 2 3),
w 1"1"1 :a} !)
M:-Mr ^rcs e.2)
4. Calculate the average of the three water contents detemined in Step 3 (see bottom of
Table 2 3).
Report the average water content to the nearest 17. or 0.17r, as based on the
size of the specimen.
-t
)
12 SOIL MECHANICS LAEORATORY MANUAL
-t
. t
Tabl.e 2-3. Determination ot Water Content

Desctiplian af sail llro n nl4t cln4t Sampte no. 4
.)
Location
Tested by
)
Date
)
Test No-
)
l. Can no-
1
37
2
54
3
:J
2. Mass of can, M1 (g)
3. Mass of can+wet soil, M2 (g)

77.37
43.52
78.92
52.79
76.07
39.43
;J
)
4. Mass ofcan rdry soil,,tlr (g) 39.86 47.67
5. Mass of moisture, M2 - M3 G) 3.66 4.58 3.30 ,)
6. Mass of dry soil, M3 - Mr (g)
Mt-M.
22.5 5
76.2
28.69 20.06
-J
/. warercontenr. (%) - Mt----
Mt
100
76.0 76.5
-J
,J
Average waler content
A complete sample calculation ol water content is given in Table 2 3.

w 7 €'.2 %
J J
2.5 GeneraI Comments
l. Most natural soils that are sandy and gravelly in nature may have water contents of
up to about 15-20%. ln natural fine grained (silty or clayey) soils, water contents of
)
JJ
up to about 50 807, can be found. Howevef peat and highly organic soils with water
contents of up to about 5007. are not uncommon. Typical values of water content for
vaiious types ofnatural soils in a saturated state are showl in Table 2-4.
2. Some organic soils may decompose during oven drying at I1045.C. This oven drying
JJ
temperature may be too high for soils containing gypsum, as this material dehydrates
slowly. For such soils a drying temperature of 60"C is more appropriate.
3. Cooling the dry soil after oven drying (Step 5 of Section 2.3) in a desiccator is rec
ommended. A desiccator, as shown in Fig. 2 2, is a glass container that contains a
JJ J
desiccant, such as anlydrous silica gel, that keeps the air within the glass container dry.
I
Determination of Water Content 13
Tabl.e 2-4, Typicat Vatues of Water Content in a Saturated State
.,,.: i:'.-. r. .. .Soi[..1

Loose unifom sand 25-30
Dense uniform sand t2-16
Loose angular-grained silty sand 25
Dense angular-grained silty sand t5

Stiff clay 20
soft clay 30 50
Soft organic clay 80 130
Glacial till t0
Figure 2-2. A desiccator. lCourtesy of N. Sivakugan, James Cook University, Austratia )

2.6 Laboratory Report

The laboratory report should contain the following:
. Cover page
. Equipment used
. Description oftest procedue
.
.
Results--data sheet and sample calculations
Souces of error, if any
J
4
J
:l
:J
;l
:J
:J
:J
:J
J
L
1:
l:
t:
L
L
L Specific Gravity of
L Soit Sotids
L
L
;
L
V 3.1 lntroduction
l- ASTM Standard: D-854

The specif,c gravity of a given material is defined as the ratio of
the density of a given vol_
L ume of the material to the density of an equal volume of distilled

the specific gavity of soil solids (which is ofien referred to as the
water In soil mechanics,
specilic gravity of soil)
L is an important parameter for calculating the weight_volume relationshipiThus

gavity cr is defined as
specific
L G"'' -
density of soil solids only
density of water
c,: M,/v, Ms
(3.1)
P- V"P'
where M" : mass ofsoil solids (g)
% = volume of soil solids (cm3)
p, = density of water (g/cm3)
Most soils found in nature are combitrations of various types of minerals.
The &nges
of the values of Gr for common minerals found in soil are given in Table 3_1. The general
ranges of the values of G" for various soils are given in Table
3_2. The procedure for
15
16 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY I.,IANUAL
determining the specific gravity Cs described here is applicable for soils composed of
partrcles smdller than 4.75 mm in size (No. 4 U.S. sieve). Note that Table 4-l prcvides
the opening sites for all U.S. sieves.
Table 3-1. Generat Ranges oI4 for Common

Minerats
Min€reI
Quafiz 2.65
K;rolinite 2.6
Illite 2.8
Montmorillonite 2.65 2.80

Halloysite 2.0-2.55
Potassium feldspar 2 5'7
Sodium and calcium teldspar 2.62-2.'16
Chlorite 2.61.9
Biorite 2.8-1.2
Muscovite 2.'/6 3.1
Hornblende 3.0,3.4',7
T,imonite 3.64.0
Olivine 3.2'7-3.',1
TabLe 3-2. General Rangeg of 6s for

Various Soits
Srnd 2.63 2.6',7
Silts 2.65 2.1
Clay and silty clay 2.6'7 -2.9

Organic soil Less than 2
L
l'-.
u
): Specific Gravity of Soit Sotids 17
):
J:
L
l,:
t:
t:
L
L
;
L
tr Figure 3-1. Equipment for conducting specific gravity test.
tr 3.2 Equipment
s 1. Volumetric flask (500 ml)
rj
2. Thermometer graduated in 0.5"C division scale
3. Balance sensitive up to 0.01 g
4. Distilled water
tr 5. Bunsen burner and stand (and./or vacuum punp or aspirator)

6. Evaporating dishes
V 7. Spatula
8. Plastic squeeze bottle
9. Drying overl
l= The equipment for this expedment except for the drying oven is shown in Fig. 3-1.
3.3 Procedure
l. Clean the volumetric flask well and dry it.
2. Carefully flll the flask with de-aired, distilled water up to the 500-ml nark (bottom of
the meniscus should be at the 500-ml mark).
3. Determine the mass of the flask and the water filled to the 500-r mark, Ml Gigure
3-2a; and line 2 of Table 3-5).
t 7
18
7
I,,IANUAL
(c) ')
a
!/
S1cp 3 Slep L2 Sler1€ )
!/
)
-l
)
al
)
Figure 3-2. Stages of specific
aravity test.
Tabte
Soit Type"
3-3. Approximate Mass of Dry Soit to
General Description
Be Used for Test
Dry Mass ofSpe.imen lgl

I:l
:)
SP. SP SM Poorly graded sand; poorly

graded saDd wjth silr
t00 + 10
:l
SP_SC, SM. SC Pooriy graded sand with
clal': silly sand: clayey sand
75 + t0 :J
:J
J
Silt rnd uJay
50+ t0
Unilicd soil classificatioll;
J
see Chapter 9.
J
4. Insert the theamometel into
the flask \^drer rnd dercrmine rhe rcinpsrarure
_
rhe narer. I - r;i,..","p",,r ,.ii""'.'llrl" of
J
5. Pul the,irir dricd .oil inro rn cvclordling
di.h. T,rblc I J lirc. rhc lpprorimcrc
{r'p,,,\,",JI rnrs. ot
LID .ojllo be u.ed lor rhe ls.t {Asl
v r..r ce.ipnrri,,n o_rj+lii,!
J
6. If the soil is cohesivc, adil water
{de
r,,.," or u,,";o;; ;;;";;;,*J:T,#""ilii:*ifff i:i tril;Jjr:ri:
, i:,'"lH ,,f
;:il]'.
,'. ::,lis
step is nor necessaq, tbr granular,
sorr rrr granular) or rhe soil pasre
8. Add disfilled water to the volumetric

i.c., noncohesive soits.)
(if cohesive) into the volumerric
ftu.k.ontainitg the soil (or the soil paste) to make
J
J
fulr.
J
it about two_thirds
9. Rcrnove thc arr lrom the soil .$dler
mt\tt l.. This cm be done hr eirt"-
r' Ccnrl) bniJinp rhc flrrt corrr.Lr'ning rhc roif
Accompany the boiling with continuous "r".,";r*1" f#"6",,i'i, ,n,n,nr,"..
agitation of the flask. (If too much
applied, rhe soil may boil over.) or heat is
H
#
h
l- Specific Gravity of Soit Sotids 19
t- b.
l-
Applying vacuum by a vacuum pump ot aspirator until all of the entrapped air
is out.
l-
This is an efiremel! important step- Most errors in the results of this test are due to
entrapped air that wLts not rcmored.
10. Bring the temperaturc of the soil-water mixture in the volumetric flask down to
V room temperaturc, i.e., 71oC; see Step 4. (This temperatue of the water is room
t-
tempemturc.)
I l. Add de-aired, distilled water to the volumetric flask until the bottom of the meniscus
L touches the 500-nrl mark. Also dry the outside of the flask and the inside of the neck
above the meniscus.
L 12.
I3.
Determine the combined mass
3 2(b); and line 3 of Table 3-5).
of the flask plus soil plus
Just as a precaution, check the temperature of soil and water in the flask to see whether
or not it is fl
+ 1oC.
water, M2 (Figue
):
t: 14. Po0r the soil and water into an evaporating dish. Use a plastic squeeze bottle and wash
the inside of fte flask. Make sure that no soil is left inside.
t: 15. Put the evaporating dish in an oven to dry to a constant

weight.
16. Determine the mass ofthe dry soil in the evaporating dish, M, (Figure 3-2(c); and line
t: 4 of Table 3-5).
3.4 Calcu[ations
): A complete sample calculation is shown in Table 3 5. Calculate the specific gravity,
l,: G": mass of soil

M"
mass of equal volume of water M.
(3.2)
):
t:
where the mass ofequal volume of water is
M|| : (Ml+ Ms) M2 (line 5 of Table 3-5)
L So,
G (at ?r .c) : M"

,-
(line 6 of Table 3-5) (3.3)
):
L Specific gnvity is generally repofied at a temperature coresponding to 20"C. So,
L U.r(a! 20"C) = Uilar ?'.C)

f Pw rrt r,.o
I
lu (aL
I
20'cl J
L
L
: G"Gt t.c)A (line 7 of Table 3 5) (3.4)
L where
, P,'(ar rr.Cl
(3.s)
t- Py (at 20"C)
20 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL II
andp is the density of water. The density of water p, at 20o C is 0.99821 g/cm3. The
density of water at a temperature n call be given as (ASTM, 2010),
p, (ar ?i c) : 1.00034038 - (1;i't x t0 6)?l - (4.95 x 10-6)4 (3.6)

II
where p,, is in g/cm3 and ft is in ' C
Using Eqs.(3.5) and (3.6), and p" (at 20" C), the variation of A with Zt has been
calculated and given in Table 3-4.
!:l
:l
At least two specific gravity tests should be conducted. From the sample calculations
shown in Table 3 5. Check: R, lsee Ee. (3.7) and discussion in Secrion 3.5]
Re:
2.6',78
1.008 < 1.2 OK
!
!!
2j5S î
Tabte 3-4. Vatues ofI tEq. t3.5ll
15.0
15.5
1.00090
1.00082
23.0
23.5
o.99933
0.99921
!!
16.0
16.s
1.00074
1.00066
24.1)
24.5
0.99909
0.9989'1
I
!
l7.o 1.00057 25.0 0.99884 )
1'1.5 1.00048 25.5 0.99871
18.0 1.00039 26.0 0.99858
!!
18.5 1.00030
)
26.5 o.998M
l9-0 1.00020 27.0 0.99831
19.5 1.00010 27.5 0.99817
20.0 I.00000 28.0 0.99803
20.s
21.0
21.5
0.99990
o.999'79
0.99968
28.5
29.0
29.5
0.99788
0.99'174
0.99159
!!
)
22.0 o.99951 30.0 0.99',744

)
22.5 o.99945
t
)
t
H Specific Gravity of Soil sotids 21
tt Des.riptian of soil
Tabte 3_5.
I
Specific Gravity ot Soit Sotids
ightlvdl^tA, tab1d4 nlt Sampte no. 2 i
t
Votumeofftasket20"C 5On mt Ternperatureoftest.\ 2a .C A O.qqg3 {Tabte 3-41
cL
Location
Tested by
Date
rt
L
t:
,;
t:
L
u z@t@ = z.eoa * z.az
t:
,:
J:
Once the values of Gr from the two tests have been detemined.
obtain the ratio
l: larger value of Gr
l:
(3.1)
smaller value of G"
IfRs : 1.2, calculate the average value ofGJ.

): If Rs > 1.2, perform an additional test and determine -Rs. When the two values
of Gr agree sumciently, take the average of the two values and round it to
): the
L nearest 0.01
1
22 SOIL MECHANICS LABOMTORY MANUAL
a
3.5 Laboratory Report :J
. :)
.
.
Cover page
EquipmeDt used a
.
o
Description of test procedure
Results---data sheet and sample calculations
sources of enor-If Rs > 1.2 [Eq. (3.7) ftom the two initial tests, discuss
the
a
rL/
possible eror (e.g., not using the sane balance
for weigni"g, poo. udio.tro*, of )
the balance, and also de-airing). t-i
)
\-l
)
Ll
r-I
)
,.1
)
!
)
)
z)
)
J
)
>J
:l
:l
>T
)
,
w
L
tt
E
l- Sieve Analysis
11
L
l.-
E
L
L 4.1 lntroduction
L ASTM Stardard: D 422

In order to classify a soil for engineering pulposes, one needs to know the distribution
of the grain sizes in a given soil mass. Sieve arlalysis is a method used to determine
grain size distribution of soils. Sieves are made of woven wires with
the
square openings. The
E
current size designation for U.S. sieves uses 100 nrm to 6.3 mm, and they
are as follows:
100.0 mm 25.0 mm
E 75.0 mm
63.0 mm
19.0 nrm
L
16.0 mm
50.0 mm 12.5 mm
45.0 mm
L
9.5 mm
37.5 mm 8.0 mm
31.5 mm
L
6.3 mm
l- After the 6.3 mm size designation, a number designation is used, i.e., No. 4 to No. 400.
t- These are shown in Table 4-1.
L 23
)-
24 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY
MANUAL
Tabte 4-1. U.S. Sieve Sizes
4 4.75 45 0.355
5 4.00 50 0.300
6 3.35 60 0.250
'7
2.80 70 o.212
8 2.36 80 0.180
l0 2.00 100 0.150
t2 1.70 120 0.125
t4 1.40 140 0.106
16 1.18 170 0.090
18 1.00 200 0.0'7 5
20 0.85 230 0.063
25 o.71, 2'70 0.053
30 0.60 0.045
35 0.500 0.038
40 0.425
The opening for the it, sieve given

in Table 4_l can be approximately given
as.
Opening for the jft sieve

Opening for the (t - l)ft sleve
= (2)o-2s (4.t)
For example:
The opening for the No. 5 sieve: oPening for the No. 4 sieve
(tti,i__-
4,.15 rftrIr
: mm !4.00mm
t.l8g, = 3.994
H
Sieve Analysis 25
Opening for the No. 45 sreve

opening for the No. 50 sieve:
E 0.335 mrn
e)0.25
: 0.2985 mm ^,0.300 mm
E 1.1892
Several other countries have theh owrl sieve sizes which are con]monly rcfered to by
H their aperture sizes. For example, the Bdtish Standard (BS) sieve sizes commonly used are:
tj 75 mm 3.35 mm
LJ 63 mm 2mm
H 50 mm
37.5 mm
1 l8 mm
0.600 mm
LJ 28 nrm 0.425 tnm
E 20 mm 0.300 mm
l; 14
10 mm
mm 0.212 mm
0.15 mm
J 6.3 mm 0.063 mm
5.0 mrn
J
J In this manual. the U.S. Standard will be used for all tests as needed. For
sandy and fine-grained soils, generally Nos. 4. 10, 20, 40,60, 140, and 200 are
J rrsed.
J For all practical purposes, the No. 200 sieve is the sieve with the smallest opening that
should be used for the test. The sieves that are most commo.ly used for soil tests have a
t diameter of 8 in. (203 mm). A stack of sieves is shown in Fig 4-1.
The method of sieve analysis described here is applicable for soils that arc mostly gran-
ular, with some c,r no fres. Sieve analysis does not provide information about the shape of
the particles.
4.2 Equipment
1. Sieves, a bottom pan, and a cover (Noter Sieve Nos. 4, 10, 20, 40, 60, 140' and 200 are
generally used for most standard sieve analysis work.)
2. A balance sensitive to 0.1 g
)
:l
J
I!
\i
\l
c. I
1l
r-i
1l
1l
t-I
fl
Figure 4-1. Stack of sieves with a pan at the bottom and a cover at the top.
!
3. Mortar and rubber tipped pestle
4. Oven
5. Mechanical sieve shaker
I!
4.3 Procedure !
:J
I:l
7. Collect a representalue oven-dry soil sample. Samples with the largest particles being
ofthe size ofNo.4 sieve openings (4.75 mm) should weigh about 500 g. For soils wirh
the largest particles of a size greater than 4.75 Inm, larger weights are needed.
2. Breal( the soil sample into individual particles using a mortar and a rubber-tipped pes_
tle. (Nole.. The idea is to break up the soil into individual pafiicles, not to break the
particles themselves.)
3. Determine the mass Mof the sample accurately to 0.1 g(seetopof Table 4 2). )
4. Prepare a stack of sieves. A sjeve with larger openings is placed above a sieve with
smaller openings. The sieve at the bottom should be No. 200. A bottom pan should be )
placed under the No. 200 sieve. As mentioned before, the sieves that arc generally used
in a stack are Nos. 4, 10, 20, 40, 60, 140, and 200; however, more sieves can be placed )
in belween
)
)
:l
Sieve Anatysis 27
Figure 4-2. Stack ol sieves in a sieve shaker.
Figure 4-3. Washinq of soit retained on No. 200 sieve.
.)
II
=

r, l
rl
r-I
r. I
i. I
al
r-l
\l
r, l
tI
r, l
t, l
Figure 4-4. Back washing to transfer soil retained on No.
evaporating dish.
200 sieve to an
r-i
5. Pour the soil prepared in Step 2 into the stack of sieves from the top.
\1
6. Place the cover on the top of the stack of sieves.
\
7. Run the stack of sieves through a sieve shaker for about 10-15 mi[utes (Fig. 4-2).
8. Stop the sieve shaker and rcmove the stack of sieves.
9. Weigh the amount of soil retained on each sieve and in the bottom pan (col.3 of
Table 4 2).
\
ll.lf a considerable amount of soil with silty and clayey ftactions is rctained on the
No. 200 sieve, it has to be washed. Washing is done by taking the No. 200 sieve with
\
the soil retained on it and pouring water through the sieve from a tap in the laboratory
(Fig.4-3).
1 l. When the water passing through the sieve is clean, stop the flow of water. Transfer the
\i
soil retained on the sieve at the end of washing to a porcelain evaporating dish by back
washing (Fig. g). Put it in the oven to dry to a constant weight. (-ly'ore.' This step is
a-i
not necessary if the amount of soil retained on the No. 200 sieve is small.)
\i
Determine the mass of the dry soil retained on the No. 200 sieve. The differcnce
between this mass and that retained on the No. 200 sieve determined in Step 9 is the mass \l
of soil that has washed through.
r-i
t
L
Sieve Anatysis 29
4.4 Catcutations
A complete sample calculation is shown in Table 4 2.
1. Calculate the percent ofsoil retained on the zth sieve (counting f.om the top),
mass retained M,
x 100: R" (col. 4 of Table 4-2) (4.2)
total mass M (Step 3)
Table 4-2. Sieve Anatysis
Descripriorlol soil@ SamPle no. 2
lvass of oven-dry specimen M,5OLg
Tested by Date
E i::!14:::i:-t: r,']:rliiinili:r:, a:.a.t:r4i

,-r':li.:,a :,']'t,_r',ii{2f:4.,. ,:.a::::::,:J
4 4.750 o o o 700.o
70 2.OOO 40.2 LO 8.0 92.O
20 o.850 84.6 76.9 24.9 7 5.7
30 0.600 50.2 70.0 65.7
40 0.425 40.o 8.O 42_9 57.7
60 o.250 706.+ 27.3 64.2 3 5.8
740 0.706 708.8 27.8 86.O 7+.O
200 o.o75 59.4 77.9 97.9 2.7
?drv 8.7
t 498.3 =Mj
MM, . _ 0.3+
Mess tocs .turino sreve anatvsis: --=l
M
100
o/o
l0K it Less rhan 2o,ol
_:--:-
30 5OIL MECHANIC5 LABORATORY MANUAL

t
:I
1l
2. Calculate the cumulative percent of soil retained on the rth siev ., I
)
IR" (col,s of Table 4-2) (4.-1.) t I
1)
3. Calculate the cumulative percent passing through the zrh sieve, t
perceoL finer: f OO jn, {col. b of Table 4 2t 14.4t ,
,=r r'- |
lvote. If soil retained on the No. 200 sieve is washed, the dry weight determined after
4
washing (Step 11) should be used to calculate the percent liner (than No. 200 sieve). )
The weight lost due to washing should be added to the weight of the soil rerained on
patr.
)-
rhe
rl
4.5 Graphs a-'i
The grain-size distribution obtained from the sieve analysis is plotted on semilogarith_
mic graph paper with the gmin size on a log scale and percent finer on a natual"scale. -- |
Figure 4-5 is a grain-size distribution plot for the calculations shown in Table 4 2. The
rhat
grain-size distribution plot helps to estimate the percent finer thari a given sieve size
-= |
might not have been used during the resl.
-
)
)
)
)
)
:J
:l
:l
)
Grain size D(mm)
Figure 6-5. Plot of percent finer vs. grain-size from calculations shown in Tabte 4-2.
)
:1
ru
L_
t
;
4.6 Other Catcutations
If l27o or less is passing a No. 200 sieve:
Sieve Anatysis 3'1
1 . Determine Dro, D'ln, and D6q (from Fig. 4 5), which are the diameters colTesponding
; to percents flner of 107", 3070, and 607r, respectively.
2. Calculate the uniformity coefficient C,, and the coefficient of gndation C. using the
II
; following equations:
- Doo
u1n
2
(1.s)
30 (4.6)
; Deo x Dro
L The determination of C,, and C. is required for classilication of sandy and gravelly soils
that have L2Ec or less passing a No. 200 sieve (Unified Soil Classification Systemi see
Chapter 9).
v
;
Dro
As an example, from Fig. 4-5, D60
:
0.098 nm So,
:
0.46 mm, D3s :
0.21 mm, and
L 0.46
L
0.09It
tL and
0.46
(0.21)2
x 0.098
:0.98
L 4.7 GeneraI Comments
l- The diameter D10 is generally relerred to as effecti,e size. The effective size is used lor
several empirical correlations, such as the c., eJrtcient of pemeability.
-fhe unformi4t coef
L fcient Cu rs apanmeter that indicates the range ofdistribution of the grain sizes in a given
soil specimen. If Cu is relatively large, it indicates a well-graded soil. If C, is nearly equal
v to 1, it means that the soil grains are of approximately equal size' and the soil may be
referred to as a poorly g.aded soil.
v1- Figore 4-6 shows the general nature of the grain-size distribution curves for a well
graded and a poorly graded soil. In sorne instances a soil may have a combination of two
or more unifomly graded fractions, and this soil is referred to as gap graded. The grain-size
distributjon cuNe for a gap-graded soil is also shown in Fig. 4-6.
The parameter C. is also refered to as the coefrcient of cunatura For sand' if C, is
1- greater than 6 and C. is between 1 and 3, it is considered well graded. However, lbr a
l- gravel to be well graded, C& should be greater than 4 and C. must be between 1 2nd 3-
l:
:)
r-l
I )
Gap
r-l
)
I
\-l
Fig{re 4-5. GeneraI nature

and 9ap-graded soit.
crain size (toq scate)
of grain-size distribution ofwetl_graded, poorly graded,

)
II
The Dt5 and D85 sizes are used for the design of filters. The D50 size is
used tbr corre_
lation of the liquefaction potential of saturated granular soil during ea.thquakes,
parameters neede.d ibr design of foundations and other structures.
and other
I
II
)
. Cover page
.
.
Equipment used
Description of test procedwe :J
. Results- {ata sheet, sample calculations, and the semilogarithmic graph
the grain-size distribution
showing :J
r
o
Discussion, including determination of Cu and C.
Sources of error, if any
:J
:J
:J
t
L
L,
t:
tL-
.)
I
:
; Hydrometer Analysis
;
;
;
;
;
5.1 lntroduction
:
e ASTM: Standard: D-422
Hydrometer analysis is the procedure generally adopted for detemining the pafticle-size
distributjon in a soil ibr the fraction that is finer than U.S. No 200 sieve size (0.075 mm)
The lower limit of the particle size determined by this procedure is about 0.001 mm
:
tr In hydrometer analysis a soil specimen is dispersed in wateL ln a dispersed state in
the watet the soil particles will settle individually. lt is assumed that the soil particles are
tr spheres, and the velocity of the particles can be given by Stokes' law,
v 18n
D2 (5.1)
tr where r,
y--
:
:
velocity (cm./s)
specilic weight of soil solids (g/cm3)
tr y,,
I :
= unit weight of water (g/cm3)
dynamic viscosity of water (g s/cm2)
tr D: diameter of soil particle
t: In the test procedure described here, the ASTM 152-H type hydrometer will he used
(see Fig. 5-l). If a hydrometer is suspended in water in which soil is dispersed (Fig. 5-2),
it will measure the specific gravity of the soil water suspension at a depth I The depth
):
t:
):
SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY I.,{ANUAL
IJ
J
v
:l
)
\_l
'-l
-l
)
l
Figure S-1. ASTM 152_H hydrometer.
L is called effective deptlr. So at a time t minutes from the beginning )

of the test, the soil
pafiicles that settle beyond the zone of measurcment (i.e., beyond
the effective depth a)
will have a diameter given by )
ri
)
-t
L (cn) y" - y,(g/cm3)
I (min) x 60 18r1 (g. s/cm2) liPl' )
)
-t
)
/'
v l
Hydrometer Anatysis
soit is dispersed'
Figure 5-2. Hydrometer suspended in water in which
Then
10
J60
["], F, : ^ E(..) V t,'or")
(s.2)
where
(5.3)
readin€ (which increases from

Frcm Fig. 5-2 it can be seen that, based on the hydrometer
152-H type hydrometer)' the value ofl will change
The magnitude
,"t" i. U?, i. *"
of I "St*
can be given as
L:Lt +I(r,#) (s.4)

q
SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANTJAL I
where Z1 : distance between top of hydrometer bulb

and mark for a hydro_
meter rcading. For a hydrometer rcading of
zero, Zt 10.! cm. :
Also, for a hydrometer reading of 50, 11 U.: :
ffr"". ;,
genercl. lor a gi\en hydrometer reading. "..
gl
.t (cm) : I U.5
/
- ('/
10.5 - 2.t \
x hydrometer reading sl
:Lz 14cm tl
Va : volume of hydrometer bulb:67.0 cm3
Ac : cross-sectional area of hydrometer cylinder:27.g
cm2
)
Based on Eq. (5.4), the variations of Z with the hydrometer readings are shown IN
Table 5-I )
For acfual calculation purposes we also need to
know the values of A given by Eq.
(5.3). An example ofrhis calculation
is )
Y' : G, y. )
where 6, is the specific gravity ofsoil solids. Thus. )
)
(5.s)
)
For example, if rhe temperarure of the water is 25"C,
l:0.0911 x 10 a(g.s/cm2),and
G" = 2.'7. )
)
. !o(oo"l .to .r)
^:{-'; -" =trttt:r

)
The variations ofA with G" and the water temperature
arc shown in Table 5_2.
ASTM 152-H tlpe hydrometeris calibrated up to a reading )
-The for
of^ 20'C soil particles having cr :2.6J. A hydrometer
oiiO u, o a.por*"
readin! .i, .* lU g,""" )
T;:j-11:''1 i:r"..,har :
tlrere are 30 g of soil .rfia, fc" z.osl 'rn .r.fJo.iJn ", "
p". rooo
cm or sort_water mixture ar a temperature of 20"C at a depth where
J
the specific gravity )
of the soil-water suspension is measured (i.e., t). From
thi.s In"urur".*t'\l7"'"un O"*r_
mine the percentage of soil still in suspension at
time r from the beg1n"i-.g .f *" ,"u,
all the soil parricles will have diameters smaller than "ra
in the actual expedmental work. some conections to the
D calculate,f iy EqiSlj. n"**"a
need to be applied. They are as follows:
obsen ed'hyJomeler readings
"J
)
I
Hydrometer Anatysis 37
Tabte 5-'1. Variations of L with Hydrometer* Readings
L Hydrometer L
lcml Readinq lcml
0 16.3 26 t2.o
I t6.l |.9
2 16.0 28 11.'7
3 15.8 29 ll5
4 15.6 30 11.4
5 15.5 l1 t1.2
6 15.3 32 I l.t
'7 15.2 33 10.9
8 r 5.0 34 10.'7
9 14.8 35 10.6
10 14.'/ 36 10.4
14.5 37 10.2
12 14.3 38 10.1
13 14.2 3S 9.9
t4 r4.0 40 9.',l
t5 13.8 41 9.6
l6 13.'7 42 9.4
1'7 r 3.5 43 9.2
I8 13.3 44 9.1
19 13.2 8.9
20 I1.0 46 tt.u
21 12.9 4'7 8.6
22 12.'7 48 8.4
23 12.5 49 8.3
24 t2.4 50 8.1
25 12.2 5l '7.9
*ASTM 152-H hydrometer.

SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL
Ia
Tabte 5-2. Variations ofI with Cs :I
:J
)
2.50 0.0149 o.o147 0.0145 0.0143 0.0141 0.0140 0.0138
)
2.55 0_0146 0_0144 0.0143 0.0141 0.0139 0.0137 0.0136
2.60 0.01,14 0.ot42 0.0140 0.0r39 0.0t3'1 0.0135 0.0134 )

2.65 o.o142 0.0140 0.0138 0.0137 0.0135 0,0133 0.0132 )
2.10
2.75
0.0140
0.0138
0.0138
0.0136
0.0136
0.0134
0.0134
0.0133
0.0133
0_0131
0.0131
0.o129
0.0130
0.0128
J
)
2.80 0.0136 0.0134 0.0132 0.0131 0.0129 0.0128 0.0126
J
:J
2.50 0.0137 0.0135 0.0133 0.0132 0.0r30 o.0t29 0.0r28 J
2.55 0.0134 0.0133 0.0131 0.0130 0.0128 o.ot27 0.0126 )
2.60 0.0132 0.0r 31 0.0129 0.0128 o-0126 0.0125 0.0124
J
2.65 0.0130 o.ol29 o.or27 0.0126 0.0124 o.0123 o.o122
J
2.70 0.0128 o.0127 0.0125 o.o124 0.0r 23 0.0121 0.0120
J
J
2.'75 o.o126 0.0125 0.0124 0.0122 0.0121 0.0120 0.0r 18
2.80 0.0125 0.0121 0.0122 0.0120 0.0119 0-01 I8 0.0117
:J
1. Tempemture corection Fa-The actual temperature of the test may not be 20oC.
T'he temperatue correction Fr may be apprcximated as J
Fr: -4.85 + 0.257 (for ?between 15 and 28'C) (s.6) 3
where F1 : temperature conection to observed reading (can be eithet positive
3
or negative)
Z: temperature of test ('C)
1
z
u.
L
t: Hydrometer Analysis
l:
t:
l: 15
Tabte
Temperature, F l"cl
5-3. Comparison of Temperature correction, Fr
Fr Rerommended by Bowtes
- 1.10
119921 Fr frorn Eq. (5.61
- 1.10
l: 16
t'7
-0.90
0.70
0.85
-{J.60
1: t8
l: t9
-0.s0
0.30
-0.35
0.10
t: 20 0.00 +0.15*
t: 21 +0.20 +0.40
l:
22 +0.40 +0.65
)3 +0.70 +0.90
t: 24 +l .00 +i.15
l: 25 +1.30 +l.40
t: 26
2'7
28
+1.65
+2.00
+2.50
+1.65
+1.90
+2.15
;
t: *Should be zero theoretically.
J: It is important to point out that Eq. (5.6) is approximate. Table 5 3 shows

parisor of Iz
a com
recommended by Bowles (1992) and that obtained using Eq. (5.6). The
l: difference is minimal, and Eq. (5.6) can be used without contributing to a major error
in the final results.
t: 2. Meniscus corection Fn-Generally the upper level of the meniscus is taken as the
reading during laboratory work (F,, is always positive).
3. Zero correction 4-Adeflocculating agent is added to the soil {listilled water suspen-
sion when performing experiments. This will change the zero reading (4 can be either
|:
positive or negative).
):
): 5.2 Equipment
1. ASTM 152-H hy&ometer
): 2. Mixer
3. TSo 1000-cm3 graduated cylinders
):
J
:I
10 SOIL I.lECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL
:l
:l
!
)
!!
)
I
I
)
)
)
Figure 5-3. Equipment for hydrometer test. )
4. Thermometer )
5. Constant-temperature bath
6. Defl occr-rlating agent )
7. Spatula
8. Beaker )
9. Balance
)
;l
11. Distilled water
12. No. 12 rubber stopper
The equipment necessary is showninFig.5-3. The constant-temperature bath is not shown.

The constant temperature bath is optional.
J
)
5.3 Procedure )
:J
I
Nole. This procedure should be used when more than 904/o of the soil is flner than a
U.S. No. 200 sieve.
Hydrometer Anatysis Ll
):
,E
Figure 5-4. Graduated cytinder with soit washed out from the mixer cup and fitted with
distitLed water up to 1000-cm3 mark. lNote: The mixer is on the right.l
1. Take 50 g of oven dry, well pulverized soil in a beaker

2. Prepare a deflocculating agent. Usually a 47o solution of sodium hexametaphosphate
(Calgon) is used. This can be prepared by adding 40 g of Calgon in 1000 cm3 of
distilled water and mixing thoroughly.
3. Take 125 cm3 of the mixtue prepared in Step 2 and add it to the soil taken in Step 1.
This should be allowed to soat for about 8 12 hours.
4. Take a 1000-cm3 graduated cylinder and add to it 875 cm3 of distilled waterplas 125
cm3 of deflocculating agent. Mix the solutiol well.
5. Put the cylinder (from Step 4) in a constalt-temperature bath. Record the tempemturc
? of the bath ("C) (see col. 3 of Table 5-4).
6. Put the hydrometer in fhe cylinder (Step 5). Record the reading. (Note: The top of
the meniscus shotrldbe read.) This is the zero correction 4, which can be positive or
negative. Also observe the meniscus corection -Fa (see top of Table 5-4).
7. Using a spatula, mix the soil prepared in Step 3 thoroughly. Pour it into the mixer
c\rp. (Note: During this process some soil may stick to the side of the beal€r. Using
the plastic squeeze bottle filled with distilled water, wash all the remaining soil in the
beaker into the mixer cup.)
8. Add distilled water to the cup to make it about two-thirds full. Mix it for about 2
minutes using the mixer
J
:l
tI
!
)
:J
:J
)
-l
)
)
Figure 5-5. Hydrometer reading: photograph shows the top of the cytinder with
soit-water mixture with the hydrometer pl.aced inside. )
9. Pour the mix into the second graduated 1000-cm3 cylinder Make sure that all of the )
soil solids are washed out of the mixer cup. Fill the gnduated cylinder wirh distilled
water to bring the water level up to the 1000-cml mark (Figure 5 4).
)
10. Secure a No. 12 rubber sropper on the top of the cylinder (Srep 9). Mix the soil,water
well by turning the cylinder upside down several times. )
1l.Put the cylinder into the constant-temperaturc bath next to the cylinder described
in Step 5. Record fte time immediately. This is cumulative time I = 0. Insert the
hydrometer into the cylinder containilg the soil-water suspension.
12. Take hydrometer readings at cumulative times t :
0.25, 0.5, l, and 2 min. Always read
J
)
the upper level of the meniscus (Fignre 5-5) (see cols. I and 2 of Table 5 4).
13. Take the hydrometer out after 2 minutes and put it jnto the cylinder rcxt to it
(Step 5).
14. Hydrometer readings are to be taken at times 1 :4, 8, 15, 30 minutes, l, 2, 4, 8, 24, and
48 hours (see cols. I and 2 of Table 5 4). For each reading, insert the hydrometer into
the cylinder containing the soil-water suspension about 30 seconds beforc the reading
J
)
)
is due. After the reading has been taken, remove the hydrometer and put it back into
the cylinder rcxt to it (Step 5).
5.4 Calcutations
Refer to the sample calculation shown in Table 5 4.
J
)
)
Column 2. Observed hydrometer readings R corresponding to times given in column l. )
)
Hydrometer Anatysis L3
Tabte 5-4. Hydrometer Anatysis

Descript ion al sait Bro Ain)ty cln4t Sample no.
GS Hydrometer type '4S7M

152 -#
Dry mass of soiL Ms g MeniscLrs correction Fm l-

Zero correction Fz +7
Tested by Date
.i . llylti.Grl::' ';Teinlbiii l:;:,,.:']i-.1'i]i.i.ii];L:::::;:r:

r '.,:i..r:: ,t!qle.!r:l
,:-,:195,.:::,, ,:',:.5O,,',4'.'
;i*:iiti
tmtuil:1:].i]: :',.'lt ,f.,il'.:ii:. r:: l:. :.r':: ,rr,irlOOr:.,.: i:i'&i r. :,ikiitt:,
lesq
,:fi1i.-:: 'l ::,: l:ill.: ':l r-].t:llij
-,.,: :,.:il4l:i:.: i'irr:1!l:r,.,. ,r-l:ftt: :a:lll:..:
o.25 57 2A 46.75 90.3 7.8 o.o727 o.06a
0.5 +8 2A 43.75 84.4 49 4.3 o.o721 o_o49

7 47 28 42.75 82.4 48 8.4 o.o727 o.o35
2 46 28 47.75 80.5 +7 8.6 o.o727 o.o25
+ 45 28 +0.75 7 8.5 46 8.8 o.o121 o.078
8 44 28 39.75 76.6 45 8.95 o.o727 o.o73

75 43 28 38.15 74.6 44 9.7 o.o727 o.oo9
30 42 37.75 72.7 43 9.25 o.o727 o.oo7
60 40 28 35.75 54.8 47 9.6 o.o727 o.oo5

720 38 28 33.75 64.8 39 9.9 0.o727 o.oo 35
2+O 2A 29.75 57.O 35 70.5 o.o727 o.oo25
480 32 28 27.75 53.1 33 70.9 o.o727 o.oo78
7+40 29 28 24.75 +7.23 30 77.35 0.0121 o.oo77

28aO 27 28 22.75 2B o.o727 o.ooo8
'Tabie 5 5; lTabte 5 1; lTabLe 5-2.
I+4 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL
It
Column 3. Test was conducted in a constant temperatue bath. Hence f is a constant a
(= 28' c).
:t
Column 4. Corrected hydrometer readings R.p for calculation of percent finer,
R.p:R+Fr (s.i) :l
J
Fz
For the sample calculations shown in Table 54, F7 ar28"C : t2.15, and
: :
4 f7. Hence Rcp R + (+2.15) (+7). -
Colum 5. percent fins1: x 100
ff :J
where Ms : dry mass of soil used for hydrcmeter analysis :)
4 : corection for specific gravity (since hydrcmeter is
calibrated for G, :
2.65), )
,: (Gj
,9' " .19-t. - (seeTable 5-5) (5.s) )
Column 6. Conected reading iRcL
- r) z.bJ
for detemination of effeciive length,
R"1: R+ F-
J
Column 7. Determine Z (effective length) coresponding to values of R"r (colurnn 6)
(5.9)
;J
given in Table 5-1. r.l
Column 8. Determhe A from Table 5-2.
J
Column 9. Determine D,
D(mm):A
L (cm)
/ (nin)
J
:J
Tabte 5-5. variation of
6" IEq. ls.8ll
a with
J
J
:l
J
J
J
h Hydrometer Anatysis 45
h 5.5 Graphs
Plot a grain-size disffibution graph on semilog graph paper with percent finer (column 4,
Table 5 4) on a natural scale and D (column 9, Table 5-4) on a log scale. Figure 5 6 shows
the plot conesponding to the calculationli shown in Table 5-4.
E 5.6 Procedure Modification
E
When a smaller amount (less than about 907r) of soil is finer than U.S. No. 200 siere sizc.
the following modifications to the procedue descdbed need to be applied.
1. Take an oven-dry sample of soil. Detemine its weight Ml.

2. Pulverize the soil using a moftar and rubber-tipped pestle, as described in Chapter 4.
E 3.
4.
Run a sieve analysis on the soil (Step 2), as described in Chapter 4.
Collect the soil in the bottom pan that has passed through the U.S. No. 200 sieve.
l': 5. Wash the soil retained on the U.S. No. 200 sieve, as described in Chapter 4. Collect all
t:
the wash water and dry it in an oven.
6. Mix together the mirus U.S. No. 200 portion ftom Step 4 and the dded minus U.S. No.
t:
200 portion from Step 5.
t: 100
J: 80
Li
J: 660
rj I
t: 4A
rj 20
J:
rj o
rj 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
v
Glain size D (mm)
Figure 5-6. Ptot of percent finer vs. grain size from resutts given in Tabte 5-4.
):
t:
I
:I
:J
7. Calculate the percent finer for the soil rctained on the U.S. No. 200 sieve and above ras )
shown in Table 4-2).
8. Take 50 g of the minus U.S. No. 200 soil (Step 6) and run a hydrometer analysis. )
rFollow Slep. lthrough l4 as de\cribed in Secrjon5.J.)
9. Report the calculations for the hydrometer analysis similar to those shown in Table
5 ,1. Note, howevet that the percent finer now calculated (as in column 5 of Table
:l
54) ts not the percent Jiner based olt the total sample. Calculate the percent finer )
based on the total sample as
percent pasling No 200 \ieve

P/ - (column 5 ol lable 5 4) / \
\ 100 I
The percent finer passing the U.S. No. 200 sieve can be obtained from Step 7.
l0.Plot a combined graph for percent finet versus grain-size distribution obtained
ftom both the sieve analysis and the hydrometer analysis. An example of this
is shown in Fig.5-7. From this plot, note that there is an overlapping zone.
The percent finer calculated from the sieve analysis for a given grain size does
)
not match that calculated from the hydrometer analysis. The grain sizes obtained
from a sieve analysis are the smallest sizes of soil grains, and the grain sizes
obtained ftom the hydrometer atralysis are the diameters of equivalent spheres of soil
grains.
)
100
92 )
]J
J
80
70 Sieve
b60
7
I
d40
J
JJ
31
J
8
T
J
0
10 3 1 0.3 0.1 0.03 0.01 0.0G o.oo1
Grain size D (mm)
Figure 5-7. A grain-size distribution ptot; combined resutts from sieve anatysis and
hydrometer anatysis. )
)
:l
v,
E
Hydrometer Anatysis
E
1. Refer to Step l1 in Section 5.3. It is important to emphasize the point that a constant-
temperature bath is optional. If the constant temperature bath is not used, then the
magnitude of Fz may not be a constant and may change with tjme. This should be
taken into consideration before using Eqs. (5.6) and (5.7) to arrive at the numbers for
E
R"o in column 4 of Table 5-4.
2. The Unified Soil Classification System (ASTM D-2487) provides the following
teminology for gravel, sand, and silt and clay.
Coarse gravel: Passing 3 in. (75 mm) sieve and retained on 3/4 in. (19 mm) sieve
Fine gravel: Passing 3/4 in. (19 mln) sieve and retained on No. ,1 (4.75 mn) sieve
Coarse sand: Passing No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve and retained on No. l0 (2.00 mm)
sieve
E
Medium sand: Passing No. 10 (2.00 mm) sieve and retained on No. 40 (0.425 mm)
sieve
t; Fine sand: Passing No. 40 (0.425 mm) sieve and retained on No. 200 (0.075 mm)
sieve
t:
a;
Silt and clay: Passing No. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve
Clay minerals exhibit plasticiry (puny likepropefiy) when mixed with a limired amounr
of wate. They are mostly in the colloidal range (< 0.001 mm) and 0.002 mm appears to
be the upper limit. In a given soil there may be pafticles that arc less than 0.002 mm
in size (e.g., quartz, feldspar, mica) but are not clay minerals. Thus, pafticles with sizes
u
of 0.002 mm may be called cla!-size pati.ler. If a grain-size disftibution plot lite
,:
Fig.=5-7 is available, the percentage of various fractions of gravel, sand, silt and clay, and
t:
clay-size pafticles present in a given soiJ can be derermined. For example, refering to
Fig.5-7:
t; Percent
Percenr
Percent
Percent
finer than No. 4 sieve
finer lhan No. l0 sieve:9)
finer than No. 40 sieve 70
100
liner than No. 200 sieve 31

:
:
:
rj
,: Percent
Hence:
finer than 0.002 Inm
Gravel fraction
Coa$e sand fraction
:
0tl"
:
8
1OO 92 Aq.
:
t:
,:
t:
Medium sand fraction
Fine sand fraction
Clay-size liaction
:
70
Sand and clay fraction :31
: 8 0:8%
:
92 '70 :2280
3l :39Eo
-
0 :31Vo
-
-
t:
t:

The laboratory repofi should contain the following:
. Cover page
. Equipment used
. Discussion of test procedurc
. Results-data sheet, sample calculations, and the semilogadthmic graph similar to
that shown in Fig. 5 5
Discussion, including a semilogarithmic plot combining the results of sieve and
hydrometer analysis such as sho&n in Fig. 5-7 (if both tests are conducted on the
same soil). In that case, the percentages of various fractions of gravel, sand, silt and
clay, and clay size particles present in the soil should be rcported (similar to that
shown in item 2 of Section 5.7).
Sources of erroq if any
l,-
a;
t:
ct:
t:
a:
IJ Liquid Limit
Test-Percussion Cup
ct:
):
Method
c
t:
):
6.1 lntroduction
t: ASTM Standad: D-4318

When a cohesi,e soil is mixed with an excessive amount of water. it will be in a somewhat
l: liquid state and, flow like a liquid. This is shown in Fig. 6-1, in which the soil-water mixture
has a volume of y; at a moisture content nr. However, when this viscous liquid is dried
t:
t:
gradually, with the loss of moisture, it will pass into a plastic state. With further reduction
of moisture, the soil will pass into a semisolid and then into a solid state. The moisture
content (in percent) at which the cohesive soil will pass from a liquid state to a plastic
state is called the li4uid limit (LL) ol the soil. Similarly, the moisture content (in percent)
t:
t:
at which the soil changes from a plastic to a semisolid state and fiom a semisolid to a
solid state are rcfered to as plastic limit (PL) aILd shinkage limit (SL), rcspectively. These
limits are refened to as the Aftefuery limils (Atterberg, 1911). It is important to point out
t:
that the volume of the soil-water mixture, at ,! hrinkage limit, is Vy . Wrth further reduction of
moisture, the volume does not change. ln thjs chapter, the procedue to detetfilne lhe Liqukl
lr7ri, (La) of a cohesive soil by Casagrande's percussion cup method will be discussed.
J:
t: 6.2 Equipment
t: 1 Casagrande liquid limit device

2. Grooving tool
t:
c 1+9
tJ
JJ
:J
!
:J
!
)
Shrinkage Plastic LiqLid w,
limir llmil limt
)
Figure 6-1. Atterberg timits-
)
(a)
>)
)
:)
)
)
)
:J
)
Figure 6-2. Equipment for Liquid timit test. lal Liquid timit device and grooving toots.
:l
)
[Courtesy of Dr, Nagaratnam Sivakugan, James Cook University, Townsvitte, Austratia.l
Ib] other equipment. lNote: oven is not shown.l
:l
3. Moistwe cans )
4. Porcelain evaporating dish
5. Spatula
6- Oven
)
)
E Liquid Limit Test-Percussion Cup Method 51
E 7. Balance sensitive to 0.01 g

9. Paper toleels
The liquid limit device and grooving tools of two types are shown in Figure 6-2(a). Other
E equipmcnt (except lbr the oven) is shown in Figure 6-2(b).

The Casagrande liquid limit device essentially consists ofa brass cup that can be mised
and drcpped through a distance of 10 mm (0.394 in.) on a hard mbber base by a cam oper-
ated by a crank. Figures 6-3(b) and (c) show the schematjc diagrams of the flat groo\ing
E tool and the wedge grcoving tool, respectively.
5.3 Procedure
E 1. Detemine the mass M1 of three moisture cans (See line 2 of Table 6 1).
ct: 2. Put about 250 g ofair dry soil, passed through a No. 40 sieve, into an evaponting dish.
Add water liom the plastic squeeze bottle and mix the soil to the form of a unifom
paste.
3. Place a portion of the paste in the brass cup of the liquid limit device. Using the spatula.
cc ,1.
smooth the suface of the soil in the cup such that the mtu{imum depth of lhe soil is
about 8 nlm.
Using the grooving tool, cut a groove along the centerline of the soil pat in the cup
lFig.6-1(a).1. Also see Fig. G5(a).
1:
t: 5. Tum the crank ot' the liquid limit device at the rate of about 2 revolutions per second.
By this, the liquid limit cup will rise and drop through a veftical distance of l0 mm once
for each revolution. The soil from the two sides of the cup will begin to flow toward
the center. Count the number of blows ly' for the groove in the soil to close through a
distance of 1/2 in. (13 mm), as shown in Fig. 6 4(b). Also see Fig. G5(b).
l: II N equals about 25 to 35, collect a moisture sample fiom the soil in the cup in
l:
a moisiurc can. Close the cover of the can and detemine the mass of the can plus the
moist soil, M2 (See line 3 of Table 6-l). Also record N (see line 6 of Table 6-l).
cc Remove the rest of the soil paste from the cup to the evaporating dish. Use paper
towels to clean the cup thoroughly.
lf the soil is too dry, N will be more than about 35. In that case transfer the soil to
the evaporating dish using the spatula. Clean the liquid limit cup thoroughly with paper
cl: towels. Mix the soil in the evaporating dish with more water, and try again.
ll the soil is too wet, -|y' will be less than about 25. In that case transfer the soil in the
cup to the evaporating dish. Clean the liquid limit cup carefully with paper towels. Stir
the soil paste with the spatula for some time to dry it up. The evaporating dish may be
u
t:
placed in the oven for a few minutes for drying also. Do rol add dry soil to the wet-soil
paste to rcduce the moisture content in order to bring it to the proper consistency. Now
try again with the liquid limit device to get a groove closure of 1/2 in. (13 rtun) between
25 and 35 blows.
t:
J
)
SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL )

-)
\ <.- as.8sm
L
)
)
)
)'- I
)
)
-l
)
l 2mm )
T
)
F- 50 mm )
-l
(b)
)
l.- 73mn ,---t )

1
10mm )
T )
)
,**r ilin..," J
(c)
J
Figure 5-3. Schematic diagrams. lal Liquid timit device lbl Flat grooving toot'
J
lcl Wedqe grooving toot.
J
J
)
:l
Liquid Limit Test-Percussion Cup Method
- tk
2mm
-'l r r l.-
(a) (b)
Figure 5-4. Schematic diagram {ptanl of soit pat in cup of tiquid timit device.
{a) Beginninq of test. Ibl End ottest.
F Figure 5-5. Soit pat in the tiquid timit device. lal Beginning of test. lbl Endoftest.
F
:l
)
54 SOIL MECHANICS LASORATORY MANUAL !I

6. Add more water to the soil paste in the evaporating dish and mix thoroughly. Repeat
Steps 3, 4, and 5 to get a grcove closue of 1/2 in. (13 mm) in the liquid limit device at
a blow count N
the soil paste
: 20 to 25. Take a moisture sample from the cup- Transfer the rest of
to the evaporating dish. Clean the cup with paper towels.
I!
7. Add more water to the soil paste in the evaporating dish and mix well. Repeat Steps
3, 4, and 5 to get a blow count N of between 15 and 20 for a groove closure of 1/2 in.
!
(13 mm) ir the liquid limit device. TalG a moisture sample from the cup.
8- Put the three moisture cans in dre oven to dry to constant masses, M3. (The caps of
!
the moistuie cans should be rcmoved frcm the top and placed at the bottom of the
respective cans in the oven.) (See line 4 of Table 6-l).
!
6.4 Catcutations
Dete.mine the moistue content for each of the three trials (Steps 5, 6, and 7),
I!
*g"y = A)--!-!. 100 (Seeline5ol Table6- t). (6.1)
Mz - lVt
!
)
6.5 Graphs
Plot a semilog graph for moisture content (arithmetic scale) versus number of blows N
!
(1og scale). This will approximate a straight line, which is called thefiow cune. Ftom the
straight line, determine the moisture content w (7o) corresponding to 25 blows. This is the
liquid limit of the soi1.
The magnitude of the slope of the flow line is called the fow index fi,
!!
wt(Vo)
log N2
- wz(V.)
logNl
Complete examples of liquid limit calculations and the coresponding graphs are shown in
(6.2)
!I
Table Gl and Fig. 6-6.
!
!
Based on the liquid limit tests on several soils, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1949)
observed that the liquid limitlJ of a soil can be approximately given by
!
rt -*, ea
_
l|)
,,. 0 t2l
(6.3)
!
where rrN is the moisture content, in percent,
liquid limit device al N number of blows.
fot l/2-in. (13-nm) groove closwe in the
I:l
:J
)
:l
Tabte 6-1. Liquid Limit Test-Percussion Cup Method
Descriplion of soil Gro! t 4t cl'r4 Sampte no. 4
Location
Tested by
:::i::,1:2li::.1.:r t:'.::i:ta!.::,
1. Can no- 8 21 25
2. Mass of can, M1 (g) 75.26 77.O7 75.77
3. Mass of can + moist soil, M2 (g) 29.30 37.58 37.45
4. Mass of can+&y soil, M3 (g) 25.84 27.72 26.96
5. Moisturc content,
w(7al: Mt-Mt
- -x100 36.O4 38.1
Mt Mt
6. Number of blows. N 35 23 t/
Liquid timit Ll
i7 - 3 3.7
IDg. 30 lDg' 20 = 18.7+
534
E
32
30
1 0 15 20 25 30 35 40
A/
Figure 6-6. Ptot of moisture content vs. number of blows for tiquid timit test resutts
reported in Tabl.e 6-1.
z
56 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL ,
6-2.
i:t::wrc :I
Tabte Variation of tIVl2510r21 Vatues
e*
v
20 o.973 26 1.005
:l
IT
2t 0.919 2'7 1.009
22 0.98s 28 1.014
23 0.990 29 1.018
24
25
0.995
1.000
30 1.O22
IT
LI
Tabte 6-3. Liquid Limiis of Some Ctay
J
Materials
I
)
Montmorillonite J
:J
:)
:J
ASTM also recommends this equation for determining the liquid limit of soils (ASTM J
test designation D-4318). However, the value of wN should corespond to an N value of
between 20 and 30. Table 6 2 lists the values of (N125)o t2t for various values of N. :J
The presence of clay contributes to the plasticity of soil. The liquid limit of a soil will
:l
J
change depending on the amount and type of clay minerals present in it. The apprcximate
mnges for the liquid limits of some clay minerals are given in Table 6-3.
Casagrande (1932) concluded that each blow in a standard liquid limir device colres-
ponds to a soil shear strength of about 0.1 kN/m2. Herce the liquid limit of a fine-grained
soil gives the moisturc content at which the shear strength of the soil is apprcximately
2.5 kN/m2 (! 52 1b/ft2).
:t
:T
2
vl
Liquid Limit Test-Percussion Cup Method 57

. Cover page
. Equipment used
. Descdption of te$t procedure
. Results iata sheet, sample calculations, graph of moisture content versus N, liquid
limit as obtained from the graph. One or more tests with N-value between 20 and
30 will be reported. Use those values in Eq. (6.3) to estimate the Zr. Compare the
values of liquid limit obtained using Eq. (6.3) with those obtained from the graph.
Discuss the results.
Liquid Limit Test-Fat[
Cone Method
7.1 lntroduction
ASTM Standard: None
British Standard: 1 377-2
The use of the/oll cone is another method for determining the liquid limit of cohesive soil
It was originally prcposed by Hansbo (1957) The fall cone method consists of a standard
cone with an apex angle of 30' and a length of 35 mm. It is attached to a hollow stem with
lead shots inside. The mass of the cone, stem, and lead shots is 80 g. The cone is allowed
to fall into a cup (measuring 55 mm in diameter and 40 mm in height) that conrains the
cohesive soil paste over a period of 5 seconds The cone will penetrate the paste to a
depth d (Fig. '1-l). Liquid limir is denned as the moisture content at which the depth of
cone penetration will be 20 mm over a period of 5 seconds. Figure 7-2 is a photg€raph of
thefill cone device and the cup. AS']M. does not have a standard for this type ofLst. The
British Standard (BS 13?7-2) rccommends the use of the fall cone over the percussion cup
method to determine the liquid limit.
7.2 Equipment
l. Fall cone device, itrcluding the cup
2. Moisture cans
59
U
J
:I
60 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL :I
)
4. Spatula
J
5. Oven )
6. Balance, sensitive to 0.01 g
8. Paper towels
)
7.3 Procedure )
1 Determine the mass Mt of three moisture cans (see line 2 ot' sample calculation'
Table 7-l ).
)
2. Put about 250 g of air-dy soil, passed tlrough a U.S. No 40 sieve, into an evaporating
dish. Add water from the plastic squeeze bottle and mix the soil to form a unifonn )
paste.
3. Fill the cup of the device with the paste from the evaporating dish. Level the paste with
the rim of the cup using the spatula.
4. Place the cup centrally under the cone.
5- Lower tbe cone so that it touches the sudace of the soil paste in the cup (see
JJ
)
Fig. 7 1(a)).
6. Release the cone for 5 seconds. The cone will penetrate the paste (Fig. 7-l(b)). After
5 seconds, reclamp the cone. )
7. Use the penetration measurement device to measure the penelration I to the nexrest 0.1
mm (see line 6 ol sample calculation, Table 7 1) Ideally, d should be between 15 to )
20 mm.
8. Collect a moisture sample from the soil in the cup into a moistore can. Ciose the cover
)
of the can and determine the mass of the can plus the moist soil M2 (see line 3 of sample
calculation, Table 7-l). )
9. Remove the rest of the soil paste ftom the cup to the evaporating dish. Use paper towels
to clean the cup thoroughly.
)
If the soil is too dry, d will be less than about 15. Mix the soil in the evaporating dish
with more watei and try again.
)
Tf the soil is too wet. d will be more than about 25 In that case, hansfer the soil in
the cup to the evdporaring dish. Stir the soil paste with the spatula until it begins to &y
)
up. The evaporating dish may be placed in the oven for a few minutes to dry it up. Da
rol add dry soil to the wet soil paste to rcduce the moisture content in order to bdng it )
to the proper consistency.
10. Add more water to the soil paste in the evaporating dish and mix thoroughly. Repeat
)
steps 3 through 9 to get a penetration d ! 15 mm to 25 mm in the fall cone device- Take
)
a moisture sample from the cup. Transfer the rest of the soil paste to the evaporating
dish. Clean the cup thoroughly with paper towels.
Ideally, a total ot' four tests are required when d is less than 20 mm and two tests
)
when d is between 20 ntm to 25 mm
)
-l
)
1-.-
L
tL -.- a - - iies:-F6tl Cone Method 61
L Liass = 6a !
tL T-J
L{,
L i<-- ss ..
l
*-
L ---'+i
Figure ?-1. Schematic diagram of fal.t cone test (al beginning of test, Ibl end
L
of test.
1:
L ..'l:
_*,
{NS'
:rr'':::"rr'r'-.
u - I
L
L
L
L
L
u
L
vu FigureT-2. Falt cone apparatus. ICourtesy of N. Sivakugan, James Cook IJniversity,
u Austratia.
u
l-
62 5OIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL
Tabte 7-1. Liquid Limit Test-FaU Cone Method
Descript ian of soil Grqt n)4t c1n4/ Sampte no. 6
Locaiion
Tested by Date
:-:,-:--*-i:a
ii:':::t* *rgir,Fat
l - Can no. 74 18 32 i6
2. Mass of can, Mt (g) 74.23 75.67 75.87 73.93
3. Mass of catr.t moist soil, M2 Q) 30.67 32.86 30.93 37.72
4. Mass of can + dry soil, M: (g) 26.68 24.44 26.65 26.43
5. Moisture content
' M,_MI - < IOO 37.57 3+.+5 39.70
w(4o\:
'MtMt
6. Peneration of cone,l (mm) 74.7 77.i 21.6 25.8
Liquid timit LL 775
1 I . Put the four moisture cans itr the oven to dry to constant masses M3 (see line 4 of sample
calculation, Table 7-l). (The caps of the moisture cans should be removed ftom the top
and placed at the bottom of the rcspective cans in the oven.)
7.4 Ca[cutations
Detemine the moisture content for each of the four trials (see line 5 of sample calculation,
Table 7.1)
M,' MI"
w(%o\=
' xlOO (7.1)
Mt-Mt
7.5 Graphs
Plot a semi-log gnph for moisture content (arithmetic scale) versus penetration d in mm
(log scale). This will approximate a straight line. From the straight line, determine the
b
L, Liquid Limit Test-Fatt Cone Method 63
L,
rj
50
trj
z
LJ 30
10 15 20 25
LJ Cone penelralion, d (mm)
Figure 7-3. Plot of moisture content vs. cone penetration for tiquid limit test resutts
L: reported in Tabte 7-1.
L:
l: moisture content lr (7r) conesponding to d - 20 mm. This is t]te liquid limit of the soil
tJ:
(see Fig. 7 3 for an example of the test results reported in Table 7-1)

The laboratory repofi should contain the following:
.
t- .
.
Cover page
Equipment used
Descdption of test prccedure
J: . Results -data sheet, sample calculations, graph of moisturp content It ve$us d,
lj .
liquid limit as obtained from the graph
Source of error
l-
L
u
t:
tj
u
l:
F
h
ct:
t:
cl:
t: Plastic Limit Test
t:
t:
t:
t:
t:
ct: 8.1 lntroduction
The fundamental concept of pl{r.tri. linlt was introduced in Section 6 l (see Fig. Gl)
t:
cc
Plastic limit is deflned as the moisture content, in percent, at which a cohesive soil will
change from aplastic state to a semisoLid stale. In the laboEtory the plastic lituit is defrned
as the moistwe content, in percent, at which a thread of soil willjust crumble when rolled to
a diameter of 1/8 in. (3.2 mm). This test might be seen as somewhat arbitrary and, to some
extent, the result may depend on the person performing the test. With practice, howevet
fairly consistent results may be obtained.
l:
u 8.2 Equipment
l. Porcelain evaporating dish
2. Spatula
3. Plastic squeeze bottlewith water
u
): 4. Moisture cans (two)
5. Ground glass plate
t: 6. Balance sensitive to 0.01 g

7. Oven
t: The equipment (except foi the oven) is shown in Fig. 8-1.
L:
t:
65
)
)
66 S0lL MECHANICS LAB0RATORY i!IANUAL )
)
:J
)
)
-l
-l
-l
-t
-t
Figure 8-1, Equipment for ptastic timit test.
8.3 Procedure
L Put approximately 30 g of a representative air-dry soil sample, passed through a U.S. )
No.,10 sieve, into a porcelain evaporating dish.
2. Add water from the plastic squeeze bottle to the soil and mix thoroughly.
3. Detemine the mass Mt of two moisture cans in glams and record it on the data sheet
(see line 1 of Table 8-l).
,1. From the moist soil prepared in Step 2, prepare several ellipsoidally shaped soil masses
by squeezing the soil with fingers. )

5. Take one of the ellipsoidally shaped soil masses (Step 4) and roll ir on a ground glass
plate using the palm of your hand (Fig. 8 2). The rolling should be done at rhe rare )
of about 80 shokes per minute. Note that one complete backward and one complete
forward motion of the palm constitute a stroke. )
6. When the thread being rclled in Step 5 reaches l/8 in. (3.2 mm) in diameter, break it 'i
up into several small pieces and squeeze one piece with your fingers to form again an
ellipsoidal mass.
7. Repeat Steps 5 and 6 until the thread crumbles into several pieces when it reaches a )
diametcr of l/8 in. (3.2 mm). It is possible that a thJead may crumble at a diameter
larger than 1/8 in- (3.2 mm) during a given rolling process, whereas it did not crumble )
at the same diameter during the immediately previous rolling.
)
')
-l
Ptastic Limit Test 6',1
Figure 8-2. Ettipsoidat soit mass being rolted in a thread on a glass plate'
8. Collect the small crumbled pieces in the fl.st moistue can and put the cover on
the can.
9. Take the other ellipsoidal soil masses fomed in Step 4 and repeat Steps 5 through 8'
(see line 2 of
10. Determine the mass of the moisture can plus the wet soil' M2, in grams
Table 8-l). Remove the cap from the top of the can and place the can in the oven
(with
the cap at the bottom of the can).
11. Repeat Steps 4 through 10 by collecting the small crumbled pieces in the
second
moisture can.
12. After about 24 hours, remove the cans frcm the oven and determine the mass of the
cans plus the dry soil, M3, in g.ams (see line 3 of Table 8-l).
8.4 Catcutations
a Calculate the plastic limit Pl,
a pt _ mass o[ moislure M, _!, (8.1)

= rcl)
mass of dry soil Mt - Mt ^
a moistnre
Calculate the average value of Pa based on the results obtained from the two
shown in
a cans (line 4 of Table 8-1). The results may be prcsented in tabular form, as
Table 8-1. If the liquid limit of the soil is known, calculate the 2la sticir! index Pl
PI:IL_PL (8.2)
Tabte 8-1, Plastic Limit Test

Description ol soil Gngt c14/4t tilt Sampte no. ?
Tested by Date
l. Mass of can, Mt (g)

2. Mass of can.t moist soil, M2 @)
3. Mass of can + dry soil, M3 G)

Mc-Mt
4 Pl.: ---:---------1 x 1OO
Mt-Mr
PLasticiiy index Pl = LL - Pl: 2a? 179? = 17.27 Av:77 78* 78 08
- t7.g3

l. Table 8-2 lists the approrimate ranges for the plastic fmits of some clay minerals.
The liquid limit and the plasticity index of cohesive soils are important parameters
for classifiction purposes. The engineering soil classification systems are described in
Chapter 9. The plasticity index is also used to determine the activity A of a clayey soil,
Tabte 8-2. Range of Ptastic Limits

l-
):
tV
):
Tabte 8-3. Range ofI VaLues
Plastic Limit Test 69
;
t Kaolinire
Illite
Ctay Mineral
Montmo.illonite
0.3 {).5
0.5-1.2
l5 7.0
s
; Hydrated halloysite 0.1-0.2
which is defined as
;
V o/o
clay-size liaction (by weight)
(8.3)
The range of activity A of some clay minerals is given in Table 8-3. The cla)-sl:e
;
fraction is the ftacion in a soil mass with grain sizes equal to or smaller than 0.002 mm.
2. Liquidity index L1 is a term that defines the relative consistency ot' a clayey soil in its
;
V natwal state. It can be expressed as
LI:,_PL
LL-PL
(8.4)
;
where }ll is the natural moistue confent.
; For sensitive clays L/ may be greater than 1. Heavily overconsolidated clays may
have L1 < 0.
; 3. Liquid limit and plasticity index have been used extensively by engineeN for corre
lation of several physical soil parameters as well as for soil identification. Casagrande
; (1932) studied the relationship of the plasticity index to the liqujd limit of a wide virriety
V of natural soils. On the basis ofthe test resulis, he proposed a plasticity chart as shown
in Figure 8-3 (also see Fig. 9 2). The important feature of this chan is the empirical
V A-line that is given by the equation Pl -

O.'73(LL -
20). The A-line separates the
inorganic clays ftom the inorganic silts. Plots of plasticity indexes against liquid lim-
L its for inorganic clays lie above the A-line, and those of inorganic silts lie below the
Aline. Organic silts plot in the same region (below the A-line and with ll
ranging
L from 30 to 50) as the inorganic silts ol mediun compressibility. Organic clays plot in
the same region as inorganic silts of high compressibility (below the Aline and with
at greater than 50). The information prcvided in the plasticity chafi is of g.eat value
LJ and is the basis for classiiication of fine grain soils in the Uoified Soil Classilication
L System (Chapter 9).

Note that there is a line called the U-lire above the Aline. The U-line is approxi
v mately the upper limit ofthe relationships ofthe plasticity index to the liquid limit. The
L
70
60
o.g6'"
50 <a\'
-,r",f'
t/.,'
40
.s
"r/;pv
:9 ",'9ieq
o
30
-E lnorganic silts of high
20 and oqanic clays
4
3
lnorganic sihs ot medium
10
7
7J
Figure 8-3, Ptasticity chart.
60
7
3ao
).9
l; "%s
c
9.' i.
..20 40 60 80 100 120
Liquid limil
.:'.. '';'
,it""':'lt:"":""
"-ui, =-o.,
Pl=-46.5
Figure 8-4. Estimation of shrinkage from plasticity chart.
equation for the U-line can be given as
PI:O.g(LL-8) (8.5)
4. There is another use for the,Aline and the Uline. Casagrande suggested that the
shrinkage limit (defined in Chapter 6) of a soil can be approximately determined if
b
u Ptastic Limit Test 71
L: its pla$ticity index and liquid limit are known (see Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). This can
J: be done in the following manner with rcference to Figure 8-4.

a. Plot the plasticity index against the liquid limit ot' a given soil such as point A in
L
l-
b.
c.
Figure 8-4.
Prcject the Aline and the U line downward to meet at poilt B. Point B will have
the coordinates ofLL: -43.5 and P1 : -46.5.
Join points B and A with a straight line. This will intersect the liquid limir a,tis cs
tr point C. The abscissa ofpoint C is the estimated shrinkage limit.
c
:
.
V .
Cover page
Equipment used
tr .
.
.
Descdption of test procedu.e
Results-data sheet and sample calculations
Discussion If the hydrometer test (Chapter 5) was conducted on the same soil and
L: percent passing 0.002 mm in size is available, calculate and repoft the activity (A)
tr of the soil lsee Eq. (8.3)].
L:
L
LJ
J:
t:
t:
L-
u
u
l:
ct:
t:
l: Eng rneenng
t:
ct: Ctassification of Soi[s
ct:
t: 9.1 lntroduction
Soils vary widely in their grain-size distributions (Chapters 4 and 5). Also, depending on
tI
the tlpe and quantity of clay rninerals present, the plastic propefiies of soils (Chapters 6,
): 7, and 8) may be very different. Vadous tlpes of engineering work require the identifica-
tion and classilication of soil in the lield. In the design of foundations and earth-retaining
structures, consaucdon of highways, and so on, it is necessary for soils to be arranged in
specilic groups and/or subgroups based on thei grain-size disffibution and plasticity. The
t: process ofplacing soils into various groups and/or subgroups is called soil classirtcdtion.
For engineering purposes there are two major systems presendy used in the United
t: States. They are (1) the American Associdtion of State Highv,ay and Transportation OJrt-
crals (AASHTO) ClassiJication SFI€m and (2) the Unifed soil ClassiJiccttion System
t: (USCS). These two systems will be discussed h this chapter.
t: 9.2 American Association of State Highway and

L: Transportation OfficiaLs IAASHTOI System of
t: Ctassif icatio n
The AASHTO classification system was originally initiated by the Highway Research
t: Board (now called Transpoftation Research Board) in 1943. This classification system,
t: 73
V
)
)
which has undergone several changes since then, is presently used by iederal, state, and
county highway departments in the United States. In this soil classification system, soils are
generally placed in seven major grcups: A-1, A-2, A-3, A 4, A-5, A 6, and A 7. Group A I )
is divjded into two subgroups (A-1 a and A 1-b). Group A-2 is divided into four subgroups
(A 2 4, A 2 5. A-2 6. and A-2-1). Soils in group A-7 are also divided into two subgroups
(A-7-5 and A-7-6). This system is also included in ASTM test designation D 3282.
Along with these soil groups and subgroups, another factor called the group index (GI)
is also included in this system. The impoitance of the group index can be explained as
ibllows. Let us assume that two soils fall under the same group; however, they may have )
different values of Gt The soil that has a lower value of group index is likely to perform
better as a highway subgrade matedal. )
The prccedure for classifying soil under the AASHTO system is outlined in the
lbllowing section. )
)
9.3 Step-by-Step Procedure for
)
AASHT0 Ctassification ')
1. Determine the percentage of soil passing through a No. 200 U.S. sieve (0.075-nrm
opening).
a. If 35% or less passes the No. 200 sieve, it is a coarse-grained material. Proceed to )
Steps 2 and 4.
b. If more than 35% passes the No. 200 sieve, it is a fine-grained material (i.e., silty )
or clayey). For this, go to Steps 3 and 5.
)
9.3.1 Determination of Groups or Subgroups
2. For coarse grained soils, detemine the percent passing U.S. sieve Nos. 10, 40, and 200
)
and,inaddition,theliquidlimitandplasticityindex.ThenproceedtoTable9l.Stafi
from the top line and compare the known soil properties with those given in the table )
(columns 2 through 6). Go down one line at atime until a line is found for which all the
prcperties of the desired soil match. The soil grcup (or subgroup) is determined from
)
column 1.
3. For fine-grained soils, determine the liquid limit and the plasticity index. Then go to
)
Table 9 2. Starl ftom the top line. By matching the soil propeties from colunns 2, 3,
and,1, determine the proper soil group (or subgroup).
)
)
9.3.2 Determination of Group lndex
4. To detemine the group index Gl of coarse-grained soils, the following mles need to be )
observed.
a. G1 lbr soils in groups (or subgroups) A-l-a, A-l-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A 3 is )
zeto,
)
)
inr::i:4]]:::;i:.:r::ia::uri:
g!
E]
vbo
6
E foB
aEd 9bc
- 50 .-a '6 eb
E E
e
o z
g
o
E E E
c
.9
-l
'6
-; l
a
o
F
l-.$!$=,
....-..:J.::r:::::i::::t
E E E E E E E
E E E
o
d
F
z
4
E
D
4 r--
o
J
1
J
E9
Pf; : I I -J
=e gr
)
lr. l! tri
)
)
)
O O O
..J
'6
(t
J
c 1 Er
-J
iI E g 3l
o
E E ES ci *l
:^ J
:{
J
)
o
o
F o
E E E
J
-
J
t
J
F
E E E
d
z. J
q
D
J
J
J
d
J
J
J
cq
z
v.
-a:
L,
t:
Engineering Ctassification of Soits 77
t: b. For Gl in soils in grcups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use the following equation:
tt where F29g
p1
:
:
G1:0.01 (F:oo
percent passing No. 200 sieve
plasticity index
15) (P1 l0) (9.1)
tt IfG1 comes out negaaive, round

nearest whole number.
GI (Fzao 35) [0.2 + 0.005

it off to zero. If G/ is positive, round it off to the
5. To obtain Gl for fine-grained soils, use the lollowing equation:
: (tl, 40)] + 0.01 (1200 15) (P1 - l0) (9.2)
tt
It' 6l
comes out negative, rcund it off to zeroi if it is positive. round it off to the nearest
; whole number.
9.3.3 SoitCtassification
tt
6. The llnal classificatioo of a soil is given by first writing down the group or subgroup,
followed by the group index in parentheses.
Figure 9 I shows the range of PI and lL lbr soil groups A-2-4, A-2-5, A-2-6, A-2-7,
A-4, A-5, A-6, A-7-5, and .4-7-6.
t 9.4 Examples
Exampte 9.1
;
tV The following are the characteristics ot' two soils. Classify the soils according to the
AASHTO system.
Soil A: Perceni
Percent
Percent
passing
passing
passing
No. 4 sieve 98:
No. l0 sieve 90
No. 40 sieve 76
:
:
Percent passing No. 200 sieve 34 :
): Liquid limit : 38
Plastic limit : 26
):
Soil B: Percent passing No. 4 sieve :
100
): Percent passing No. 10 sieve = 98

Percent passing No. 40 sieve 86 :
): Percent passing No. 200 sieve 58 :
Liquid limit : 49
]j Plastic limit : 28
V Solution
Refer to Section 9.3.
t!
)
!!
7A SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL
80
70 rl
60 rl
A-7-6
"50
_g
A-6
4,24
I
'lrl
Boo A-7-5
-q N-2-7
30
20 'l
10
0
A-24
A5
a-2-5 -i
)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limii
Figure 9-1, Liquid timit and ptasticity index for nine MSHTo soit groups'
Soil A:
l. The soil has 347o (which is less than 357o) passing thiough the No. 200 sieve So this
is a coarse-grained soil.
2. For this soil the liquid limit is 38. From Eq. (8.2),
PI: LL- PL-38-26:12
Frcm Table 9 I , by matching, the soil is found to belong to subgroup A-2 6.

3. From Eq. (9.1),
:J
G1 :0.01 (Fzoo
- 15) (P1 l0)
-J
-001 (34 15)(12- l0):0.01 x19x2
:0.38 * 0
)
So the soil can be classified as A-2-6(0).
)
\-/
)
Ll
tL
u
L
L
t: Engineering CLassification of Soits
L Soil B:
Iv
l. The soil has 587. (which is more than 357.) passing through rhe No. 200 sieve. So this
is a fine-grailled soil.
2. The liquid limit ofthe soil is 49. From Eq. (8.2),
PI = LL - PL: 19 28 :21
t: 3. From Table 9-2, the soil is either A-7-5 or A 7 6. However, for this soil.
t: PI:21 > LL,30:49_30:19
e zt.
So this soil is
From Eq. (9.2),
A-7 6
v GI: (F2se 35) [0.2 + 0.005 (ra 40)]+0.01 (Fr00 t5)(p1-i0)

: (58 - 35) 10.2 + 0.005 (49 - ,10)l + 0.01 (58 - 15) (21 10)
l: :5.64+4.73=10.37!10
So the soil can be classified as A 7 6(10).
v
):
9.5 Unified SoiL Ctassification System IUSCSI
This classification system was originally developed in 1942 by Arthur Casagrande for air-
): field construction dudng World War IL The work was conducted on behalf of the U.S.
Army Corps ofEngineers. At a later date, with the cooperation ofthe U.S. Bureau of Recla-
; mation, the classification was modified. More recently, the American Society lbr Testing
L and Materials (ASTM) introduced a more definite system for the group names of soils. ln
the present fonn it is widely used by foundation engineers all over thc world. Unlike the
u AASHTO system, the unified system uses symbols to represent the soil types and the index
t:
properties of a soil. They are given in Table 9-3.
Soil groups are developed by combining the symbols for the two categories listed in
v Table 9 3, such as GW SM, and so foth.
t: 9.6 Step-by-Step Procedure for Unified SoiL

Ctassification System
l: 1. Ifit is peat (i.e., primarily organic mattet, dark in color, having organic odor), classify
t:
it as Pt by visual observation. For all other soils, detemine the percent of soil passing
through a No. 200 U.S. sieve (F26n).
2. Detemine the percent retailed on the No. 200 U.S. sieve (l?269) as
): Rzoo:100 F:oo
t. I
(nd:nnqhor.nuflb )
t:
)
)
80 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL )
Tabte 9-3. Unitied Soil Ctassification System Symbols )

-t
G Gravel w Well graded (for $ain-size )

di stribution)
S Sand P Poorly graded (for grain-size

distribution) =J
M Sill L Low to medium plasticity -
c Clay H High plasticity
o
Pt
Organic silts and clays
Highly organic soil

J
and peat
-
)
3. If is greater than 50%, it is a coarse-grained soil. However, if Rlo is less than
Rzoo
-l
or equal to 507r, it is a fine-grained soil. For the case where -R200 :: 50Eo (fine-grained
soil), go to Step 4. IfR2eq > 507r, go to Step 5.
4. For fine-grained soils (R2s9 1507o), determine whethe. the soil is organic or inorganic
in natule. If the soil is organic, the group symbol can be OH or OL. If the soil is
inorganic, the group symbol can be CL, ML, CH, MH, or CL ML. To determine the )
group symbols, go to Table 9 4 and Fig. 9-2. Table 9-5 gives a general description of
the type of soil within each group. )
5. For coarse-grained soils, detennine the percent retained on the No. 4 U.S. sieve (R+),
R+: 100 F+
-..r
,"",-., *,1,"
)
""."..,
where F4 is percent finerthan the No.4 sieve. Note that R4 is the percent gravel fiaction )
GF in the soil.
GF=R+ (9.3) )
- l
a. If Ra > 0.5R2s9 it is a gravelly soil. These soils may have the following group )
symbols:
)
GW GW
GP GW GC
CM
J
GM GP_GM
GC GP--GC
J
GC--GM
J
)
tl
):
e Engineering Ctassification of Soits
e
81
Tabte 9-4. Unified Soit Ctassification System-Group

Symbots for Sitty and Ctayey Fine-Grained Soits lRzoo 501 I
;
Group SymboI Critori:
;
I CL Inorganic; LL < 50; P1> 7; Atterberg lim-
rts plol on or rbore A-lrne r.cc Cl zonein
Fig. 9-2)
j
; ML Inorganic; LL < 50, PI < 4: Atterberg
lrmit. plot belou A line t.ee \4L /one in
Fig. 9 2)
; OL Organic; l.u*" 66/Ll..t a.i.a < 0.75;

ll < 50 (see OL zone in Fig. 9-2)
; CH Inorganic; Ll - 50; Atterberg limits plot
on or above Aline fsee CH zone in
;
F1e.9-2)
; MH Inorganic; LL > 50; Atterberg limits plot
below AJine (see MH zone in Fig. 9 2)
;
OH Organic: llo,.. ane,r/ll.ur,r.eo < 0.75;
; lZ > 50 (see OH zone in Fig. 9-2)
CL-ML Inorganic; Atterberg limits plot in hatched
; zone in Fig.9 2
Pt Peat, muck, and other highly organic soils

;
; Determine the following:
(1) Fzoo
(2) Unifomity coeflicient, C& : D60lrr0 (see Chapter 4)
IV
;
(3) Coellicient of gradation, C. : (&0)2 / (Dr0 x D60)
(4) L (ot' minus No. 40 sieve)
(5) P,I (of minus No.40 sieve)
Go to Table 9-6 to find the group symbols. Table 9-7 gives a general description
L b.
ollh( rlpe olsoil wilhin each group.
I
If Ra 0.5 R299, it is a sandy soil. These soils may have the following group
t: symbols:
v SW
SP
SM
SW'SM
SW_SC
v
SP_SM
SC SP-SC
SM SC
)
)
A2 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL )
70
)
60
)
CH or OH
50
E40 LorO
'o
"r:y
3.0
20
(
ff. MH or OH
10 / [,,tL or oL
lzCL-
0
Y7 I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-l
Llquld llmil
Figure 9-2. Ptasticity chart for group symboLs of fine-grained soils.
)
Tabl.e 9-5. GeneraL Description of Soit Types lor GrouP -l
Symbots in Tabte 9-4
l
-
CL Inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity,

gravelly clays, sandy clays, silty clays, Iean _-.i
clays
)
ML Inorganic silts, very fine sands, rock flour,
silty or clayey fine sands )
OL Organic silts and organic silty clays of low
plasticity . t
CH Inorganic clays of high plasticity, iat clays
MH Inorganic silts, micaceous or diatomaceous

llne sands or silts. elastic silts
OH Organic clays of medium to high plasticity

L
u
tu Tabte 9-6.
Enqineering Ctassif ication of Soits
Unified Soit Ctassification System-Group Symbots for

Gravelty Soits lR2oo > 50% and R/Rzoo > 0.51
83
u Gmup Symbol Crite.ia
u GW Less than 5% passing No- 200 sieve;

4t Ct : ( 1,O2/@xt x D6o) between
C,:
I
D6s/Dx1-_
and 3
v GP Less than 57o passing No. 200 sieve; not meeting both
sv GM
criteria for GW
More than l27o passing No. 200 sieve: Atterberg limits

plot belowAline (Fig.91) ot PI < 4
e GC More than l2% passing No. 200 sieve; Atterberg limits

plot aboveAline (Fig.9 2) ot PI > 7
rt;
GC GM Morc than 127o passing No. 200 sieve; Atterberg limits
; fall in hatched area marked CL ML in Fig. 9 2
GW GM 5 127, passing No. 200 sievel meets criteria for GW
and GM
v
GW_GC 5-12% passing No. 200 sieve; meets cdteria for GW
and GC
e GP_GM 5-124lo passing No. 200 sieve; meets cdteria for GP and
tv
GM
GP_GC 5-12% passing No. 200 sieve; meets criteria for GW

and GC
l: Tabte 9-7. Generat Description of Soit Types for Group
t: Symbots in Tabte 9-6
E cw Well graded gravels and gravel-sand
L mixtures- little or no fines
t: GP
GM
Poorly gnded gravels and gravel sand
mixturcs. little or no fines
Silty gravels, gravel sand silt mixtures
v
): GC Clayey gravels, gravel sand-clay mixtures
L
l,
t,
)
J
8I+ SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL II
Determine the following:
(1) Fzoo
(2) Uniformity coemclent, Cu : D6olDrc (see Chapter 4)
(3) Coefficient of gradation, C. : (D30)2/(Dr 0 x D60)
!
:J
(4) aL (of minus No.40 sieve)
(5) P1(of minus No.40 sieve) -l
co to Table 9 8 to find the group symbols. Table 9-9 gives a geneml descdption of the -t
soil tlpe within each group.
TabLe 9-8. Unified SoiL CLassification System-Group Symbots

for Sandy 5oil.s lRzoo > 50% and RrlRzoo s 0.51
-l
sw Less than 57o passing No. 200 sieve;
C, : D60/Drc>6; Cc: (D3o)2(Dro x D6o)
)
between I and 3 -1
SP Less than 57" passing No. 200 sieve; not meet-
SM
ing both cdteria for SW
i|{orc thal. 12Eo passing No. 200 sieve; Atter-

berg limits plot below Aline (Fig. 9 2) or
-i
PI <4 '..1
SC Morc than 12Ea passing No. 200 sieve: Atter- )
berg limits plot above A-line (Fig. 9 2) or
PI >'7 _J
SCJM More than 12% passing No. 200 sieve; Atter- )
berg limits fall in hatched area marked CL ML
in Fig. 9-2
sw-sM 5 l2Eo passing No. 200 sieve; meets criteria for

)
SW and SM
SW-SC 5 127a passing No. 200 sieve; meets criteria

SW and SC
for
-J
SP_SM 5-1270 passing No.200 sieve; meets criteria for
SP and SM
SP_SC 5-127o passing No.200 sieve;meets criteria for

SP and SC
!
L
LJ
s
,rt Enqineering Ctassification of Soits 85
L- Tabte 9-9. Generat Description of Soit Types for Group

I
Symbots in Tabte 9-8
t- sw Well-graded sands and gravelly sands, lit-

L. tle or no fines
SP Poorly graded sands and gravelly sands,

Iittle or no fines
SM Silty sands, sand-silt mixtures
SC Clayey sands, sand clay mixtures
ts,'
9.7 Group Names for Soits According to the Unified
Cl.assification System
The procedure for determination of group symbols based on the Unified Classification
L-
lines to detemine group names. The guidelines to determine group names for granular
,e
' ! soils (gravelly and sandy) are given in Fig. 9 3, for inorganic fine-grained soils (silty and
|a- _ clayey) in Fig. 9 4, and for organic fine-grained soils in Fig. 9 5. In Figs. 9 4 and 9-5,
! nole thai
. 7o gravel is R+
o 7o sand is Rzoo - R+
tj
t- 9.8 ExampLes
Example 9.2
Classify Soils A and B as given in Example 9.1 and obtain the group symbols and group
t: names. Assume Soil B to be inorganic.
Soil A: Percent passing :

No. 4 sieve 98
t- Percent
Percent
passing
passing No. 40 sieve
:
No. l0 sieve 90
:
76
L Percent
Liquid
Plastic limit
passing
limit:
-
No. 200 sieve 34
38
26
-
LJ
t-
L.
t,
)
J
I
-.
z ' ! =!iii
t a
.=nn:
t-i
li!!
r=:r
:iiii
r!I;
rtli
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r!!i
?! !i
=:-al
atEE;.
E'EE=
irir.9
3!
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;:
:
=-5 €::
! iE
a
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.9
EP,
L=
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)
)
i:. ,
a t4E5:
Iti;9 rr!ls
r-tr ! I - i-, ettaa
.?I iili::;
ia t i9 ::-
o rr:l
t!::
arlt
r:rr
::!:
-Dlrt
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tltl
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5
Ir
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t !tl rrtt !?: 1?
I rr,}Ir It
tt: ll
l: ; 5:t
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irBt
iiBr i-: aa III.T :t:r
:
I
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tir: l:II !aE i
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iitt ;iii !ii!t
::::
888
a
.oa
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tt lt
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1r1111
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1 111 11
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a
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b
E Engineering Ctassification of Soils 89
E
rj Soil B: Percent passing No. 4 sieve 100
Percent passing No. 10 sieve:98
:
t: Percent passing No. 40 sieve 86

Percelt passing No. 200 sieve 58
:
:
rj Liquid limit :
Plastic limit :
49
28
rj Sotution
LJ Refer to Section 9.6-
Soil A:
LJ l. F2oo : 34Ea
LJ 2. R2n6 =
Q[ I - Proo : 1O0 -
34 667o :
3. Ryp $$/6 : > 507o. So it is a coarse-$ained soil.
LJ 4. Skip Step 4.
t: 5.R4:100-F4:2qo
Rz, < O.5Rzw - 33Va. So it is a saody soil. -F21p > 127o. Thus C, and Cc values are not
ri needed
PI: lL PL:38 - 26: 12
rj Note that the actual P1 is less than 0.73(lL 20) : 0.73(38 - 20) : 13-14.
t: From Table 9 8 and Fig. 9-2, the $oup symbol is SM.

In order to determine group name, refer to Fig. 9-3.
L: o gravel: Rt:2Vo
t:
7o
. So 7o gravel is less than l57o
tj Hence, the grcup name is silty sand.
Soil B;
L: 1. F2oo : 584/a
t: 2. R2oo :
3. R2oo :
100 F2oo
42Eo <
IOO 58:42qo
- :
50%. So it is a fine-grained soil.
t: 4. From Table 9-4 (andFig.9-2), LL
PI
49 < 50
: 49 28 :21
:
l-, PI :27 < O;73(LL - 20) :0.73(49 - 20) :21.1',1
So the group symbol is ML.

In order to determine grcup name, refer to Fig. 9 4.
)
:J
90 50lL t4ECHANICS LAB0RAToRY MANUAL :J
. Plus 200: that is, R296 : zt2%, which is greater than 307,
. %gravel:R4=0%
:J
-i
. 7. sand : R200 fu : 42 O :424/a
. So 7o sand > 7r gravel -l
Hence, the group namers sand!- sih. -t
-i
-.l
=i
)
-
-
-
-
-
)
)
)
_.r
:l
t-
rj
LJ
V
LJ
:
;
Standard Proctor
s
:
Compaction Test
L
:
L
;
10.1 lntroduction
L: ASTM Standard: D 698
t.. For the construction of highways, airyorts, and other structures, it is often necessary to
compact soil to improve its strength. The degree of compaction of a soil is measurcd by
its dry unit weight ),,r. Wlen water is added to the soil during compactioq it acts as a
;
softening agent on the soil particles. The soil particles slip on each other and move into
LJ a densely packed position. For similar compacting effo s, the dry uait weight of com-
paction incrcases as the moisturc content incrcases (see Fig. 10-l). Howevet beyond a
certain moisfure content w : wopr (Fig. 10-l), any increase in moisture content tends to
LJ reduce the dry unit weight. This is because the water takes up the spaces that would have
been occupied by the solid particles. The moisturc content at which the maximum dry unit
;
e weight ld(,,*) is attaired is generally refere d to as the optimutu tuoisture content (i.e.,w opt) .
Proctor (1933) developed a laboratory compaction test procedure to determine the maxi-
mum dry unit weight of compaction of soils that can be used for the specification of neld
LJ compaction. This test is refened to as the stawlarl Ptoctor compactiorz t€.tl and is based
on the compaction of the soil fraction passing a U.S. No- 4 sieve.
LJ
LJ 10.2 Equipment
tr 1. Compaction
2-
mold
II.S. No. 4 sieve
): 91
l-
)
92 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL I

)
-t
3 -t
-l
-t
-t
-t
Moistue contenr, r(%) !l
Figure 10-1. Nature of variation of dry unit weight ),,1with moisture content n under
similar compactive eff ort.
'l
Figure 10-2. Equipment for Proctor compaction test.
3. Standard Proctor hanmer ofweight 5.5 lb (24.4 N)

4. Balance sensitive to 0.01 lb
5. Balance sensitive to 0.1 g
6. Large flat par
7. Jack -.]
8. Steel staightedge
_..1
b
r
]':
9. Moisture cans
Standard Proctor Compaction Test 93
l-. 10-
1
Drying oven
L Plastic squeeze bottle with water
LJ
tr Figure l0-2 shows the equipment rcquired lbr the compaction test with the exception of
t
thejack, the balances, and the oven.
10.3 Proctor Compaction Mol.d and Hammer

LJ A schematic diagram of the Proctor compaction mold, which is 4 in. (l01.6 mm) in diam-
tr
tc
eter and 4.584 in. (1 16.43 mm) in height, is shown in Fig. 10 3 (left). There is a base plate
and an extension that can be attached to the top and bottom of the mold, respectively. The
inside of rhe mold is 1/30 ftr (943 cm3).
Figure l0-3 (dght) shows the schematic diagram of a standard Proctor hammer. The
hanrmer can be lifted and dropped through a vertical distance of 12 in. (304.8 mm).
ru
LJ
tr
LJ Drop =
tr l2 in.
(304.8
tr
mm)
LJ (101 6 mrn)
LJ 4.584 in.
(116.43 mnr)
LJ
tr k 2in+l
(50.8 mm)
LJ tvtoLd Hammer
tr Figure 10-3. Standard Proctor mold and hammer.
tr
j
91 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL :)
)
!
)
:J
)
)
)
)
)
)
Figure 10-4. Compaction of soit in Proctor motd.

-t
)
10.4 Procedure
1. Obtain about 10 lb (4.5 kg mass) of air-dry soil on which the compaction test is to be )
conducted. Break all the soil lumps.
-t
2. Sieve the soil on a U.S. No. 4 sieve. Collect all of the minus 4 material itl a large pan. )
This should be about 6 lb (2.7 kg mass) or more.
3. Add enough water to the minus U.S. No. 4 material and mix it in tholoughly to bring )
the moistue content up to about 47, to 5olo below the estimdted optimum moistue
content. The author suggests that one of the simple ways to estimate the optimum
)
-l
moisture content would be to use the following relationship,
)
w,,rr(9ol ;: 0.894 PL (10.1)
)
wherePl :plastic limit.
Fudher explaration related to Eq. (10.1) is given in Section 10-7. )
4. Determine the weight of the Proctor mold + base plate (not the extensior), Wr Gb) (see
line 1 of Table l0-l). :)
5. Now attach the exteNion to the top of the mold and place it on solid ground.
:l
.-l
E Standard Proctor Compaction Test
rj
95
LJ
l:
LJ
E
E
LJ
LJ
L:
l: Figure 10-5. Excess soit being trimmed lstep 81.
ri 6. Pour the moist soil into the mold in /rree equal layers Each layer should be compacted
uniforn y by the standard Proctor hammer 25 times before the next layer of loose soil
LJ is poured into the mold (see Fig. 1{H). (Nole. The layers of loose soil that are being
poured into the mold should be such that, (a) each layer after compaction should have
E compaction, the soil should extend slishtly abow lhe top of the rim of the compaction
ri mold.)
7. Remove the top attachment trom the mold. Be careful not to breal off any of the
compacted soil inside the mold while removing the top attachmelt.
8. Using a straightedge, trim the excess soil above the mold (Fig. l0-5) Now the top of
the compacted soil will be even with the top of the mold
E 9. Determine the weight of mold + base plate + compacted moist soil in mold, W2 (lb)
rj
(see line 2 of Table l0-1).
10. Remove the base plate from the mold. Using ajack, extrude the compacted soil cylinder
from the mold.
11. Take a moisture can and determine its mass, M3 (g) (see line 6 of Table 10 1).
E
\
12. From the moist soil exhxded in Step 10, collect a moisture sample in the moisture can
(Step 11) and determine the mass of the can + moist soil, Ma (g) (see line 7 of Table
10,1).
13. Place the moistue can with the noist soil in the oven to dry to a constant weight.
14. Break the rest of the compacted soil (to U.S. No. 4 sieve size) by hand and mix it with
the leltover moist soil in the pan. Add more water and mjx it to aaise the moisture
content by about 27o.
15. Repeat Steps 6 through 12. In this process, the weight of the mold + basc plate + moisr
soil (lyr) will first increase with the increase in moisture content and then decrease.
Continue the test until at least two successive down readings are obtained.
16. The next day, determine the mass of the moisture cans + soil samples, Ms (g) (from
Step 13) (see line 8 of Table 10-l).
10.5 Catculations
Dry Unit Weight and Moisture Content at Compaction
A complete samplc calculation fbr a standard Proctor compaction test is given in Table
10-1. Refening ro Table 10-1,
Line 1. Weight of mold and base plate ll/1, to be detemined tiom resr (Srep 4).
Lin(] 2. Weight of mold and base platc + moist compacted soil W2, to be determined from
test (Step 9).
Line 3. Weight of moist compacted soil, !f: - Wr (line 2 line 1).
Line 4. Moist unit weight,
weight of compacted moist soil W2 - t4/l (lb)
volune ofmold r/30(fc)
: 30 (lb/frr) x line 3
Line 6. Mass of moisture can M3, to be determihed ftom test (Step I 1).
Line 7. Mass ofmoisture can + moist soil M4, to be determined Ilom test (Step I2).
Linc 8. Mass ofmoisture can + dry soil Mi, to be determined ftom test (Step 16).
Line 9. Compaction moisture conteni.
_..1
M,-M. \l
w(a/o\:
Ms tult ^100
Line 10. Dry unit weight,
:.i
1+ (w(%)/ 100) l+
line 4
(line9/100) :l
Zero-Air-Void Unit Weight
The maximum theoretical dry unit weight ot' a compacted soil at a given moisture content :l
will occu rvhen there is no air lelt in the void spaces of the compacted soil. This can be
:l
!
t-
L.
rj Standard Proctor Compaction Test 91
u Tabte 10-1. Determination of Dry Unit Weight-Standard Proctor Compaction Test
u Descripti on af sail I ightl,r. ,n'dna/E/ t Sampteno. 2
u Location
Liquid timit
/10 ft3
Ptasticity index
Weight of hammer tb
; 1
Number of btows/tayer
;
u Tesied by Date
t- 1 2 6
L- 10.35 70.3 5 70.35 10.35 70.3 5
u
I. Weight of mold and 70.3 5
base plate, Wr (lb)
u 2. Weight of mold ard

base plate + moist soil,
I{/r (b)
74.79 74.47 74.53 74.63 74.57 14.47
L. 1.84 4.06 4.78 4.28 4.76 4.72
L
3. Weight of moist soil,
W2 W1 Qb)
4. Moist unit weight,

L. v:
'
w1
' -w.' flb/ft') 77 5.2 727.8 725.4 128.4 724.8
L. 5-
1/10
Moisture can number 202 222 242 206 504
s
; 6- Mass ofmoisture can.
Mz (s)
7. Mass of can + moist

soil, Mq (g)
25
5+.O
3.0
5
35+.O
3.3 5
439.O
3.3 54.O
490.O
s4.8
422.8
40.8
2+3.O
;
t- 8. Mass of
Ms G)
can+dry soil, 237.0 326.O 407.O +47.5 374.7 277.7
t-
l-
9- Moisture content.
tr (:Ea) : 8.7 70.3 70.9 72.5 7 5.0 78.8
M" M\-
x l{X}
Ms-Mz
10. Dry unit weight of
compaction,
yd0b/fd): 706.0 770.4 77 3.O 774.7 108.5 704.2
v
t+(w (Ea) I 1O0)
s-l

-l
)
-t
Tabte
Desc.ipllon oI
10-2.
soil
zero-Air-Void Unit Weight-Standard Proctor Compaction Test
I igwlrr. !A'da)P)t nlt Sample no.
-i
-L
Tested by Date
Speciti( Grevity of Soit

Sotids G5
2.68 10 62.4 737.9
2.68 72 62.4 726.5
2.68 74 62.4 -
2.68 62.4 177.0
-
2.68 18 62.4 772.8
-
2.68 20 62.4 708.7
-See Eq. 110.2). -
-
given bY :-
tw
Yr(theory M) :Y^': (102)
\* \%i6. \UGr) \
where y"u, : zero-air-void unit weight
Y,,, : unit weight of water -
r0 : moisture content
G: specific gravity of soil solids \
Since the values of y. and G" will be known, several values of u (%) can be assumed and
yza, can be calculated. Table l0-2 shows the calculations for yzav for the soil tested and
reported in Table 10-1 .
I
10.6 Graphs
-l
Plot a graph showing ya (line 10, Table 10-1) versus w (7o) (line 9, Table l0 l) and deter-
.rrine the md:ximum dry unit n)ei?ht of compaction ydlJu). Also detemine the optirlrtn
noisture content )'ropt, which is the moisture content coresponding to y.l(md). On the same
graph, plot y'au versus w (Ea).lNote: Fot a given soil, no portion of the experiment curve
f
\l
)
of yzl versus n (%) should plot to the rigftt of the zero-air-void cun'e.l
Figure 10 6 shows the results of the calculatioN made in Tables l0-1 and l0-2.
:l
\
:l
\
Standard Proctor Compaction Test
120
116 .Yzav (Gs= 2.68)

"Yd(max) = 114 2 |b/fp
€
-! 112
.9'
B
E 108
104
content = 12%
100
1o 12 14 16 18
It4oislure content u/ (%)
Figure l0-5.
Ptots of yd vs. w [%l and ],r, vs. w [%l for test results reported in
Tables 10-l and 10-2.
10.7 Generat Comments

10.7.1 Units
1. The test presented in this chapter uses English units to express y or y7. If there is a
need for conversion to SI units,
y ory, (rNl.') 0. t570b y or yd{tb/d)
2.In several instances, refelring to Steps 4 and 9 (Section 10.4, Procedure), the mass is
detemined in kg. In that case,
r Mass of Proctor mold + base plate, Ml (kg) (compare with Procedure, Step 4)
. Mass of mold + base plate + compacted moist soil in mold, M2 (kg)
(compare with Proce.dure, Step 9)
. Moist density,
M2 - Mt (ks)
P(kg/m) - 941 . 10-6 (mr)
(compare with line 4 in Table l0 1)
r Dry density,
p(ks/m3)
paGe/n3) : 1+te(Eo)/M
(compare with line l0 in Table 10-l)
I!
II
100 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY 14ANUAL
. Zero-air-voiddensity,
Pr(heory max) : Pa!Gg/m3) :

(w (Eo) /too) + (1 /
where pu is the density of water, 1000 kg/m3 lcompare with Eq. (10.2)l
G")
!
-t
10.7.2 RelativeCompaction
In most specifications for earth work, it is required to achieve a compacted field dry unit
-l
weight of 90 9570 of rhe maximum dry unir weight obrained in the laboratory This is - t
sometimes referred to as rclative compaction R, or
R (7o) : -l4gggl x loo (r0.3)

-l
- t
For granulor soils it can be shown that
Rx
-t
R(Ea): x I00 (10.4)
Lr(l-Ro) --t
where D, is the relative density ofcompaction and
- i
(10.5)
. t
Compaction of cohesive soils will influence their structure, coefficient of permeability,

one-dimensional compressibility, and strength. For fufiher discussion on fhis topic, refer to
- t
Das (2010).
- t
10.7.3 Summary of ASTM Proctor Test Specifications -l

In this chapter the laboratory test ouflines given for compaction tests use the followingl
- l
Volume of mold -
l/30 fr3 (943 cm3)
Number of blows 25 - -t
These values are generally used for iine-grained soils that pass through a No. 4 U.S. sieve-
However, ASTM has three different methods fo. the standard Proctor compaction test that - t
rcflect the size olthe mold, the number ofblows per layer, and the maximum particle size
in a soil used for testing. Summaries of these methods are given in Table 10 3.
)
10.7.4 EmpiricaI Corretations for 0ptimum Moisture Content (won1) -l
and Maximum Dry Unit Weight [y71.rr,]
The.e are some empirical conelations available in the litenture for estimation of optimum
)
moisture content (wopr) and maximum dry unit weight [ya(.o")] obtained from Proc-
tor compaction tests for cohesive soils. Following is a conelation given by Gurtug and )
-t
l
L
u
a: Standard Proctor Compaction Test 101
l:
l: Tabte 10-3. Summary of Standa.d Proctor Compaction Test Specitications
(AsrM D-6981
L Description Method A* Method Bi Method ci
cL Mold
Volume 1/30 fr3
(943 cm3)
t30 ftl
(943 cm3)
1/13.33 fr3
(2124 cm3)
L Height 4.584 in.

(l16.43 mm)
4.582t in.
(116.43 mm)
4.584 in.
(116.43 nm)
L f)iAmeter 4 in.
(101.6 nrm)
4 in.
(101.6 mm)
6 in.
(152.4 mm)
L Weight of hanme. 5.5lb 5.5 tb

(24.4 N)
5.5 lb
(24.4 N)
L
(24.4 N)
Height of hammer l2 in. 12 in. l2 in.
L drop (304.8 mm) (304.8 mm)
l
(304.8 mm)
L
Number of layers 3
of soil
Number of blows 25 25 56
; per layer
L. Test on soil fraction

passing sieve
No. 4
(4.75 mm)
3/8 in.
(9.5 mm)
314
(
m.
19.0 mm)
1- * May be used if 20% or less by mass of matedal is rctained on No. 4 (4.75 mm) U S
L sieve.
t May be used if more than 207o by mass of material is retained on No. 4 (4.75-mrn) U.S.
1- siele and 207, or less by mass of material is retained on 3/8-in. (9.5-mm) U.S. sieve
u + May be used if more than 20% by mass of matedal is retained on 3/8 in. (9.5-mm) U.S.
sieve and less than 307o by mass ol material is retained on 3/4-in. (19.0-mm) U.S. sieve.
l; !
Sddhamn (2004):
w,,r(Vo) = lt.9s 0.38(1og E)](PL) ( r0.6)
a y.(m )(kN/n3) - 22.68e 00r83'od(%) oo.'7)
.l
I:J
)
where PL:
E] :
plastic limit
compaction energy (kN-rrl,/m3)
-l
For standard Prcctor test.
(3 layers)(25 blows/layert(5.5 lb)(l frlblow) -l
1FO ft3
: 12,3'.7 5 tt . \b llf (x 600 kN . m/m3 )
Subsrituring t: 600 kN. m/ml into Eq. (10.6), we obtain -t

w,'pt(7o) : [l.9s - 0.38(los 600)](PL) :0.894PL (10.8)
-t
Hence
y,/(md)GN/m3) - 22.68e(-00183)(0894Pt) : 22.6g" 0ot'tPL (10.9) )
y,/(md) (rb/rr3) : (0.:or) /nl))* 144.2'te 00]ePL (10.10)

[y71.*;ftr
)
As an example, consider the soil described in Table 10 1- For this soil, the plastic limit
was 14.1. Substituting Pa = 14.1 in Eqs. (10.8) and (10.9), we obtain )
:
w'ool(a/o) (0.894)(14.1) ! 10.61%
)
y,i(md)(lb/ft3) : A1.2'l e( 0016:r)041) 114 5 1b/ft3
^,
These values compare reasonably well with those shown in Fig. 10-6. However,
tant to know that empidcal equations are for estimation only and should not be used as a
itis impor- -l
)
substitute for actual laboratory testing.
10.7.5 Modified Proctor Test )

ASTM Standard D-1557 provides a modilied method to conduct the Prcctor compaction
test. The test is conducted with a l0 lb (44.5 N) hammer in a similar mold as shown in
)
Figure 10 3 having a volume of 1/30 ft3 (943 cm3). The soil is compacted ir five equal
laye$ with 25 blows/layer Hence, ihe compaction energy for this type of test is 56,250
tt.lb/fC (! 2700 kN.m/mr). The modified Proctor compacrion test results for the same soil
as reported in Tables 10-1 and 10-2 and Fig. 10 6 are shown in Fig. 10 7. A comparison
of 1,,1 venus )r(7o) cuNes obtained from standard and modified Proctor compaction tests
-l
)
show that
1.the maximum dry unit weight of compaction increases with the incrcase in the
compacting energy, and
2. the optjmum moisture content decreases with the increase in the energy of compaction.
)
b standard Proctor compaction Test 103
|=
t:
u 1-"(G"=2.68)
i rro
l: il4.2 bn3
L_E
=t3
l-.
-,'
: ",
ri
'-t
l-
L
-.t
810 12 14 16 18 20
T:J Fiqure 10-7. comparison or standa.":'il::'il:i".,or compaction test resurts ror

1 soit reoorted in Tables 10-1 and 10-2.
l- -
I 10.8 Laboratory Report
7- The laboratory reporl \hould conlatn the lollo\ Ing:
l*- . co\er pagc
I - '. Equipment uqed
)--- Descriplion of te.l procedure
a ' . Results--{ata sheei for compaction test results, table for zero-air void unit weight
b- calcularion (if the value of G for the soil is known), sample calculations, and graph
I - tor plors ofy/ and y-u versus w. Report yalmax) and opi.
>""' . Discussion If the value of plastic limit (Pt) for the soil is available, use Eqs.
a ' (10.8) and (10.10) tor Eq. (10.9)l to estimate tto!1 and yd(mo() and compare with
?l those obtained from the laboratory. Discuss any discrepancy between the observed
and estimated values Also discuss any sources of enor'
ct
l_
u
):
L
[;
Determination of Fietd
Unit Weight of
Compaction by Sand
Cone Method
11.1 lntroduction
ASTM Standard: D 1556
Proctor compaction test, as described in Chapter 10, are conducted in the laboratory to
determine the optimum moisture content (won1) and marimum dry unit weight of soils For
various consfuction projects, the soils tested in the laboratory are brought from borrow
areas that may be used in the fill operation during construction Based on the Proctol test
results conducted in the laboratory specifications for fleld compaction are written. Most
specilications require that the dry unit weight (Yl) of compaction in the field be at least
957o of the maximum dry unit weight [y71.d{)] obtained in the laboratory
As we saw in Chapter 10, the dry unit weight of compaction (yl) is dependent on
several factors, ilcluding the energy of compaction (E) and moisture content ( ) Hence,
during soil compactiol it is sometimes necessary to check the compacted dry unit weight
of soil and compare it with the specilications drawn up for the consfuction. One of the
simplest methods of detemining the field unit weight of compactioo is by the sand cone
method, whrch will be described in this chapter.
11.2 Equipment
l. Sand cone apparatus consisting of a one-gallon glass or plastic bottle with a metal cone
attached to it
2. Base plate
105
j
106 sOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL )
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
l.
Fig ure 1 I - Assembly of equipment necessary for determination of fiel.d unit weight )
of compaction.
)
3. One-gallon can with cap
4. Tools to dig a small hole in the field )
5. Balance with minimum readability of 0.01 lb
6. 20 30 Ottawa sand )
7. Proctor compaction mold without attached extension
8. Steel sraightedge )
9. Oven
-J
Figure 1l-l shows the assembly of the equipment necessary for the determination of the
field unit weight (except for the oven). Figure 1l-2 is a schematic diagram showing the
dimensions of the metal cone (see item 1 of the equipment list).
J
)
1 1.3 Procedure-Laboratory Work )
1 1.3.1 Determination of Dry Unit Weight of 20-30 Ottawa Sand
1. Determine the weight of the Proctor compaction mold, Wt (see line 1 ofTable 11-l). )
2. Using a spoon, fill the compaction mold with 20-30 Ottawa sand. Avoid any vibmtion
or other means of compaction of the sand poured into the mold. When the mold is full, )
strike off the top of the mold with the steel shaightedge. Determine the weight of the
mold and sand, W2 (see line 2 of Table 11 l). )
)
b
1-
cc N4ethod
t:
Determination of Fiel.d Unit Weight of Compaction by Sand Cone 107
ct:
ct:
l:
ct:
t:
t:
t: l+ 6.s in. (165.1 mm)- l
t-j l+ 6.75 in. (171.5 mm) --tl
e Figure 1l-2. Dimensions of metaI cone.
t:
t:
1 1.3.2 Catibration of Cone
3. We need to deteimine the weight of the Ottawa sand that is required to filI the cone. This
t:
can be done by lilling the one-gallon bottle with Otlawa sand Detemine the weight of
the bottle + cone + sand, Iy3 (see line 5 of Table l1-l). Close the valve of the cone,
which is attached to the bottle. Place the base plate on a flat surface- Tum the bottle with
l: the cone attached to it upside down and place the open mouth of the cone in the center
hole ofthe base plate (Fig. ll3).Opentheconevalve.Sandwillflowoutofthebottle
and gradually flll the cone. When the cooe is fllled with sand, the flow ofsand from the
|: bottle will stop. Close the cone valve Remove the bottle and cone combination from
l: the base plate and determine its weight, Wa (see line 6 of Table I l-1).
t: 1 1.3.3 Preparation for Fietd Work

4. Detemine the weight ofthe gallon can without the cap, W5 (see line I I of Table 1l-l)
t:
t:
5. Fill the one-gallon bottle (with the sand cone attached to it) with sand. Close the valve
of the cone. Determine the weight of the bottle + cone + sand, Wo (see line 8 of
Table 1l-l).
):
)
)
)
)
)
)
-J
)
)
:)
)
)
)
)
Fiqure 11-3. Calibration of sand cone.
:)
)
1 1.4 Procedure-FieLd Work
6. Now proceed to the fleld with the bottle and the cone attached to it (filled with Ottawa )
sand-Step 5), the base plate, the digging tools, and the one-gallon can with its cap.
7. Place the base plate on a level ground in the field. Under the center hole of the base )
plate, dig a hole in the ground using the digging tools. The volume of the hole should
be smaller than the volume of the sand in the bottle minus the volume of the oorrc. )
8. Remove dll the loose soil from the hole and put it in the gallon can. Close the cap
tightly so as not to lose any moisture. Be careful not to move the base plate. )
9. Tum the gallon bottle filled with sand, with cone attached to it, upside down and place
it on the center of the base plate. Open the valve of the cone. Sand will flow from the )
bottle to fill the hole in the ground and the cone (Fig. 11-4). Wlen the flow of sand
from the bottle stops, close the valve of the cone and remove it. )
10. Bring aII the equipment back to the laboratory. Determine the weight of the gallon
can + moist soil from the lield (without the cap), W7 (see line 12 of Table 1 I I ). Also )
determine the weight of the bottle + can + sand after use, W8 (see line 9 of Table 1 1-l).
)
)
:l
Determination of Fietd UnitWeight of Compaction by Sand Cone Method 109
Hole filled with ottawa san
Figure 11-4. Ottawa sand fitLing hole in ground'
11. Put the gallon can with the moist soil itr the oven to dry to a cotrstant weight Determine
the weilht of the can without the cap + oven-dry soil, Wq (see line I 3 of Table
l1 1)'
11.5 CaLcul.ations
A complete sample calculation to determine the dry unit weight of field compaction by
table, the following
th" ,uni -"thod is given in Table 1l-1. With reference to the
"on"
calculations are requircd.
I. Calculate the dry unit weight of sand (line 4),

Wz Wt: line2 line 1 (11 .l )
Y,i'. d,: li tr" j
where yr is the volume of the Proctor mold (see line 3 of Table 11 1)
2. Calculate the weight of sand to nll the cone (line 7),
W": (11.2)
Wc - Wz: line6 - line5
3. Calculate the volume of the hole in the field (line l0)'
.. W6-Ws W lineS - lineq-line7 (11.3)

Y'lcand) line4
1I O SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL
Tabte 11-1. Fietd UnitWeight-Sand Cone Method

Localion Mo'"d2;r.d' Cd*r)toi1/8rd!earp)
Tested by Date
I . Weight of Proctor mold, Wl 70.3s Lb

2. Weight of Proctor mold + sand, W2 73.66 Lb
3. Volume of mold, Yr l3o fF
Wt-W'
4. Dry unit weight, y,ilsdo' : 99.3 t/MfP
f
5. Weight of bottle + cone .r sand (before use), w3 7s.77 u,

6. Weight of botde + cone + sand (after use), W4 74.O9 Llr
7. Weight of sand to fill cone, I/" : W+ - Wz 7.O8 w

:rLa:l]:,:rri.l:11::a:t::,:r]:r:,:.!.:.::r:r.::.:E€!1ts:!19!!!:!E!{!!i!ti:'..ix':::
8. Weight of bottle + cone + sand (before use), W6 7s.42 Ll,
9. Weight of bottle + cone + sand (after use), W8 77.74 Ll,
10. Volume of hole, Vz : Wa Ws-W" o.0262 f€
I 1 . Weight of gallon can, W5 o.82 LIt it

12. Weight of gallon car + moist soil, Wi 3.92w
-
13. weight ofgallon can + dry soil, we 3.6 5 l,l,
/
14. Moist unit weight of s oil i^ field, y : Y-!1 118.32 LV1F
/
W.-Wo
'
15. Moisture content in field,y) (Eo) : ^ 100 9.s4% -
Ws Ws
16. Dry unit weight in lield, y7 : v 108.77 vvf9

1+(w (Eo) /1M)
Cone Method 111
Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction by Sand
4. Calculate the moist field unit weight oine 14)'
y- W - Ws- line 12 - line l1 (r 1.4)

V2 lir" 10
5- Calculate the moistule contetrt in the field

(line 15)'
wQ"):ffixno: line 12- line 13

line 13
line 1l
x 100 (l1.5)
6. Calculate the dry unit weight in the field

(line 16)'
- line 14 (11.6)
1 + (w (co) lro0) I + (line 15/100)
of the hote by rubber battoon

Figure 1 1-5' Catibrated vessel used to measure volume
University' Boca Raton' Ftorida l
.itftoU,-fCou.tu"V of Khated Sobhan, Ftorida Attantic
j
112 SOIL MECHANICs LABORATORY MANUAL
=t
11.6 Generat Comments
Thereareatleasitwoothermethodstodeteminethefleldunitweightofcompaction,
1
They 'tre ihc rubber baltoon method (ASTM D-2 I 67) and use of th
e nuclear densitf metet
The proceclrlle for the iubber balloon method is similar to the sand cone
method in that a
the hole' and its moisture
:J
tcst hole is made, the moist weight of the soil is removed from
cotentisdetemined.However,tbevolumeoftheholeisdeterminedbyiffioducinginto
)
volume can
it a rubber balloon filled with water from a calibrated vessel' liom which the
volume of )
be read djrectly. Figure 1l-5 shows a calibrated vessel for use to measure the
the hole by rubber balloon method.
I
6) are now used in some large projecls to determine
)
Nrrclear density meters (Figure 1
the compactecl dry- unit weightof a soil The meters operate either in drilled holes
'lensity the weight of the wet soil per unit )
or 1(nn the groond
-also
ao,f""" Th" instmment measures
the weight of the water present in a volume of soil The dry unit
weight
volume and )
water from the moist
of .ompucted soil can be-determined by subtracting the weight of the
unir weilhl ol lhe.oil )
)
)
)
)
J
7
J
J
J
7
J
Figure !1-6. Nuctear density meter. [Courtesy of N Sivakugan ' James
Cook J
University, Austral ia.l J
l
:
a
Determination of Fietd Unit Weight ol Compaction by Sand Cone Method 113

The laboratory rcport should contain the following:
. Cover page
. Equipment used
. Description of test procedure in the laboratory and the field
. Resuhs-data sheet
. Discussion-Summadze dry unit weight of sand, field moisture content, and dry
unit weight in the field. Also discuss any source(s) of error.
Minimum and Maximum
Dry Densities of Granu[ar
Soit [5andf
12.1 lntroduction
ASTM Standards: D-4253, D' 4254
In Section 10.7.2 the tetm relative compactio, was delined as
Ya(field)
R(EA) : (10.3)
Ya(max-lab)
ln the compaction of gnnular soils, specifications are sometimes written in terms of

the requred rclative densitl D,. Ot
e(maxl e
(12.1)
e(max) - e(min)
relative density, usually given as a percentage

in situ void ratio of the soil
void raLio ol the soil ifl the looseor cotrditio[
void ratio of the soil in the densest condition
)
116 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL IJ

)
Table l2-1. ouatitative description ol

granutar soit deposits
)
0-15 Very loose )
15 -50
50-70
70 85
85 - r00
Loose
Medium
Dense
Very dense
J
')
)
Equation (12.1) can also be expressed as
')
rl
D,= trhl [,'] I y.r - ya,-inr 'l f var'*r'l
L Yd I
(12.2)
-
t#''1 I'.kl I Yd{mar Ydrnin)i
)
where
)
dry unit weight in the loosest condition (at a void ratio of ena*)
in situ dry unit weight (at a void ratio ofe) )
rl
dry unit weight in the densest coldition (at a void ratio of ennn)
ln terms of density, rcplacing y with p,

J
)
Irhl- [-'] f pr paL*nr 'l
lprt.-r'l| )
D,: ll:- I l2.J I
I Pdrmu' - P./(minll L Pd I
tilhl t';:;l )
The values of Dr may vary from a minimum of 0 lbr very loose soil to a maxlmum
of I for very dense soil. Soils engineers qualitatively describe the granular soil deposits
according to the relative densities as shown in Table 1 2-1 .
J
)
This laboratory test describes the procedure to determine the minimum and maximum
densities of granular soils [p7i6;11 and p21.*1] in the laboratory. J
J
12.2 Equipment
I . Standard mold having a nominal volume 0. 1 ft3 (2830 cm3)
The inside dimensions of the mold are as ibllows:
J
: )
Diameterd 6 in. (152.4mm)
Height 11 : 6.112 in. (155.2 nm)
J
i
)
L
l:
tL Minimum and Maximum Dry Densities of Granutar Soit lsandl 117
c
,J
LJ LEGEND
Lt
Lt 1- Mold
2 - Dial indicator
Lt 3 - Surcharge weight
L-t 4 - Guide sleeve
L J
5 - Surcharge base plate
6 - Vibrating table
L
iJ
L
.J
LJ
LJ Figure I2-1.
L-J densities of
Laboratory equipment for determination of minimum and maximum dry
granular soit. ICourtesy of K. Reddy, Unive.sity of ltlinois, Chicago.l
Lt
Lt 2. Guide sleeve
3. Surcharge base plate
L 4. Surcharge weight
The surcharge base plate and surcharge weight apply a pressure
1l J.8 k \/m',1 on lhe soil in lhe mold.
ol 2 lbhn.2
LJ 5. Dial indicator
6. Balanceral led\r l5 lgorslighlly more incapaciqr
LJ 7. Scoop
l-j 8. Poudng device (funnel) with about 1/2 in. (l3mm) diameter spout
9. Straight edge
E 10. Vibrating table Lwith an average double amplitude of 0.013 t

0.002 in. (0.33 + 0.05
mm) at a frequency of 60 Hz or with a double amplitude of 0.019 + 0.003 in. (0.48 +
E 0.08 mm) at a frequency of 50 Hzl
V Fig. 12 I shows a photograph of items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 10 listed above.

)
T
I I8 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL ,
)
A. DETERMINATI0N 0F MINIMUM DENSITY p71-1o;
IASTM Sta nd a rd D- t+25t+l )
12.3 Procedure )
I. Collect a representative sample of the granular soil to be tested. The size of the sample
for madmum particle size less than 3/4 in. ( 19.0 mm) should be at least 1l kg. )
2. Detemine the mass of the mold Ma(see line A.2 of Table l2 2).
3. Loosely f,ll the mold with the oven-&y sand using the pouring device (funnel). The )
height of the spout of the funnel should be continuously adjusted to maintain a free fall
of sand of about 1/2 in. (13 mm). During the pouring of sand, the funnel should move )
in a spiral path from the outside to the center of the mold.
The sand should be filled about l/2 to 1 in. (13 to 25 rnm) above the top of the mold. )
4. Trim the excess soil from the top of the mold using a stuaight edge (see Fig. 12 2).
5. Determine the mass of the mold and dry soil Mr (see line A.3 of Table 12-2).
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
Figure 12-2. with soit after trimming the excess soiI for determination of
Mol.d fitted )
minimum dry density. lcourtesy of K. Reddy, University of lttinois, Chicago.l
)
-l
)
:1
I
Minimum and Maximum Dry Densities of Granutarsoit lsandl 1r9
12.4 Catcutation
Refer to the example calculation shown in Table 12-2
. Lines A.2 and A.3 - Record the data observed in Step 2 (M^) afi Step 5 (M1),
respectively (Section 12.3).
Tabl.e 12-2. Minimum and Maximum Dry Densities ot Granutar Soil

Des.tiplion of soil l'0hite,UAi{t'rtt1'sntu1' Sampte no. 4
Location Specify gravity of soit sotids 2.64
Tested by Date
-
A.l Volume ofmold, cn3
V- 283o A.2Mass of mold, Mn 9.236 k4.
A.3 Mass of mold + dry soil, M1 A.4 Mass of dry soil in mold, M2
13.63 kg, 4.394 kg,
-
A.5 Minimum dry density, p,r A..6 Maximum void ratlo, end o .7 26
-J))2,9)-L9IttL
B.l Volume of mold, V. 283o cml 8.2 Intemal diameter of mold, d

752.4 $1rtt
B.3 Intemal height of mold, Il 8.4 Mass of mold. Mn 9.2i5-@-
7 5 5.2 nl,wv
B.5 Thickness of surcharge base plate, t, 8.6 Average initial dial reading, R;
3.7 wwlt 24 tuirt
8.7 Average final rcadin9. RJ 11 oL,tu- B.8 Mass of mold + dry soil, M3
7s.87 k4.
B.9 Mass of dry soil in the mold, Ma B.l0 Volume ofsoil at end of test, %
4.634 k& 2536-32 cn3
B.1l Maximum dry density, p7,*, 8.12 Minimum void ratio, e*;n
1827.06 kg/w0 o.467
)
*l
)
120
.
Line A.4 - Calculate the mass of dry soil in dre mold
M2: \.rMt , M^
IJ
)
\2
Line Line
)
. Line A.5 -
A.3
Calculate the minimum dry density
M2 Line A.4
4.2
:l
%:L."Al
. Line A.6 - Calculate the maximum void ntio -J
,.*: Go" (12.4)
-,
)
where
)
G= specific gravity of soil solids
p, : dersity of water (1000 kgin3, I g/cm3, 62.4 lb/ft3)
)
)
B. DETERMINATION 0F MAXIMUM DENSITY pa1."-y
TASTM standard D-42531 )
12.5 Procedure )
1. Collect a representative sample of the soil to be tested
2. Determine the volume of the mold Vn, mass of the mold M,, internal diameter d, and :J
height H of the mold (see linesB.l, B.2, 8.3, and 8.4 of Table 12-2).
3. Detemine the thickness of the surcharge base plate tb (see line B.5 of Table l2-2). )
4. Fill the mold with soil using the pouring device (funnel).
5. Trim the excess soil from the top of the mold using a straight edge. )
6. Place the surcharge base plate on the surface of the soil in the mold and twist it lightly
flrmly in contact with the soil.
a few times so that the plate is :)
7. Remove the surcharge base plate handle. Insert the dial indicator gauge holder in each
of the guide bnckets with the dial gauge stem in coltact with the dng of the mold. :J
Obtain 6 sets of dial readings-three on each side of each guide bncket (Fig. 12-3).
Detemine the average value of the initial dial gauge reading R; The value of Rt should :J
be to the nearest 0.001 in. (0.025nrm) (see line 8.6 of Table 12-2)
8. Finnly attach the guide sleeve to the mold and lower the surcha4e weight into place :I
on the surchatge base plate (Fig. 12-4).
9. Vibrate the mold assembly (Step 8) for 8 minutes at 60 Hz or 12 minutes at 50 Hz (see 1
Section 12.2, Item l0).
1
a
'l
Minimum and Maximum Dry Densities of GranuLar Soit {Sandl 121
Figure 12-3. Motd fitted with soit with the surcharge base ptate and dial indicator.
lcourtesy of K. Reddy, University of ll.tinois, Chicago.l
10. At the etrd of the vibratioq remove the surcharge and the guide sleeve. Determine the
average value of the final dial gauge reaching RJ. in a similar mannq as described in
Step 7 (see line 8.7 ofTable 12J).
1 l. Remove the surcharge base plate ftom the mold and detach the mold from the vibrating
table.
12. Determine the mass of the mold and the soil M3 (see line B.8 of'table 12 2).
12.5 Catcutations
Refer to Table 12 2.
. Line B.9 Mass of dry soil in the mold
-
M4: M3 -
!.r
Mtu
\2
Line Line
B.8 8.4
)
122 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY N,4ANUAL tI

)
I:J
J
J
J
J
J
J
)
)
-)
Figufe 12-1, Ptacement of surcharge on the surcharge base plate. lCourtesy of

:)
K. Reddy, University of ltl.inois, Chicago.l
J
.
krTable 12J, Ma
B.l0
: 13.8'7 9.236:4.634k9
J
J
T-ine Volume of soil in the mold
V.: V* | th +(lRr Ri l)lAn

Line Line Lines 8.7 )
B.l B.5 and R.6 T
where
)
: ; !', )
A. : inside cross-sectional arca of the mold
Line )
8.2 -)
)
Minimum and Maximum Dry Densities of Granutar Soit lsandl
hTable l2-2.
V, = 28J0 cmr .[o.Jt cmr(lt.t cm 2.4cm.)l x (1) {t5.2acm)'z
: 2830 cm3 U.61 cml(182.41 cr?) :2536.32cm2
Line B.1l-Maximum dry density
Ma (Line 8.9)
V, (Line B.10)
In Table 12 2
4.634 kg
6 mJ
: 1827 .06 kglrn3
"o''u"'- -251o.i2 x lo
o Line B.13-Minimum void ratio
c,p*
Pd(md)
-1 (12.5)
In Table 12 2
(2.68) ( l00o)
- I :0.46'7
1.82'1.06

l. Miura et al. (1997) detemined the maximum and minimum void ratios of a large
number of clean sand samples. Based on those test results, they obserr'ed that
e^^* r. 1.62eî" (12.6)
2. Cubrinovski and Ishihara (1999, 2002) also studied the variation of e.o and e.in with
the median grain size D5g and recommended the following correlation
0.06
em^\ - emjn = 0.23 + ,5n
-. (tllm) (12.7)
where D56 : sieve size through which 50% of soil passes through
3. For granular soils with less than l27o fines (i.e., f,ner than U.S. No 200 sieve), relative
density may be a better itrdicator for end product compaction specification in the field.
Based on laboratory compaction tests on 55 clean sands (less than 5E" finer than U.S.
No. 200 sieve), Patra et al. (2010) provided the following relationships
D,: AD," (12.8)

A:0.216lnE-0.850 (12.e)
B: 0.03ln E + 0.306 (12.10)
121. SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL 4
:I
wherc
Dr: maximum rclative density of compaction achieved with compaction energy :I

Dso :
E (kN-nr/m)
median gnin size (mm) J
12.8 Laboratory Report :t
The labomtory rcport should contain the following: J
.
.
Cover page
J
J
Equipment used
. Description of test procedure
. Results -data sheet, sample calculations
r Discussion {ompare e..* and e.in obtained with Eqs, (12.6) and (12.7). Repofi
any sources of erlor. J
J
J
J
1
7
fJ
J
J
lI
Il
ll
q
E
E
Constant-Head
Permeability Test in Sand
E
,E
t: 13.1 lntroduction
ASTM: Standad: D-2434
L: The rate of flow of water through a soil specimen of gross cross-sectional area,4 can be
l,: expressed as
t: q:kiA ( 13.1)
tJ: where 4 :
,t :
I:
flow in unit time
coei1jcient of permeability
hydraulic $adient
Table 13-l lists the general ranges of the coefficient of permeability t for various types
of soil.
L The coeflicient of pemeability of sand can be detemined easily in the laboratory by

two simple methods: (1) the constant-head test and (2) the falling-head test. In this chapter
the constant-head tesr nrer&od will be discussed.
13.2 Equipment
l. Constant head permeameter
2. Graduated cylinder (250 cm3 or 500 cm3)
)
)
Table 13-1. Range of k tor Various )
Soit Types
)
Soit k lcmlsl
Clean gravel lo2 loo

)
Coarse sand 1oo-to 2
Fine sand lo 2- t o-3

)
Silty clay 10-3-10 5
Clay Less than 10-6 -J

)
4. Thermometer sensitive to 0.1"C
5. Rubber tubing
6. Stopwatch
?
1 3.3 Constant-Head Permeameter -
A schematic diagram of a constant-head permeameter is shown in Fig. 1 3-1. This insrru-
ment can be assembled in the laboratory at very low cost. lt essenlially consists of a plastic -
soil specimen cylindel two potous stones, two rubber stoppers, one spring, one constant-
head chamber, a large l'unnel, a stand, a scale, three clamps, and some plastic tubes. The -
plastic cylinder may have an inside diameter of 2.5 in. (63.5 mm). This is because 2.5-in.
(63.5-mm)-diameter porous stones are usually available in most soil laboratories. The -
length of the specimen tube may be about 12 in. (304.8 mrn). As an example, Fig. 13-2
shows a constanFhead permeameter setup. -
It is impofiant to keep in mind that fte minimum inside diameter of the specimen
cylinder should be about 8 to 12 times the maximum particle size of the soil to be tested -
(ASTM, 2010)- Table 13-2 gives some recommended diameters of specimen cylinders.
-
13.4 Procedure
1. Determine the mass of the plastic specimen tube, the porous stones, the sp ng, and the )
two rubber stoppers, Ml (see line 3 of Table 13 4).
2. Slip the bottom porous stone into the specimen tube and then fix the bottom rubber )
stopper to the specimen tube.
3. Collect oven-dry sand in a container Using a spoon, pour the sand into the specimen )
tube in small layers, andcompact it by vibration and/or other compacting means. (ly'ot€..
By changing the degree of compaction, a number of test specimens having different
void ratios can be prepared.) 'i
)
trl
?.
,,,
Constant-Head Permeabitity Test in Sand 127
|,,
I
J Overllow pipe
:
J
:
:
J Spring
J
:
Plastic cylinder
:
: L
tt
:
tr
tt
t:
vt: 4.
Figure 13-!. Schematic diagram of constant-head permeabitity test setup
Wlen the length of the specimen tube is about two-thilds the length of the tube' slip
the top porous stone into the tube to rest firmly on the specimen'
t: 5. Place a spdng on the top porous stone, if necessary'

6. Fix a rubter stopper to the top of the specimen tube (Noter The spring
in the assembled
position will noi allow any expansion of the specimen volume, and thus the void ratio'
during the test.)
E
124 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL 4
a
1
:I
1
:T
:l
:J
:l
:l
:J
Figure 13-2. {al A constant-head permeability test in progress; {bl A ctose-up view of J
the specimen during cottection of water lSection 13.4, Step 121, Icourtesy oI Khated
Sobhan, Ftorida Attantic University, Boca Raton, Ftorida.t J
J
7. Determine the mass of the assembly, M2 (Step 6) (see line 4 of Table l3-4). J
8. Measure the length I atrd the diameter D of the compacted specimen in the tube (see
top of Table 13-4 and lines 5 arid 6 of Table 13 5). J
9. Assemble the permeameter near a sink, as shown in Fig. 13 2(a).
10. Run water into the top of the large funnel fixed to the statrd through a plastic tube ftom J
the water inlet. The water will flow though the specimen to the constant-head chamber.
After some time the water will flow into the sink through the outlet in the constant-head J
chamber. (Iy'dter Make sule that water does not leak from the specimen tube.)
11. Adjust the supply of water to the funnel so that the water level in the funnel remains J
constarll. At the same time, allow the ffow to contilue for about 10 minutes in order
to satuate the specimen. (Nrte. Some air bubbtes may appear in the plastic tube J
connecting the funnel to the $pecimen tube. Remove the air bubbles.)
J
J
q
b
t: Sand
t:
Constant-Head Permeabitity Test in 129
tl: Tabte'13-2. Recommended lnside Diameters
MaIimum Particle Size Range

of Specimen Cytindersl
t: No. l0 (2-inm) sieve to

Less than 357, of total soil
retained on No. l0 sieve
3 in. (76 1nrn)
t: 3/8-in. (9.5-mm) sieve More than 35% of total soil

refained on No- l0 sieve
4.5 in. 1114 mm)
l:
tl: 3/8-in. (9.5-mm) sieve to
3/4-in. (19.0-mm) sieve
Less than 35% of total soil
rctained on 3/8-in. (9.5-mm)
sieve
More than 3570 of total soil

retained on 3/8-in. (9.5-mm)
6 in. (152 mn)
9 in. (229 nrm)
L: ' ASTM (2010).

sieve
L:
l: 1 After a steady fiow is established (that is, once the head difference l? (see line 4 of Table
2.
t:
13 5) becomes constant), collect the water O (see line I of Table 13 5) flowing out of
the constant-head chamber in a graduated cylinder. Record the collection time t with a
t:
stopwatch (see Fig. l3-2(b)).
13. Repeat Step 12 three times. Keep the collectior time t the same and determine Q- Then
t:
find the average value of Q.
14. Change the head difference l, and repeat Steps 11, 12, and 13 about three times.
tl: 15. Record the tempemture I (see line 3 of Table 13-5) of the water to the nearest degree.
(-ly'ote.' This value is sufficiently accurate for this type of test.)
13.5 Catcutations
E l. Calculate the void ratio of the compacted specimen as follows. The dry density pd of
rj the soil specimen is
*4
rj oo
'" (r /4)DtL
(see line. I and 5 of Table l3-4)
tj Thus,
tj "
:91!' I (see bottom ol Table 13 -4) (13.2)
)
)
-)
Tabte 13-3. Variation of trc/rt2o.c
-)
l5
t6
1.t35
1.106
23
24
0.931
0.910
:J
:)
t7 1.0'1'7 25 0.889
18 1.051 26 0.869 )
19 I .025 2'7 0.850
)
20 1.000 28 0.832
21 0.9'76 29 0.814 *i
)
22 0.953 30 o.'79'7
-l
)
Tabte 13-4. Determination of Void Ratio of Specimen-Constant-Head
Desctlplion ol soil
Permeabitity Test
u
î&vtt '
ta,A.di SampLe na
-l
Location
Length of specimen
Tested by
L 73 2 cm Diameter of specimen D 6 ?5 cm
:i
)
-l
1 . Volume of specime r, v : {cm31 478.O 3
)
[n2r
2. Specific gnvity of soil solids, G" 2.66
3. Mass of specimen tube with fittings, Ml (g) 238.4 )
4. Mass of tube with fittings and specimen, M2 (g) 965.i
)
5. Dry density of specimen, p7 : W1L(21" 3)
7.7+
_)
Void ratio of specimen e : 6'p' - 1 = o.s r )
pd
lNote, p* :1 g/cm3.)
,j'l
*,/
constant-Head Permeabitity Test in Sand 131
Tabte t 3-5, Determination of Coelticient ol Permeabitity-Constant-Head

PermeabilitY Test
Descript ionol soil@ Sample na
Location
Tested by Date
' :,llt€m: _ :: .'. :. ..: rl
l. Average flow, Q (cm3) 305 375 395
2. Time of collection, I (s) 60 60 60
3. Temperature of watel 25 25
rcc)
4. Head difference, ft (cm) 60 70 80
5. Diameter of specimen, 6.3 5 6.3 5 6.3 5
D (cm)
6. Length of specimen, 73.2 73.2 7 3.2
t (cm)
7. Area of specimen, 37.67 37.67 37.67

A::D,Gfih
ot.
8. k: j;; (cm/s) o.o3 5 o.o 37 o.o34
Averagek= O.OJ5 cm/s
k26"6:kr..]Ilq: o.o35
" o-*xo = o o71 cmls
where Gr : specific gravity of soil solids

p, : density of water
D: diameter of specimen
I: length of specimen
2. Calculate t-
QL (13.3)
(see line 8 of Table 13-5)
Aht
)
)
where A is the area of the specimen, )
A : ]D2 (see line 7 of Table 1!5) )

4
3. The value of fr is usually given for water at a test temperature of 20oC. So calculate )
,(zo'C,
)
tzo"c : ftrcb
il:o'c
(see bottom of Table 13 5) (13.4)
J
wherc n?.c and I20.c arc the viscosities of water at 7"C and 20'C, respectively.
Table l3-3 gives the values of 1r-./t129.q for various values of 1(in "C).
J
)
Tables 13-4 and 13 5 show sample calculations for the permeability test.
)
)
Several empirical relationships to estimate,t for sandy soils have been proposed ifl the past'
Hazen (1930) proposed that,lbr loose clean sand, )
/.(cm/t: cD?o (13.5)
)
-l
where c : a constant that varies between 1.0 and 1.5 )
Dro: effective size (mm) [For definition of D1s' see
Section 4.6 (item l) l )
More recently, Chapuis (2004) suggested that
)
, 1 .07825
k(cmls) : )
-L l
2.4622 ( oi, (13.6)
\ t+e/
)
where D1s : effective size (mm)
?: void ratio )
Based on labomtory tests on granular soils, the U S. Depa.fiment of the Navy (1971) )
provided a relationship between t
shown in Fig. l3-3.
and Dln for various values of void ratio (e) This is
J
The sand tested in Tables 13-4 and 13 5 had an effective size of 0.26 mm By using
this value of D16 in Eqs. (13.5) and (13.6) and Fig. 13-3, we obtain the following results'
For Eq. (13.5):
J
:J
t:cD?o: (1 to 1.5)(0.26)2:6.76 x l0 2cm/sto 10.14 x l0 zcm/s
l
-J
.-l
Constant-Head Permeability Test in Sand
10
8
?2
E
Bt
* 0.8
a 06
E 0.4
e=o.7
E oz u.b
D,o
,9 .'r .4
0.5 D5
i 0.08
0.4 Cu = 2Ie 12
i o06
0.04 0.3
0.02
001
01 0.2 03 0.60.8 1 2 4 6 810
Dro (mm)
Figure 13-3. Hydraulic conductivity of granutar soits.

Sour.e: Based on U.5. D€partment of Navy 119711
For Eq. (13.6):

- : . 0.7825
klcnlsl : z'4622 ( Pln ,e \
t+e,t
\
Nore: e : 0.53 (Table l3-4). So,
| -n 7q'<
'
k:2.4622
Lu0.20r'(.u" -'l I
\r+o.sj/l
:r.s-rx t0 'cm/s
For Figure 13 3:
For Dro :0.26 mm and e : 0.53, we have
f0 08 r( l2 ^ 2.54)
k 0.08 ft/min : : 4.06 / IO ' cmls
^, 60
These estimated values are about 1.16-2.9 times the measured value of 3.5 x 10-2 cm/s.
So it is important to realize that the empirical rclations of permeability are approximate.
For practical purposes, it appears that
ko "t (13.7)
7+e

The laboratory rcport should contain the following:
. Cover page
. Equipment used
. Discussion of test procedue
. Results--data sheets for void mtio determination and detemination of the coeffl-
cient of pemeability, as well as sample calculations
. Discussion-If the value of Dls is available, calculate the values of f using Eqs.
(13.5) and (13.6) and Fig. 13 3. Discuss the variation of ft between the value deter-
mined experimentally and those estimated from the above-mentioned equations and
graph. Also discuss ary sources of error
Fatting-Head
Permeabitity Test in Sand
L:
1/*.1 lntroduction
LJ ASTM Standard: None
The procedure for conducting the constant-head permeability test in sand was discussed
in Chapter 13. The falling-head permeability test is another experimental prccedure to
E determine the coefficient of pemeability of sand.
L:
rj 14.2 Equipment
l. Falling-head pemeameter
rj 2. Balance sensitive to 0.1 g

Themometer
u
3 .
4. Stopwatch
1 /'.3 Fatting-Head Permeameter

A schematic diagram of a falling-head permeameter is shown in Fig. 14-1. lts specimetr
tube is essentially the same as that used in the constant-head test. The top of the specimen
tube is connected to a burette by plastic tubing. The specimen tube and the burette are held
vertically by clamps from a stand. The bottom of the specimen tube is connected to a plastic
funnel by a plastic tube. The funnel is held vertically by a clamp from another stand. A scale
135
j
:l
:J
)
)
Burette
)
)
)
:J
Glass tube
II
1
L )
"I )
Glass tube
)
)
-t
)
)
Figure 14-1" Schematic diagram of falLing-head permeabitity test setup. --l

-t
)
is also lixed vertically to this stand. Figue l4-2(a) shows a falling-head permeability test -t
arrangement. The specimen holder is similar to that shown in Fig. 13-2(b) )
)
14.4 Procedure
I 9. Follow the same prccedure for the preparation of the specimen descdbed in )
Chapter 13. The length a, and diameter D of the specimen along with masses M1 -)
and M2 should be recorded as shown in Table 14-l (which is similat to Table 13 4).
The lenght I, and diameter D should also be recorded in Table 14-2 (lines I and 2).
)
)
Y,
E
t: Fatling-Head PermeabiLity Test in Sand 137
rj
F
rrj
r
LJ
LJ
LJ
rj
LJ
LJ Figure 11-2. FaLting-head permeabitity test: lal test arrangement; lbl measurement
rr
LJ of head difference ftl; (cl measurement of time t and head difference lD.lCourtesy ol
KhaLed Sobhan, Florida Attantic University, Boca Raton, Ftorida.l
rH 10. Supply water using a plastic tube

flow from the burette to the
ftom the water inlet to the buette. The water will
specimen
is no leak. Remove all air bubbles.
and then to the funnel. Check to see that there
11. Allow the water to flow for sorne time in order to saturate the specimen. When the
funnel is full, water will flow out of it into the sink.
12. Using the pinch cock, close the flow of water through the specimen. The pinch cock
is located on the plastic pipe connecting the bottom of the specimen to the funnel.
F 13. Measure the head differcnce ,1 (cm) (see line 4 of Table l4-2 and Figs. 14 1 and
l4-2(b)). (Note: Do nol add any more water to the burette.)
14- Open the pinch cock. Water will flow through the burette to the specimen and
/
then out of the tunnel. Record time (line 6 of 'lable 14-2) with a stop-
warch until the head difference is equal to 12 (crn) (line 5 of Table l4-2 and
)
:l
I38 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL )
Figs. l4-land14 2(c)). Close the flow of water through the specimen using the pinch :J
cock.
15. Determine the volume y, of water (cm3) that is drained from the buette (see line ? )
of Table l4-2).
16. Add morc water to the burette to male another firn. Repeat Steps 13, 14, and 15.
However, ,1 and ,2 should be changed for each run.
:l
17. Record the temperature 7 of the water to the nearest degree (oC) (see bottom of Table -J
14_D.
:J
14.5 Calculations
Calculate void ratio (Table l4-1) in a similar manner as showl in Table 13 ,1.
"
The coefficient of permeability can be expressed by the relation
k:23.uj ",c2 (14.r)
where a is the inside cross-sectional area of the burette,l -i

)
a: ht-hz
-v,. (14.2)
Therefore,
2lolv.L t
: j:::l:
y
(hr ht)tA1o*'lt
'h', (see line 8 of Table l4J) (14.3)
where ,4 is the area of the specimen.

As in Chapter 13,
ft2e.s: k1.s]]ry (see bottom of Table 14 2) (14.4) -.,,]

Sample calculations are shown in Tables
n20"c
l4-l and 142. _i
)
14.6 Discussion
The permeability test procedures described in Chapters 13 and 14 are using igirl-wall
)
perrneametefi. In advanced geotechnical engineedng courses, students will be exposed
to flexible-wall permeameters, which is beyond the scope of this laboratory manual. -J
Howevel generally speaking, flexible-wall permeability tests (constant and falling head)
)
aie performed in triirrial cells (see Chapter 18). According to ASTM test designation
D-5084, the flerible-wall permeameter can be used for tests on soils having f less than
about 10-4 cm/s. In a triarial cell, interchangeable base pedestals afld top caps permit the -J
)
I For an example of the denvation, see Das (2010).
:l-l
v
Fatling-Head PermeabiLity Test in Sand 139
E Tabte 14-1. Determination of Void Ratio of Specimen-Faftinq-Uead

Permeability Test
Descipllon of soll u tf i.{otmr utu1.& Sampieno.-
E
,E Lenglh of specirnen L Diameter of spec men , 6. 35 cm
Tested by
l. Volume of.Decimen. V =' DzLtcm')
tc
LJ 478.03
2. Specific gravity oi soil solids. c" 2.66
3. Mass of specimen tube with fittings, Ml G) 238.4
4. Mass oltube with fittings and specimen, M2 G) 9€,5.3
LJ
fc
M1
5. Dq dcn.it) ol'pecimen. pd ' -M, fg cm )
y
Void ratio of specirnen e =::ry-l: O5l
tr {Note,p.=1glcm3.)
ttr
; test of specimens with diameters ftom,10 to 150 mm. Drainage lines at the top and bot-
tom of the specimen facilitate the flushing of air bubbles lrom hydraulic lines and direct
measurement of the pressure drop across the soil specimen using a differentially acting
elecffical presswe hansducer. Separate prcssure conftols maintain the cell pressure and the
pressures acting at the top and botlom of the soil specimen. Normally the specimen is back
pressured prior to permeation to ensue full saturation.
F. The fledble-wall cell has several advantages. Undisturbed samples can be easily tested
because minimal trimming is required and irregular surfaces on the specimen are easily
accommodated. Back pressure is normally used, which helps to satwate the soil.
t Flexible-wall cells have several disadvantages as well. The membranes used to confine
the soil are nonnally made of latex, butyl, or neoprene rubbet which can be attacked and
t destroyed by cefiain chemicals. In order to maintain contact between the membrane and
the soil specimen, the pressure in the cell liquid must be higher than the pore pressure in
t the specimen. In order to test with an elevated hydraulic gradient, the effective stess at one
end ofthe specimen must be fairly larye arld the effective confining pressue cannot be less
t than the pressure drop across the specimen.
t
t
a
-
Tabte 14-2. Determination ot Coelficient ol Permeabitity-Falting-Head

PermeabiLity Test
Description ot sol@ Sampte no.
Tested by -
g
1 . Diameter of specimen, D (cm) 6.3 5 6.3 5 6.3 5
2. Length of spe.imen, Z (cm) 7 3.2 73.2
3. Area of specimen, A (cm2) 37.67 31.67
4. Beginning head difference, tl (cm) 85.0 7 6.O 6 5.O
5. Ending head differerce, h2 @m) 24.O 20.o 20.o
6. Test duration, t (s) 75.4 75.3 74.4
7. Volume of water flow through specimen, 64 58 +7

Y, (cm3)
2.3OaV,.I h'
8_ t : -------------i-
(ht -ht)tA "hz
los --:(cfi/s) o.o 36 o.o 38 o.o36
Average k = O.o37 cm/s
Temperature of water = 25 " C
k20.c = kr"clljq
q20"c
= o.o37x o RRq
= -----g&3L cmls
The coefficient of permeability f of fine-graircd soils can also be determined from

consolidation tests, which are discussed in Chapter 17.

. Cover page
. Equipment used
Fatting-Head Permeabitity Test in Sand 111
Description of test procedure

Results--{ata sheets for void ratio determination and detemination of the coeffi-
cient of permeability, as well as sample calculations
Discussion-If the value of Dro is available, calculate the values of t using Ertrs.
(13.5) and (13.6) and Fig. 13-3. Discuss the vadation of f between the value deter-
mined expedmentally atrd those estimated from the above-mentioned equations and
graph. Also discus: ar) iources ol error.
Direct Shear Test on Sand
15.1 lntroduction
The shear strength of a given soil can be expressed by Mohr-Coulomb lailure criteria
(in tems of effective stress parameters) as
( 15.1)
\\'here
r: shear strength
r': cohesion
o'- effective normal stress
q': effective angle offriction
For sand. cohesion c/ : 0. Helce

(15.2)
The angle offriction $/ is a function of the relative density ofcompaction of sand, grain
E size, shape, and distribution in a given soil mass. For a given sand, an increase in the void
r: ratio (i.e., a decrease in the relative density of compaction) will result in a decrease of the
magnitude of {'. However, for a given void ratio, an increase in the angularity ol the soil
t: particles will give ahigher value ofthe soil friction angle. The general range ofthe drained
angle offriction of sand for various values ofrelative density is given in Tablc 15 l.
113
F
la
lLtt SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL
I
)
Tabte 15-1. General Ranqe of O'
Retative Density
)
o'
State of Sand l/"1 ldesl
)
Round grained sand
Loose 050 28-32 )
Medium 50 70 30-35
Dense 70-100 35-40 )
Angulal. grained sand )
Loose 050 30-36 -)
Medium 50-70 34-40
Dense 70-100 40.45
)
gtavel
The ASTM test designation D-3080 is commonly used for tests on sand and )
under 9l
rnder draile(l ctnditiotts- It can also be used to conduct tests on cohesive soils
drained conditions only, since there is no provision to control drainage
during sherring'
)
15.2 Equipment
I Dircct shear test machine (sffain controlled) )
2. Balance sensitive to 0lg
3. Large porcelain evapotatilg dish )
4. Tampcr (for compacting sand in the direct shear box)
5. Spoon )
shear box'
Figure 15-l shows a clirect shear test machine lt consists primadly of a direct
pro! ing ring
wiich is split into two halves (top al1d bottom) and holds the soil specimen; a
gauges (one horiTontal and
to measure the horizontal load applied to the specimen; two dial )
onevertical)tomeasurethedeformationofthesoildulingthetestiandayokebywhich
are common devices
a veftical load can be applied to the soil specimen Proving rings )
to the top half
to measur" Ioad throughout test (Fig. 15 2) A hoiizontal load is applied
unit'- the rate of
of the sbear box by a iroto, and gear atrangement ln a strain-contolled
15 3 shows a top
movemcnt of the iop hall of the sheal box can be controlled Figure
and vertical dial )
view of a direct shear machine, including the direct shear box, horizontal
gauges, and the proving ring.
" "Fig,re
15-4 shows a schematic diagram of the shear box' which is split into two
by two ver-
Iulves--top and bottom. These top and bottom halves can be held together
tical pins. There is a loading head, which can be slipped from the top
of the shear box
screws and two
to rest on the soil specimen inside the box Thele are also three vertical
horizontal screws on the top halfofthe shear box'
.v
Direct Shear Test on Sand 145
Figure 15-1. Strain-contro[[ed direct sheartest machine.
15.3 Procedure
1. Remove the shear box assembly. Back off the thre€ vertical and two hodzontal sqews.
Remove the loading head- Insert the two vertical pins to keep the two halves of the
shear box together.
2. Determine the mass of some dry sand in a large porcelain dish, Ml (see line 4 of Table
15-2). Fill the shear box with sand in small layers. A tamper may be used to compact
the sand layers. The top of the compacted specimen should be about l/4 in. (6.4 mm)
below the top of the shear box. Level the sudace of the sand specimen. Determitre the
mass of the porcelain dish and dry sand remaining after compaction, M2 (see line 5 of
Table 15 2).
3. Determine the dimensions of the soil specimen (i.e., length t, width B, and height 14
(see lines l,2, and 3 of Table 15-2).
4. Slip the loading head down from the top of the shear box to rcst on the soil specimen.
5. Put the shear box assembly in place in the direct shear machine.
6. Apply the desired nomal load -lf (see top of Table 15 3). on the specimen. This can
be done by hanging dead weights on the vertical load yoke. The top crossbars will rest
a
)
:T
1L6 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL )
:T
)
)
)
)
J
I
)
)
)
)
)
Figu re 15-2. A proving ring. [Courtesy of N. Siva kuga n, James cook University, -)
Austratia.l
on the loading head of the specimen, which, in tum, rests on the soil specimen (Nrle.' )
In some equipment, the weights of the hanger, the loadirlg head, and the top half of the
shear box can be tared. In some other equipment, if taring is not possible, the nonnal )
load should be calculated as N:load hanger + weight of yoke + weight of loading
head + weight of top half of the shear box.) )
7. Remove the two vertical pins (which were inserted in Step I to keep dle two halves of
the shear box together). )
8. Advance the thrce verhcal screws that are located on the sidewalls of the top half of
the shear box. This is done to separate the two halves of the box. The space between :)
the two halves of the box should be slightly larger than the largest grain size of the soil
specimen (by visual obsel'vatiorr). )
9. Set the loading head by tightening the two hodzontal screws located at the top half of
the shear box. Now back off the three vertical screws. After this has been done, there )
will be no connection between the two halves of the sheal box except the soil.
J
)
-u
Direct Shear Test on Sand 1/,7
Figure l5-3, Shear box, proving rin9, and horizontat and verticaI diat gauges of
a: strain-controtted direct shear test machine.
10. Attach the horizontal and vefiical dial gauges (0.001 in./small div.) to the shear box to
E measure the displacement during the test.

I I . Apply horizontal load S to the top half of the shear box. The rate of shear displacement
t:
t:
should be between 0.1 and 0.02 in./min (2.5,1-0.51 mm/min). For every renth small
division displacement in the horizontal dial gauge, record the readings of the vertical
dial gauge and the proving ring gauge (which measures horizontal load S). (see Table
15 3). Continue this until either
st: a. the proving ring dial gauge reading reaches a maxjmum and then falls, or
b. the proving ring dial gauge reading reaches a maximum arrd then remains constant.
12. Repeat the test (Steps I to 1l) at least two more times by changing the nomal load N,
For each test, the dry unit weight of compaction of the sand specimen should be the
rj same as that of the first specimen (Step 2).
h 15.4 Calculations
Sample calculations of a direct shear test in sand for one normal load
Tables 15-2 and 15-3. Referring to Table 15 2:
N are shown in
l. Determine rhe dry densily p,, ol rhe specimen as

Mt -Mt ( r5.3)
T,BH
1)
Seclion
Shear
LEGEND
a - Top half of shear box
b - Bottom half of shear box
c - Vertical pins
d- Loading head
e Vertical scrow
-
I - Horizontal screw
g- Horizontal dial gaugs
h - Verlical dial gauge
Fiqure 15-4. Schematic diagram of direct shear test box.

Direct Shear Test on Sand 1t9
Tabte 15-2. Void Ratio Catcutation-Direct Shear Test on Sand

Desctiplion oI soil@ Sample no.
Localion A rg,.rAn)tf C irdo/ -L

Tested by Date -
1. Specimen length, Z (in.) 2
2. Specimen width, B (in.) 2
3. Specimetr height, 11 (in-) 7.37
4. Mass of porcelain dish + dry sand (before use), Mr G) 5+O.3
5. Mass of porcelain dish + dry sand (after use), M2 (g) 397.2

Mt - Mz(E)
6. Dry unit weight of specimen, y7(1b7ft31 : x 3.808 704.O
LBH(ir.3)
7. Specific gravity of soil solids, G" 2.66
,. Uoi6.u,io, , : 9b I
o.596
Yd
(Note: yw :62.41b1fr3; y,i is in 1b/ft3.)
2. Determine the dry unit weight of the specimen (line 6). If Ml and M2 are in grams and
Z, B, and 11 are in inches,
M' -Mt'
yd(lb/ft') : .3.808 (line 6 of Table l5 2). (rs.4)
,"t,
3. Calculate the void ratio of the specimen (line 8),
G"y,
Yd
-I (litre 8 of Table 15 2) (15.5)
where G Gine 7 of Table 15-2) is the specilic gravity of soil solids, Y" the unit weight
of water (62.4 lb/ft3), and yd is in 1b/ft3. Now refer to Table 15-3.
4. Calculate the nomal stress o/on the specimen (column l),
normal load N (1b)

d (lblin.2) : (1s.6)
Z(in.)xB(in.)
I:t
Tab[e l5-3. Stress and Displacement Cal.cutation-Direct :r
Shear Test on Sand
7
J
Description ol soil uA;hflkJ.!7tuL Sampteno. 2
Location A,.garA.,ttcir.je,
NormaI to tb Void ratlo e
:I
Tested by Daie
J
Normal
Str.e$. Hgrizo.t_al - Vedieit '
,
.!o' 9! ,'.'
ulv. tn
pry"le,
I -l
:l
.
Dispha€ridnt : Rins,Diatl
ttb/iit.2j ' lin.l . )
J
..
.]o,a.ose,,1:
l1l 12, t, ...
' .. ..131. r:'.:
74 o o 0 o.37 o 0
J
7+
74
o.o7
0.o2
+O.OO7
+O.OO2
45
76
o.31
o.37
73.95
3.56
3.49
5.89 J
J
2
74 o.o 3 +o.OO4 95 o.37 29.76 7.44

74 o.o4 +O.006 772 0.31 34.72 8.68
J
74
74
0.o5
o.o6
+O.OO8
+0.0O9
724
729
o.37
o.31
38.4+
39.99
9.67
70.oo J
74 0.o7 +O.O70 725 o.37 38.75 9.69 J
74 o.08 +0.07O 779 o.37 3 6.89 9.22
J
74 o.09 +O.O09 114 o.37 3 5.34 8.84
J
,
J
74 o.70 +O.OO8 709 o.37 3 3.79 a.45
74 0.77 +O.OOB 708 o.37 33.48 8.37

74 o.72
o.73
+O.008
+O.OO8
705
705
o.37
o.37
32.55
32.55
8.74
8.74
J
)
14
7+
o.74
o.75
+O.OOB
+O.OO8
104
705
o.37
0.3 7
32.34
32.5 5
8.O9
8.7+ J
. Plus l+l siqn means expansion.
T
J
il
H Direct Shear Test on Sand
5. The horizontal, vertical, and proving ring dial gauge readings are obtained liom
151
the test
E, 6.
(columns 2, 3, and 4).
For any given set of horizontal and vertical dial gauge readings, calculate the shear
force (column 6),
.! : [no. of divisions in proving dng dial gauge (column 4)]

x [proving ring calibration factor (column 5)] (15.7)
7. Calculatc the shear stress r (column 7),

sheai lorce ,S s (1b)
r(lb/in.2): (15.8)
of specimen f (in.) x B (in.)
E
area
lNotu. A separate data sheet has to be used for each tesl (i.e., for each nofinal stress
rj o').l
15.5 Graphs
For each nomal stress, plot a graph of t (colunrn 7 of Table l5-3) versus hodzontal
E l.
displacement (column 2 ofTable 15-3), as shown in Fig 15 5 for the results obtained
rj from Table 15 3. On the bottom of tJre same graph paper, using the same hodzontal
scale, plot a graph of ve ical displacement (column 3) versus horizontal displacement
u (column 2). There will be al least three such plottings (one for each value of o'). Deter-
mine the shear sfiess at failure s from each r versus horizonta] displacement graph (as
u shown in Fig. 15 5). Note that the sheal stress at failure is the shear strength
2. Plot a graph of shear stength.r versus nonnal stress o/. This graph will be a sffaight
u line passing through the origin. Figure 15 6 shows such a plot for the sand repofted
in Tables l5-2 and 15 3. The angle of {riction of the soil can be determined from the
slope of the shaight-line plot of s versus o' as
L:
u
(1s.e)
G)
u 15.6 GeneraI Comments
u The nature ofthe plots ofshear stress and vefiical displacement ve$us hodzontal displace-
ment shown in Fig. 15 5 may vary depending on the denseness of the sand. Fig{rre 15-7
u shows typical plots of shear stress and vertical displacement of specimens against horizon
tal displacement for very loose and very dense dry sands. The following genemlizations
u can be developed:
1.In very loose sand, the resisting shear strcss increases with shear displacement until
a failure shear stress r (which is the shear strength) is reached After that, the
shear resistance rcmains approximately constant for any fufiher increase in the shear
displ acement.
152
:I
)
SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL )

)
s= 1O lb/in.?
)
)
te o'= 14lb/in.z )
)
E
)
a )
)
-)
0
)
0.010
E 0.008 )
)
0-004
)
0 )
o 2 4 6 810 12 14
Hoizontal displacement x 10P (in.)
)
Figure 15-5. Ptots ol shear stress and verticat disptacementvs. horizontaI
displacement for direct shear test reported in Tabtes 15-2 and 15-3. )
)
2. In very dense sand, the resisting shear shess increases with shear displacemetrt until it
reaches a failure stress s, calledthe peak shedr strength. Aftet lallure stress is attained, )
the resisting shear stress gradually decreases as shear displacement increases until it
finally reaches a constant value, called the ,Ltifiate shear strenSth, su. )
Hence, for loose sands s : .rr. However, for very dense sands s, < ,r. So, according to Eq. )
(15.2), we can write fot peak shear strength
)
:)
)
5
Direcl Shear Tesl on Sand 153
!' 10
d {lt in.?)
Figure 15-6. Plot of s vs. o' for sand reported in Tables 15-2 and 15-3. lrvote; Resutts
for tests with / = 7 tb/in.2 and 28 tb/in.2 are not shown in Tabte 15-3.1
and, fot ubimate shear strength,
s,: dtan 0', (15.10)
:
where Ou ultimate friction angle.
Now, refer to Fig. 15-5. For the test reported, su I
8.1 tb/in.2 (o/ :
141b/in.2). Similar
values of s, have been determined and plotted against d in Fig. 15-6. The straight line
passing through the avemge plot of su versus o' witl pass tluough the origin. The slope of
the line will give {1, or
or:*-'(i) (1s.11)
For the Fesent tes! O// ry 30.1".

The laboratory report should contain the following.
. Cover page
. Equipment used
. Descdptiofl of the test procedue
. Results--data sheets for void ratio calculations, shear stess-displacement calcu-
lation, and sample calculations. Also, atl gaphs showing the plots of shear stress
15t+ S0lL t',4ECHANICS LAB0RATORY MANUAL
:l
)
Peak shear
strenglh
T
=l
)
Very dense L,ltimale shear
sand / strength
)
)
)
v)
)
J
)
d = a constani
Shear displacement )
-- )
-.9 ----;;il;*
J
)
FC
Eut
E
.9
Hori.o.tal displacement
J
J
{6
9F
-e V€ry loosE sand
Figure 15-7. Ptots of shearstress and verticat disptacement of specimens vs.

J
)
horizontat displacement for very loose and very dense sand.
and vefiical displacement against ho zontal displacement and plots of s versus o' to
detemine 0' should be provided. If the tests have been conducted fbr larger shear
J
)
displacemelts, se should be determined, and from it the magnitude of d! can be
obtained (s! versus o/ plot). :l
. Discussion a sunrmary of the values of f/ and f', determined. Comment also on
the possible sources of error. J
:l
)
:l
,l
,
J:.
u Unconfi ned Compression

u Test
u
u
u
u
u 16.1 lntroduction
ru ASTM Standdrd: D-2166

It was mentioned in Chapter 15 that the Mohr Coulomb failure criteria based on effective
sffess parameters can be expressed as,
(r6.r)
L
u
If identical soil specimens are subjected to major (oi) and minot (o!) effective principal
stresses (Fig. 16.1(a)) and tested to failure, the Mohr's circles at failure will be
as shown
in Fig. 16 l(b). Note that, at failure, oi : oio and oi : o5(,").The envelope for Mohr's
u circle at failuie can be given by Eq. (16.1).

Again, if similar sata ftLted idenircal soil specimens are subjected to major (ol) and
u minor (o3) principal stresses (total stress) without drainage (Fig 1G2(a)), the Mohr's cir-
cles at failwe with ol : dl0) and 03 : o3!l as major and minor principal stresses
(total)
u will be as shown in Fig. 1G2(b) and can be expressed as

(t6.2)
:
where ce undrained cohesion or undnined shear strength
Note that the Mohr's envelope shown in Fig. 16 2(b) is a folal s/ress envelope The
diameters of the Mohr's circles aae the same.
155
l4
(a)
a
E
n
I-r
I
(b)
Figure t6-1, lal soit specimen subjected to major (4) and minor (4) elfective
principte stress lfutL drainageli lbl Mohr-coutomb faiture envelope [E0- 116.1)].
3
;
(b)
Figure 16-2. lal saturated Soil specimen subjected to major (or) and minor (o3) totat
principl,e stress without drainage; {bl Totat stress failure envetope [O = 0 conceptl [see
equation ll6.2ll.
Unconfined Compression Test 157
E
6
TI
(lolal)
(b)
Figure 15-3. Concept of unconfined compression test: [a] Satu.ated specimen

subjected to major lotl principat stress with zero minor principte stress lwithout
drainagel; lbl Mohr's circte for unconfined compression tesl lsee Eq. (16.3]].
The unconfined compression test is a quick method for deteminitg the value of ca
with o3at failure beitrg equal to zero (Fig. 1G3(a)). The unconfined compression strengih
4, can be giveri as (Figure 16.3(b))
qL: 61U) - a3(fl : olf) 0
^qu orn - o3c) _o1(/) o-or(/)

"2 2 22
(16.3)
For further discussion, see any soil mechanics text, e.g. Das (2010).
The unconlined compression strength is determined by applying an axial stress to a
cylindrical soil specimen with no confining prcssurc and obserying the axial strains cone-
sponding to vadous stess levels. The sfl€ss at which failurc in the soil specimen occurs
is referred to as the unconfrned compression strcngth (Fig. lg).
FoI saturated clay
specimens, the unconfined compressiotr stength deqeases with the increase in moisturc
coite\t. Fot u saturatel soils, with the dry unit weight remaining constalt, the unconfined
comprcssion strength decreases with the increase in the degree of saturation.
)
:I
158 :I
:l
lailure = q,
)
)
J
)
I
J
)
Figure 16-4. Definition of unconfined compression strcngth.

)
15.2 Equipment
l. Unconfined compre.rion tesLjng device
)
2. Specimen trimmer and accesso es (ifundisturbed fie1d specimen is used)
3. Harvard miniatu.e compaction device and accessories (if specimen is to be molded for
)
classroom work)
4. Scale
)
6. Oven
)
:J
16.3 Unconfined Compression Test Machine )
An unconlined compression testmachine in which strain-controlled tests can be performed )
is shown in Fig. 16 5. The machine essentially consists of a top and a bottom loading plate.
The bottom of a proving ring is attached to the top loading plate. The top of the proving )
ring is attached to acrossbar, which, in tum, is fixed to two metalposts. The bottom loading -)
plate can be moved up or down.
)
16.4 Procedure
l Obtain a soil specimen for the test.Ifit is an undisturbed specimen, it has to be trimmed )
to the proper size by using the specimen trimmer. For classroom laboratory work,
specimens at vafious moisture contents can be prepared using a HanTard miniature )
compaction device. The cylin&ical soil specimen should have a heightto-diameter
)
)
;l
E unconf ined Compression Test 159
Fiqure 15-5. Unconfined compression testing machine.
ratio I/D ofbetween 2 and 3. In many insta[ces, specimens with diameters of 1 4 in

(35.56 mm) and heights of 3.5 in. (88.9 mm) are used
2. Measure the diameter D and length L of the specimen and determine the mass of the
specimen (see top of Table 16-l).
3. Place the specimen centrally between the two loading plates of the uncoofined com-
LJ
rj pression testing machine. Move the top loading plate very carefully j ust to touch the top
ol the specimen. Set the proving ring dial gauge to zero. A dial gauge leach small divi-
rj sion of the gauge should be equal to 0.001 in. (0.0254 mm) of vertical havell should be
attached to the unconfined compression testing machine to record the vefiical upward
movement (i.e., compression of specimen dudng testing) of the bottom loading plate.
Set this dial gauge to zero.
4. Tum the machine on. Record loads (i.e., proving ring dial gauge readings; see Table
col. 3 of 16-1) and the corresponding specimen deformations. During the load appli
H cation, adjust the 1ate of vertical sttuinto l/21Io per minute. The mte of stmin should
be chosen such that the time to failure does not exceed about 15 minutes At the
initial stage of the test, readings are usually taken every 0.01 in. (0 254 mm) of spec-
imen defomation (see col. 1 of Table 16 1). However, this can be varied to every
:J
=
160 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL :J

:J
)
I
)
)
)
)
:J
Figure 15-6, SoiI specimen after failure-by shearing. )
0.02 in. (0.508 ntm) of specimel deformation at a later stage of the test, when the
load ieformation curve begins to flaften out.
5. Conrinue taking readings unLil:
a. load reaches a peak and then decreases; or
I
)
-)
b. load reaches a maximum value and remains apprcximately constant thereafter (take
about 5 readings after it reaches its peat value); or
:J
c. defomation of the specimen is past 15% strain before reaching the peak. This may
happen il the case of soft clays.
Figure 16-6 shows a soil specimen after failure by shearing and Fig. 16 7 shows the
'J
failure of the specimen by bulging.
-)
6. Unload the specimen by lowedng the bottom loading plate.
7. Remove the specimen from between the two loading plates.
J
8. Draw a free-hand sketch of the specimen after failure. Show the nature of the failule.
9. Put the specimen in a porcelain evapo.ating dish and detemine the moisture content
(after drying it in an oven to a constant weight).
J
-)
15.5 Catcutations
For each set ofreadings (refer to Table 16-l):
1. Calculate the veltical strain (column 2),

II
)
AL
L
(16.4)
II
;j
Unconfined Compression Test 161
Figure 16-7. 50iI specimen after faiture-by butging.
where AZ : total vertical deformation of specimen

a original lenglh o[ specimen
2. Calculate the verlical load on the specimen (column 4),
load : fproving ring dial reading (column 3)] x (calibration factor) (16.5)
3. Calculate the corrected area of the specimen (column 5),
A0
(16.6)
1-e
where A6 is the initial arca of crcss-section of the specimen, : (n/4) D2.
4. Calculate the sfess o on the specimen (colunn 6),
load colunn 4
(16.7 )
Ac column 5
Tabte 16-1. Unconfined Compression Test
Descripllon of soil I ighflvdpwd.Ll4 Specimenno. i
Localion friait! 11.11 pralal
l.4oist mass of sDecimen g Moisiure content 12 vd
Length of specimen L in. Diameter of specimen D
Proving ri ng cafibration factor: 1div.: 0.264 th AreaAo:+D2 = 1 605 in2

Tested by Date
,..l:*t* -
:i.::!@iFi
u,::sni!!t:i
ir:iw:,
l.:.::i&!:ii: *ir€$g;tgqt:*Sfi
o o o o 7.605 0
o.o7 o.oo33 72 3.768 7.677 1.966
0.o2 o.0067 38 70.o32 7.677 6.205
o.o3 o.o7 52 73.728 7.622 8.462
0.o4 o.o73 5a 75.372 7.628 9.407
o.06 o.o2 67 77.688 7.6 39 70.793
o.oa o.o27 74 79.536 7.650 77.840
o.70 o.o3 3 78 20.592 7.667 72.394
o.72 o.o4 87 27.384 7.673 72.782
o.74 0.047 83 27.912 7.68 5 73.OO7
o.76 o.o53 85 22.440 7.697 73.227

o.78 o.06 85 22.70+ 7.709 13.288
o.20 o.o67 86 22.704 7.727 73.794
o.24 o.o8 84 22.176 7.746 12.703
o.28 o.o93 83 7.777 72.370
o.32 o.707 a2 27.972 7.798 72.O41
o.36 0.72 8I 27.384 7.425 17.777

Unconf ined Compression Test 163
16.6 Graphs
Plot the graph of stress o (column 6) versus adal strain e, in percent (colunrn 2 x 100).
Determine the peak stress from this graph. This is the unconfined comprcssion stength
4! of the specimen. (Note: If l5Vo shain occurs before the peak sffess, then the stress
coffesponding to l5Eo strain should be taken as 4!.) The graph coresponding to the sample
calculation shown in Table 1G1 is given in Fig. 16-8.

E 1. In the determination ofunconfined comprcssion strength it is better to conduct tests on
two to three identical specimens. The average value of4, js the representative value.
,E 2. Based on the value of4,, ofa cohesive soil is as shown in Table 16-2
the consistelcy
3.For rnany naturally deposited clayey soils, the unconfined compression strength is
greatly reduced when the soil is tested after remolding without any change in moisture
16
LJ q,, = T3.5lb/in.'?
'14
E 12
LJ 10
LJ b8
t-"
LJ
LJ
10 12
Axial slrain € (%)
Figure 15-8. Pl.ot of o vs. e l%lfor the test resutts reported in Tabte 16-1.
J
)
16L SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL )
Tabte 16-2. Consistency of Cohesive Soits )

)
Very soft 0 500 025
)
Soft 500-1000 25-50 -t
)
Medium 1000-2000 50-100
Stiff 2000-4000 100-200 )

Very stiff 4000-8000 200-400
)
-i
Tabte l6-3, Sensitivity of Ctay
Slightly sensitive
24 Medium sensitivity
-
4-g Verv sensitive -
8-16 Slightly quick
-
t6-32 Medium quick
-
32-64 Very quick
>64 Extra quick -
content. This is refened to as r?tsitiriO, and can be defined as -

4,(undLsrurbedl (16.8)
" -
4&(rcnolded)
The sensitivity of most clays ranges from I to 8. Based on the magnitude of Sr, clays -
can be described as shown in Table 16-3.
4. The unconfined compression shength 4, (or undrained cohesion c!) of a soil speci- -
men obtained from the field in a Shelby tube can be estimated using a laboratory vane
shear apparahrs by pushing the vanes into a soil specimen (also see ASTM Standard
-
D-4658). Figure 16.9 is a photogaph of a laboratory vane shear apparatus. The shear
vane usually consists of fouI thin, equal-size steel plates welded to a steel torque rod
-
(Fig. 1G10). First, the vane is pushed into the soil Then torque is applied at the top of
the torque rod to rotate the vane at a uniform speed. A cylinder of soil of height lz and
-
-
-
Unconf lned Compression Test 165
Figure 16-9. Photograph ofa [aboratoryvane shear apparatus. lCourtesy of

N. Sivakugan, James Cook lJniversity, Austratia.l
diameter d will resist the torque T until the soil fails. The undrained cohesion of the
soil can be calculated as
,r: kT (r6.e)
re :!42 (n*4\
\ 3)
( 16.l0)
J In most cases t: 2d [d : 0.5 in. (13 mm) andl? : 1.0 in. (25 mm)] and, with that,
-t, .:"{(::') t16.11)
-i, and
_\t ,.:#(1:) (16.12)
rl
)
:l
:t
:l
166 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY NIANUAL
:l
)
T
:l
)
I
)
I )
I
I :J
:J
I
I
l. a +l
!
Figure 16-10, schematic diagram of a [aboratory vane shear apparatus. )
I
)
)
:)
)
)
)
J
(a) (b) :J
.J
Figure 16-11. Fietd vane: lalVane and torque meter; [blvane connected to a drilL rod.
lCourtesy of N. Sivakugan, James Cook University, Austratia.l
:l
Unconfined Compression Test. 167
TabLe 16-4. Dimensions of Fietd Vanes Generally Used in the United States
rj {:s.r) 3.0 (76.2) * (1.5e)
2.0 (50.8) 4.0 (101.6) r6-L

(1.59)
2+($.5) 5.0 (127.0) { t:.tsl
3; (e2.1) '7
i0s4.z) { t:.t al
The vane shear test can be conducted in the field wherc considemble variations in c, can
be found with depth. Figure 16.11(a) shows a lield vane and torque meter' Figure 16 1l(b)
shows the vane connected to a drill rod. The vane attached to the ddll rcd is lowered and
pushed into a clay layer, and then a torque is applied until the soil fails The sizes of field
vanes generally used in the U.S. are given in Table 16.4.

. Cover page
. Equipment used
. Descdption of test procedure
. Results-data sheet, graph of stress versus arial strain, and sample calculations'
. Discussion-Report the unconnned compression strength and also any sources of
,
L-
l-
L-
L
;
l-
, Consotidation Test
|-
4
4
4
4 17.1 lntroduction
I
\
L,
-
When a saturated comprcssible clay layer is subjected to a stress incrcase, elastic settlement
occurs immediately. Since the coeffrcient of permeability of clay is significantly smaller
than that of granular soil, the excess pore water pressue generated due to loading gradu-
ally dissipates over a long period of time. Thus the associated volume change (that is, the
consolidation) rn clay soils may continue long alter the elastic setdement is complete. The
settlement due to consolidation in soft clay may be several times larger than the elastic
L. settlement.
l. In this chapter the procedwe of a one-dimensional laboratory consolidation test will

be described, and the methods of calculation to obtain the void ratio versus pressure curve
(e versus log p), the preconsolidation pressure p", and the coemcient of consolidation cu
L. will be oudined.
t=
It, 17.2 Equipment
1 Consolidation test unit
2. Specimen trimmi[g device
3. Wire saw
L, 5. Stopwatch
L= 169
t=
Y
J
)
170 50lL l'4ECHANICS LAB0RAT0RY MANUAL )
6. Moisture cal
)
7. Ovel
)
17.3 Consol.idation Test Unit )

The consolidation test unit consists oI a consolidometer and a loading device. The con-
)
solidoneter cirn be cithcr floating .ing or fixed ring (see Fig. 17-l). The floating ring
consolidoneter usually consists of a brass dng in which the soil specimen is placed. One )
poaous stone is placed at the top of the specimen and another porous stone at the bottom. -)
Thc soil specimel in the ring with the two porous stones is placed on abase p]ate. A plastic
r-in{ surrounding the specinen lits irto a groove on the base plate. Load is applied through a
loading head, which is placed on the top porous stone. In the floating-dng consolidometer, )
colnplessioll of the soil spccimel occurs from the top and bottom toward the centet The
fixed-ring consolidometer essentially consjsts of the same components, i.e., a hollow base )
platc, two porous stones, a brass dng to hold the soil specimen, and a metal ring that can -t
blr fixcd tightly to the top of the base plate. The ring surounds the soil specimen. A
standpipe is attached to the side of the base p1ate. This can be used for determining the
permcability ol a soil. In the fixed-ring consolidometet the compression of the specirren )
occurs fr-om the top to\vard the bottom.
The specifications tbr thc loadjng devices of the consolidation test unit vary depending
on the manufacturer and also the laboratory where the test is performed. Figure 17 2 shows :
one type of loading device, and Fig. 17 3 is a close-up view of a consolidometer.
The test results repofled in Tables 17 I and l7-2 have been conducted using the type ol :
cqulpnrent shown in Fig. 17 2 and 17 3- Figure 17-,1 shows a tabletop type consolidation
assembly whjch is used in many labomtories. In advanced laboratories, it is common to see :
motorizcd aod seNo-co11trclled machines such as tho one shown in Fig. 17 5. Figure 17.5
shows a consolidation iest in progress, with an S type load cell measu ng the load applied -
on the specimen and a dial gauge measuring the reduction in the thickness of the specimen.
Duling the consolidation tcst, when load is applied to tlte soil specimen, the nature of :
lhe variations of the side friction between the suaounding brass ring and the specimen is
dillererrt for lhe fixed ring consolidometer and the floating-ring consolidoneter', which is
:
shown in Fig. l7 l. In most casos a side lriction of 107. of the applied load is a rcason
:
able estirnate. For fufther discussion on this refer to Lambe (1951), Burows (1948). and
Taylor (1942).
-
17.4 Procedure
L Prepare a soil specirnen for thc test by trimming an undisturbed natwal sample obtained
)
in Shclby tubes. The Shelby tube sample should be about 1/4 1/2in.(6.35 l2.7mm)
larger in diameter than the specimen diameter to be prepared 1br the test. (Note: Fot
classroom instirction pulposes, a specinen can be molded in the laboratory.)
)
l
!
Consotidation Test 171
LEGEND
a Brass.ing
c - Base plale
d- Plaslic ring
e- Loading head
J- Metal ring
g Standpipe
h - Dial gauge
Figure 1?-1 . Schematic diagrams of consol.idometer. lal Ftoating-ring consotido-

meter. Ibl Fixed-ring consolidometer.
2. Collect some excess soil that has been trimmed in a moisturc can for determination of
the moistue content.
3. Collect some of the excess soil trimmed in Step 1 for determination of the speciflc
gravity Gs of the soil solids (see top of Table 17-2).
Determine the mass Mt ol lhe consolidalion ring. in grams.
t
Place the soil specimen in the consolidation ring. Use the wire saw to mthespecimen
flush with the top and bottom of the coNolidatiol ring. Record the size of the speci men,
i.e., height 114g and diameter D (see top of Table 17 2).
6. Determine the mass M2 of the consolidation ritrg and the specimen' in grams.
7. Take a soil sample and determine its moisture content ttl (see top of Table 17-2)'
8. Satuate the lowe! porcus stone on the base of the consolidometer.
9. Place the soil specimen in the ring over the lower porous $tone
10. Place tle upper porous stone on the specimen in the dng.
l1 . Attach the top ring to the base of the consolidometer.
)
)
)
)
)
)
I--i
)
-l
)
--l
Figure 1?-2. Consotidation toad assembty. ln this assembtytwo specimens can be
:l
tested simuttaneously. Lever-arm ratio for loading is 1:10.
it saturated ln the case )

12. Add water to the consolidometer to submerge the soil and keep
of the fixed-ring consolidometer, the outside ring (which is attached to the top of ihe
)
base) and the standpipe connection attached to the base should be kept lilled wilh water
This needs to be done for the entire period of the test.
)
13. Place the consolidometer in the loading device.
14. Attach the veitical deflection dial gauge to measure the compression of the soil It
should be fixed in such as way that the dial is at the beginning of its release run The
1
dial gauge should be calibrated to read: I small div. : 0.0001 in. (0.00254 mm) )
15. Apply load to the specimen such that the magnitude of pressure / on the specimen is
1/, tonft2 (48 kN/m2). Take the vertical deflection dial gauge readings at the following )
times t. counted from the time of load application: 0' 0 25, I ' 2'25 ' 4, 6 25, 9, 12'25,
20.25,25,36,60,120, 240, 480, and 1440 minutes (24 hours) (see Table l7-1)
')
16. The next day add more load to the specimen such that the total prcssure on the specimen
reaches I tor/ftz (96 kN/m2). Take the veftical deflection dial gauge reading at similar )
time intervals as stated in Step 15 (No/€. Here we have Lp/p : 1' where AP is the
increase in pressure and p the pressue beforc the increase )
1
1
:l
!-t
l
Consolidation Test 173
Figure 17-3, Ctose-up view of consolidometer during testing.
17. Repeat Step 16 for soil pressure magnitudes of 2 ronft2 (192 kN/m2), 4 ronfr2 (384
kN/m2), 8 ror/ft2 (768 lil.{/mz), and 16 ron/ft2 ( 1536 kN/m2). (Note: Lp lp l.) :
18. In the class, if time permits, determine the swell indcx (C,) by unloading the specimen
to 8 ton/ft2 (768 kN/m2), keeping the load for 24 hours, and at rhe end of 24 hours,
taking the vertical deflection dial gauge rcading.
19. Again unload the specimen to 4 ton/# (384 kN/m2) and repeat Step 18.
20. At the end of the test remove the soil specimen and detemine its moistule content (see
top of Table 17 2).
17.5 CaLcutations and Graphs

The calculation p.ocedure for the test carl be explained with rcference to Tables 17-l and
17-2 and Figs. I1J, l'7-8, and l7-9, which show the laboratory test results for a light
brown clay.
l. Collect allthe time versus veftical deflection dial readings. Table 17 I show$ the results
J of a pressure increase fromp:2tonlft2 top + Lp:4tonlftz.
J
171. 4
a
1?-1.
:r
Tabte Time versus Vertical DiaI Reading-ConsoLidation Test
Descriplion oI soll I i4)ath{o\Dtudn4/
Localior Slttn,nit D t'rv?'

:I
Tested by Date
J
Pressure on specimen 4 ton/ft? Pressure on specimen lonllr2
J
VenilaI
Diat
R€dinq.
.:
-
J
-J
I
J
5
tin.l tminlo
0 0 o.0638
o.25 0.5 o.o65+
J
7.0
2.25
7.O
7.5
o.o697
o.o7 39
J
:J
J
+.o 2.O o.o79 5
6.25 2.5 o.08 3 3
9.0 3.O 0.0868

:J
3.5 o.oa9a
J
J
16.O 4.0 o.o922
20.25 4.5 o.o947
25 5.O o.o9 54
J
36 6.O o.o979
J
60
720
7.75
70.95
o.700+
o.7079 J
2+O 75.49 o.1029
J
4AO 27.97 0.7048
:I
7++O 37.95 o.7059
:I
;l
,t
-1
Figure 17-1. Tabtetop type of consotidation unit, lCourtesy of Khated Sobhan, Ftorida
Attantic University, Boca Raton, Ftorida.l
2. Determine the time for 907o primary consolidation t16 irom each set of time versus
vertical deflection dial readings. An example is shown in Fig. l7 7, which is a plot of
the results of veftical dial readirlgs versus .r'4irne- given in Table 17_1. Draw a ungent
,{B to the initial consolidation curve. Measure the length BC The abscissa of the poitrt
of intersection ofline AD with the consolidation curve $,ill give !60. Note rhat CD :
1.15(BQ. In Fig. 1'7 :7, Jreo : 4.75 min .0 r. so reO : (4.75)2 : 22.56 min. This
technique is referred to as the square-root,of-time cun'e-Jitting method (Taylot, 1942).
3. Determine the time for 50Ea pdmary consolidation ,50 from each set of time v€Bus
vertical deflection dial readings. The procedure for this is shown in Fig. 17 g, which
is a semilog plot (vefiical dial readings on a natuml scale and time on a log scale) for
the set of readings showrh Table 17-1. Project the straight-line portion of the primary
consolidation downward and the straight-Iine pofion of tlle secondarv consolidation
backward. The point of intersection of these two lines is,4. The veniial dial reading
corresponding to A is dt00 (dial reading at 100% primary consolidatiol). Select times
:I
:I
J
:J
J
J
Figure 17-5. A modern motorized servo-controlled consotidation apparatus.
lCourtesy of Dr. N. Sivakugan, James cook University, Austratia.l
J
Specimen Specimen
J
J
lop 10p
f= friction/unil contact area
J
J
:I
Specimen Specimen
J
:T
(a) (b)
Figure 17-6. Nature of variations of soit-ring friction per unit contact area: (al in :l
fixed-ring consotidometeri {bl in ftoating-ring consotidometer
:I
:I
E
I
t.l. ci c; ci
".J
N o
't l
^1 J P
.:., ,. .:
Q'
il. .:i
Io qi ci
.9 !i
FI
9
p
J: . .l: .,
,.:..,.i:El:
:lg_::l:.9.. <i
t.:,..,..r1:rr_.t:
l':ii -'al
'a: E-.:
r'.
a a
:r:.r:a :
'!
}E
3n
;t a
N
.9+ ci q; qi
'- .9
.= ,.1 o
6t
? a
(.) J1 ii o o ci
:
a
.9
:'6
o
l{ .oLl] d +
o {o
i a
a
o.
d 3d q
t
'6
! Er
ei ci
t: o
o o
o a
d ci
slP
(! lE
iT . -E.E -. --,
a
a
t\ --"E'9 el
ci
a o
F6 ::::i:.:: :F:i5r-:t:1,i-::r.:
ei ei
.qts
F .9
-c E; o q
g
e
l"'
l'; 4
''1
qi a d
;': et.
;e.*l
.
.: - L-g
- :F:-:
t:].:.'-- qi d ci
1
i :.::i'i::,U'.:
o o J
=l
:I
i;.--E-.:
J
d d a
J
!q
o
J
ci d ci ci ci
J
I
F
-5 ^: -'
g .i ' c': :
.1
N
..{
o d
..!
a J
a::gt:::::
ci c;
J
J
F ,: i.-
,::i-,:r:E. : E:Ea a a
ai::rrlli:,. o d
J
qi
Rg::.l:: ci ci
I co q
o
o
a
?
a
a
e
J
-l
co
o o J
d c; ci I
qi ci
1
€
D
I
fl
lf
Y
b"
E tr aad t2 = 4tt. (Note: tt and ,l should be within the top curyed poftion of the con
solidation plot.) Determine the difference X in the dial readings between times /t and
/r. Plot line BC, which is veflically a distancc X above the point on the consoliclarion
cuNe codesponding to time /1. The vefiical dial gauge conesponding ro line BC i.r /0.
E i.e., the reading fbr 07c consolidation. Dete.mine thc dial gauge reading cotespondilg
to 507, primary consolidation,
da + dno
(17.r )
The time corresponding to d50 on the consolidation curve is r59. Thjs is the logarithn_
oftine cur|e-Jitting method (.Cas $ande and Fadum. 1940). In Fieure 17 g. ajo :
E
t
a.0 min.
.1. Complete the experimental data in coiumns
l. 2, 8, and 9 of Table l7_2. Colunxls i
and 2 are obtained ftom time-dial reading tables (such as Table l7_1), and columns g
tt
and 9 are obtained from Steps 2 and 3, respcctively.
5. Detemine the mass of dry soil specimen as (see top oI Table 17 2),
Mt-Mt
(t].2)
vt 6. Determine
Table 17-2),
the height Hr ol tJle solids of the specimen in tie mold (see top of
t:t (!o')
Ms
o,o"
( 17.3 )
u
rt:
where M,
l) :
G:
:
Plr :
dry mass of soil specimen
diameter of specimen
specific gravity of soil solids
density of water
As an example in Table 17-2,

M':
u
116.'74 e
D: (2.5) x (2.54) cm
G':2.12
t:
r
P,,
So,
: 1 glcn3
M" 116.'74
: 1.35o cm \ U.519 in.
r
iD2G,y, (+) (2.s x 2.sq2(.2.72)(.t)
,:
J
)
r80 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL )
)
)
J
)
.E J
)
E
)
0.10
)
0.11 )
)
o.t2
o 2 4 6 810 12
\Time (mino.5) )
Figure 17-7. Ptot of diat reading vs, Jl for test resutts reported in Tabte 17-1. )
Determination ol teo by square-root-of-time curvejitting method. Uvote:
cD = 1.15{8cl.l )
7.In Table l7-2 determine the change in height At1 of the specimen due to load )
increments from p to p + Ap (colulni 3). For example,
: )
: I 12 tonlff ,
p f,nal dial reading 0.0283 in.
p + Lp : l tonlI? , final dial reading: 0.0356 in )

Thus. )
Aa : 0.0356 - 0.0283 : 0.0073 in.
8. Detemine the final specimen height 11,01 at the end of consolidation due to a given )
load (column 4, "lable l'7-2). For example, in'fable 17-2 H/0) at p:l/2 tonlft2 is
0.9917. Allfromp: r/2tonllC to I tonlflz is 0.0073. So f141 atp : 1 tor/ftz equals
)
0.9917 0.0073 : 0.9844 in.
9. Determine the height /1u of the voids in the specimen at the end of consolidation due )
to a given loading p (column 5, Table l7-2),
)
H,:Ho-H, (17.4)
:J
:l
rj
0.05
0.06 B
<---------- c
lx
0.07 iI -rr-- rl ---_-t'
x
il. ,t-{-l--
.E
q, 0.08 --<F-------- --
5 d5o
0.09
E
o
0.10 < ------- i
4oo
0.11
i
0.12
0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 10 100 1000 2000
Time (min)
Figur€ 17-8. Logarithm-of-time curvejitting method for laboratory resutts reported

in Tabte 17-1.
10. Determine the f,nal void ratio at the end of consolidation for each loading p (column 6,
Table l'l-2),
H, column 5
(17.5)
H" Hs
[,Vote. Steps 11, 12, 13 are not necessary for the unloading part of the test (i.e., 8
^nd
ton/ft2 and 4 tor/ff:).]
11. Determine the average specimen height l14uu; during consolidation for each inqemen-
ta1 loading (column 7, T^ble lH).
For-example, irt Table l'1-2 the value of I146u;
betweenp :l/Ztonl# aJld,p:1tonlft2 is
Hta atp : + Hta atp : I tonfi? 0.9917 + 0.9844

;rln/ttz : 0.9881in.
)
:T
09 )
)
)
0.8
-J
.st
E o.r )
'5
)
)
)
0.5
)
1.0 )
0.8 )
)
b o.a
J
)
0
0.5 1 4 810 J
J
20
Pressure, P (ton/ff)
Figure 17-9. Plots of void ratio and coefficient of consolidation use pressure for soiI
reported in Tabte 17-2. )
12. Calculate the coefficient of consolidation cu (column 10, Table l7-2) from 196 )
(column 8),
)
r.:+ |7.6)
)
where C : time factor, tqo :0.848
)
H : maximum length of drainage path, l{1"uy/2, (since specimen
is &ained at top and bottom)
)
)
rl
E Consolidation Test 183
,E Thus,
o 848ni(avl
- (t'7.-r)
""- 4t*
rj 13- Calculate the coemcient

(column 9),
of
Ir(50'")
consolidation cu (column 11, Table
:oln :7f : cvl5o

tH,a,) l2t2
l1J) from ts6
5 Then
(H,@))2
tr
0.19'.7
(17.8)
4tso
tr For example, frcm

56.0 s. So
p: 112 toilft2 to p: 1 ton/ft?, 11<av) : 0.9881 in.; rso :
tr 0.197 (0.9881)2
4x56
:0.859 x 10-3 in.2/s
r
14. Plot a semiloga thmic graph of pressure versus final void mtio (column I versus col
L. umn 6, Table 17-2 for loading and unloading portion). Pressue p is plotted on the
log scale and the final void ratio on the linear scale. As an example, the results of
Table 17-2 are plotted in Fig. 17-9. (Note.. The plot of e versus log p has a curved
upper portion and then a linear relationship.)
: 15. Calculate the compression index C". This is the slope of the linear portion of the e
versus logp plot (Step l4). In Fig. 17-9,
JJ
: e1 - el {J.696 0.612
: 0.279
los(pz/pi log(s/a)
I 6. The unloading part of theelog p plot can be approximated as a linear plot, as shown in
Fig. l7-9. The slope ofthis linearplot is the swell index, C". Calculare rhe swell index.
,a
r
In Fig. 17-9,
L- a.: et - e1 0.54'79 0.53
' toe(p2/pt) los(8/4)
0.059
17. On the semilogarithmic graph (Step 14), using the same horizontal scale (the scale for
rL'
p), plot the values of cu (columns l0 and ll,
L. Table 17 2). As an example, the values
determined in Table l7-2 are plofted in Fig. l7 9. lNote: q is plotted on the linear
scale conesponding to the average value ofp, i.e., (p1+ p)/2.1(Nore.. This is for the
loading pafi only.)
18. Determine the p/econsolidation pressure p.. The procedure can be explained with the
aid of the e versus logp gaph shown in Fig. 17 9 (Casagrande, 1936). First detemine
point A, which is the point on the e veisus log p plot that has the smallest radius of
E.
tj
curvaturc. DIaw a hodzontal line AB. Draw a line AD, which is the ,i.recror of angle
BAC. hoject the straight-line portion of the e versus log p plot backward to meet line
)
)
181+ SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL )
AD at E. Thepressure coresponding to point E is the preconsolidation pressure. In )

Fig. 17-9, p. : 1.6 ton/ft2.
)
'l
)
L Depending on the time available in the class, the instructor(s) may decide to skip the )
unloading portion of the test.
2. There are several corelations in the literature for C. and C,. Terzaghi and Peck (1967) :)
suggested that
)
c, = 0.009(La - 0)
t (1'7 .9)
where ,Ll : liquid limit. )

Rendon-Henero (1980) gave the following corelatjon:
)
/l!,' \218
c. : 0.141c1., | :-,' ) (17.10)
)
\('r,/
Based on the modified Cam clay model, Wroth and Wood (1978) showed that
)
c,:05c,(P!?\
"\ 3i0 / (r7.n) )
The swell index C, is usually about C./5 to C./10. Based on the modifled Cam )
model, Kulhawy and Mayne (1990) showed that
c,' PlP 370

(r7.r2,
)
The compression index and the swell index are parameters tbr estimating consolida-
)
tion settlement ofnormally consolidated and overconsolidated clay soils.
The soil used for the tests reported in Table l7-2 was the same used in Chapters 6
)
and8. Hen.e,furrhi.soil-G, 2.12.LL . 35.2.Pl = 11.21.
)
For this given soil (Table 17 2), using Et1. (17.9),
c,:0.009(LL l0):0.009(35.2 t0):0.22'7 )

Again, from Eq. (17.10), )
,.r t+.- r'18:0.141 ,. r l+0.8-55 r2 r8
o 0.l4lcl'f
" \ (,, ,2.12'-l t.tz ./| 0.188 )
-:l ,/ \ ^-^
Similarly, from Eq. (17.1l), :)
c.=o.5c
tPttEot\ /17.21\
. 2.72( o.2rs )
l |00 J:or roo J
)
)
;l
Consotidation Test 't85
The actual value of Cc as determined from the test is 0.279.

For swell index, from Eq. (17.12),
PI(%ot 17.21
" 370:
C.* 370
: 0.0/;67
The test results show that C" - 0.059. Hence the empiical relations for C. and Ca
are reasonably good for preliminary estimadon puposes.
3. In the liteiature, some empirical relatiolships are available to predict the prcconsolida-
tion pressurc for clay soils in the field. Following are some examples:
r Stas and Kulhawy (1984):
P": l0tr.l l- r.62(zr)l (17.13)
wherepa : atmospheric pressue (120001b/ft2:

^1100
kN/m2)
11: liquidity index
The liquidity index is defined as,
w-PL (17.14)
IL PL
where w - in situ moisture content (7o)

LL: liquid limit
PI: plastic limit
o Hansbo (1957)
aj : aqv51, crlvsrl (17.15)
where dry"! : an empirical coefficient : #&i

c,,u"o : undrained shear strength obtained frcm vane sheal test (Chapter 16)
In any case, these above relationships may change ftom soil to soil. They may be taken as
an initial approximation.

The laboratory report should cortain tle following:
. Cover page
. Equipment used
I86 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL
Results--data sheets, plot of dial reading versus dle square rcot of time; semitog-
arithmic plots of dial reading versus tine; plots of e and c, venus prcssur€ p;
sample calculatiotrs for 14, e, and cu from t90 and ,50. Also report preconsolidatiol
prcssure p..
Discussion----comparison of calculated values of C. and Cr with estimate values
from Eqs. (17.9)-(17.12). Comment on the results. Report any $ources of erlor.
t
,
I
t
t
t
I
t TriaxiaI Tests in Ctay
.,
t
t
t
_t
18.1 lntroduction
t ASTM Standard: D-2850- D-4'/ 6"/
In Chapten 15 and 16 some aspects of the shear strength of soils were discussed. The
I relation5hip lor shear slrenglh r of a soil \\ as given as
t s: c'+o'tan0' ( 18.1)
,a where c' : cohesion

d' : drained angle of ftiction
a o/ : effective normal stess
a In chapter 16' it was also discussed that for undrained condition (that is' O : 0 condition)
(r 8.2)
!
I where c, - undrained cohesion
The triaxial compression test is a more sophisticated test procedure for determining the
9 shear sfength of a soil. III general, with triaxial equipment three t]pes of common tests
can be conducted. which are listed in Table 18-1. Both the unconsolidated-undrained test
a
and the consolidated-undrained test will be descdbed in this chapter'
t 181
t
)
)
'188 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL :)
Tabte 18-1. Triaxiat compression Tests :l

Test Type a
Unconsolidated-undrained (U-U)
Consolidated-drained (C D)
.,(d:o)
c',4'
:l
Consolidated un&ained (C U)
: pore water presswe Parameter.
a
A
)
18.2 Equipment )
l. Triaxial cell
2. Stain conffolled compression machine
3. Specimen trimmer
4 Wire saw
5. Vacuum souce
r
:
6. Oven
7. Calipers
8. Evaporating dish
9. Rubber membrane
10. Membrane stretcher
:J
18.3 Triaxiat Cet[ and Loading Arrangement
Figure 18 I shows the schematic diagram of a triaxial cell lt consists mainly of a bottom
r
base plate, a Lucite cylinder, and a top cover plate A bottom platen is attached to the base
plate. A porous stone is placed over the bottom platen' over which the soil specimen is
placed. A porous stone and a platen are placed on top of the specimen The specimen is
enclosed inside a thin rubber membrane. Inlet and outlet tubes for specimen saturation and
drainage are provided through the base plate. Appropdate valves are attached to these tubes
to shut offthe openings when desired. There is an opening in the base plate through which -l
water (or glycerine) can be allowed to llow to flll the cylindrical chamber A hydrostatic
chamber pressure 03 can be applied to the specimen through the chamber fluid An added
axial stress Ao, applied to the top of the specimen, can be provided using a piston.
:
During the test, the triaxial cell is placed on the platform of a sffain-contlolled com-
pression machine. The top of the piston of the tdaxial chamber is attached to a provi ng ring
:
The proving dng is attached to a crossbar that is flxed to two metal posts The platfom of
the comprcssion machine can be raised (or lowered) at desired rates, thereby raising (or
:l
lowering) the triaxial cell. During compression, the load on the specimen can be obtained
:
:
:
'1
r.-
E TriaxiaL Tests in ctay 189
E
Soil
LJ
LJ
t:
Chamber
lluid
,\\\--s1\:
Saluration
LJ and dEinage
rj Botiom
base Plate
L Figure 18-1. Schematic diagram of triaxiat celt.
u from the proving fing readings and the coresponding specimen deformation from a dial
gauge I small div. - 0.001 in. (0.0254 mm)]. Load cells and LVDTs can also be used in
L lieu ofproving ring and dial gauges.

The connections to the soil specimen cal be attached to a bwette or a pore-water pres-
L sure measuring device to measure, respectively, the volume change of the specimen or the
excess pore-water pressure during the test.
Triaiial equipment is costly, dependillg on the accessodes attached to it For that reason
only general test procedures will be outlined here. For locating the vadous components of
an assembly, students will need the help ol their iNtructom. Figure 18-2 shows a triaxial
test assembly with the test specimen.
)
T
't90 SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL
)
)
)
)
)
-)
)
)
)
)
-)
)
Figure l8-2. Triaxialtest assemblywith test specimen. {Couriesy of 5. Vanapatti,
University of ottawa, Canada.)
)
1 8.4 Triaxial. Specimen )

Triaxial specimens most commonly used arc about 2.8 in. in diameter x 6.5 in. in length
(71.1 mm diameter x 165.1-mmlength) or 1.4 in. in diameter x 3.5 in. in length (35.6-mm )
diameter x 88.9 mm length). In any case, the length to-diameter ratio Z/D should be
)
between 2 and 2.5. For tests on undisturbed natural soil samples collected in Shelby tubes,
a specimen aimmer may need to be used to prepare a specimen of desired dimensions.
Depending on the tria\ial cell at hand, for classroom use, rcmolded specimens can be
prepared \r ith Han ard mjnicrure compaclion equipment.
J
)
After the specimen is prepared, obtain its length Io and diameter D6 (see lines 4 and 5
of Table 18-2: and line 3 and 4 of Table l8-4). The length should be measured four times )
about 90 degrees apart. The average of these four values should be equal to 14. To obtain
the diameter, take four measurcments at the top, foul at the middle, and foul at the bottom
of the specimen. The avemge of these twelve measurements is D0.
;l
)
18.5 Ptacement of Specimen in TriaxiaI Cetl
Boil tbe two porous stones to be used with the specimen.
1. -J
2. De-air the lines connecting the base of the triaxial cell. )
_J
:l
TriaxiaI Tests in Clay 191
E Top
platen
,]_ ..r
F
F
L:' Bottom
[-' Figure l8-3. Membrane stretcher.
]-'
u 3. Attach the bottom platen to the base of the cell.
ss 4. Place the bottom porous stone (moist) over the bottom platen.
5. Take a thin rubber memb.ane of appropriate size to fit the specimen snugly. Take a
membrane sbetcher, which is a brass tube having an inside diameter of about 1/4 in.
(ry 6 mm) larger than the specimen diameter (Fig. 18-3). The membnne stretcher can
be connected to a vacuum souce. Fit the membrane to the inside of the membmne
LJ strctcher and lap the ends ofthe membrane over the stretcher. Then apply the vacuum.
This will make the membraoe lbrm a smooth cover inside the shetcher.
6. Slip fie soil specimen inside the stretcher with the membrane (Step 5). The inside of
; the nembrane may be moistened for ease in slipping in the specimen. Now release the
vacuum and unroll the membrane from the ends of the stretcher.
; 7. Place the specimen (Step 6) on the bottom porcus stone (which is placed on the bottom
L platen of the triaxial cell) and stretch the bottom end of the membrane around the
porous stone and bottom platen. At this time place the top porous stone (moist) and
the top platen on the specimen and stretch the top of the membmne over it. For airtight
; seals it is always a good idea to apply some silicone grease around the top and bottom
platens before the membnne is stetched over them.
; 8. Using some rubber bands, fasten the membnne tightly around the rop and bottom
platens.
; 9. Connect the dninage line leading ftom the top platen to the base of the triaxial
cell.
l,; 10. Place the Lucite cylinder and the top of the
the assembly.
triaxial cell on the base plate to complete
a
a
t
J
)
192 SOIL I.4ECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL )
Notes: )
. In the tda,\ial cell the specinen can be satunted by connecting the drainage line
leading to the botiom of the specimen to a saturation reservoir. Dudng this pro-
)
cess fte dminage line leading from the top of the specimen is kept open to the
atnosphere. The saturation of clay specimens takes a lairly long fime.
)
. For the unconsolidated-undrained test, if specimen saturation is not required,
nonporous plates can be used instead of porous stones at the top and bottom of
)
the specimen.
)
1 8.6 Unconsotidated-Undrained Test TASTM )

Standard: D-28501 )
Procedu re
L Place the hiaxial cell (with the specimen inside) on the platform of the compression
rnachine.
:J
2. Make proper adjustments so that the piston ofthe tdaxial celljust rests on the top platen
)
of the specimen.
3. Fill the chamber of the tria,xial cell with water. Apply a hydrostatic pressure 03 (see
)
line 9 of Table 18-2) to the specimen through the chamber fluid. Wait for about 10 min
affer the application of chamber-confining pressure to allow the specimen to stabilize.
)
(Nol". Al1 drainage to and from the specimen should be closed aolr so that drainage
from the specimen does not occur.)
)
4. Check for prcper contact between the piston and the top platen on the specimen.
Zero the dial gauge of thc proving ring and the gauge used for measuring the ver-
tical compression of the specimen. Se1 the compression machine for a strain nte of
:J
about 0.5cl,/min and turn on the switch.
5. Take initial proving ring dial readings fbr vertical compression inteNals of 0.01 in.
:J
-t
(0.25,1 lnm). This interval can be incrcased to 0.02 in. (0.508 nrm) or morc later on,
)
rlhen the mte of increase of the load on the specimen decreases (see col. I of Table -l
18 3). The proving ring readings will increasc to a peak valuc and then may decrease )
or remain approximately constant. Take about four to live readings aller the peak point.
6. After completion of the test, reverse ihe compression machine, Iower the triaxial cell,
and then tum off the machine. Release the chamber pressure and drain the water in the
:J
triaxial cell. Figure l8 4 shows a specimen inside a triirrial chamber after completion )
olthe test. TheD remove the specimen and determine its moisture content (see lines l,
2, 3 of Table 18-2). :j
!l
Catcu[ations )
The calculation procedure can be explained by referring to Tables 18 2 and 18 3, which
-t
present the results of an unconsolidated undrained triaxial test on a dark brown silty clay
specimen. Referring to Table 18 2,
-l
|.r
,,
L, TriaxiaI Tests in Ctay 193
,,
i's
s
s
s
s
s
;
s
;
;
,a
I Figure 18-4. Specimen inside
1. Calcuiate the
a triaxiaI chamber after completion of test.
final moisture content w ot' the specimen (line 3),

;
: moist mass of specimen M1 dry mass of specimen M2
x
tp (!k) 100
;,a dry mass of specimen M2
L line l-line2 x I00 ( 18.3)
L
line 2
2. Calculate the initial area of the specimen (line 6),
L
,a
en = loi
4" I4 Ltine sr2 (18.4)
L 3. Now refer to Table 18-3 and calculate lhe vertical strain (column 2),
LL colunln I
(18.5)
; La line'1(Table 18 2)
where AL is the total defomation of the specimen at any time
;
;
)
)
191+ SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL )
Tabte 18-2. Unconsolidated-Undrained Triaxiat Test-Preliminary Data )

Descrlplion of sail Dd''bl'{')1u^' riltlt .L/74) Specimen no- 8
)
-)
Tested by Dai.
)
Iteln.
)
1. Moist mass of specimen (end of test), M1 78 5.68 g,
2. Dry mass of specimen, M2

)
151.80 g.
3. Moisture content (end of test), w (7o) : M'_M,

' -^100 22.3%
M"
)
4. Initial average length of specimen, ao 3.52 it!
5. Initial average diameter of specimen, D0
6. lnltial area, Ao : ! Pf,

)
7. Specific gravity of soil solids, Gs
8. Final degree of saturation 98.2% )

9. Cell confining pressure, o3 7 5 Ur/ir.r'.2 )
10. Proving ring calibrarion facror o.37 Wdir.
)
4. Calculate the piston load on the specimen (column 4), )

p : proving ring dial reading x calibration factor
(18.6)
: column 3 x line 10 (Table 18 2)
)
5. Calculate the conected area,4. of the specimen (column 5),
)
An line 6 (Table l8-2)
(18.7)
I € l-column2
6. Calculate the deviatory stress (or piston stress) Ao (column 6),
P column 4
Ao= (18.8)
A column 5
-)
'i
.l
Triaxiat Tests in Ctay 195
Tabte 18-3. Axial Stress-Strain Ca[cutation-Unconsotidated-undrained

Triaxial Test
,rPjgton toadPrl
.:::3iii.!!.!!qf ...tt
Spesiindq r::l
Delormatioi:l Ar
@,ii{€;
::::r::1in3}r:i,l::.i.]l r:'i::{I61fi3,,1.:r:'rl:
44lin.l.'. .
til'. .::
,l-,::ri:r':l5l: r-:r::'.,,rli ,:,.::a::r,t6lr:ll.:.i:....
0 0 o o 1.560 o
o.o7 o.oo28 3.5 7.295 7.564 o.828
o.o2 o.0057 2.77 5 7.569 7.769
0.o 3 o.ooa5 77 4.O7 7.57 3 2.587
o.o4 o.0774 74 5.18 7.57I 3.28
o.o5 o.o742 18 6.66 7.582 4.270
o.06 o.o77 7 27 7.77 7.587 4.896
o.70 0.o284 37 77.47 7.606 7.742
o.74 o.o398 38 74.O6 7.625 8.652
o.78 o.o577 ++ 76.28 7.644 9.903
o.22 o.0625 48 77.76 7.664 70.67 3
o.26 o.o7 39 52 7.684 77.+25
o.30 o.o852 53 19.67 7.705 77.507
o.3 5 o.o994 52 7.7 35 77.709
o.40 o.7736 50 18.5 7.760 10.571
o.45 o.7278 49 t 8.13 1.789 70.734
0.50 o.7420 +9 18.13 1.818 9.970
t
J-J
J
196
Gra phs
l
Draw a graph of the axial sffain ve$us deviatory shess Ao. As an example, the results
I
)
ofTable 18-3 are plotted inFig. 18 5. From this graph obtain the value of Ao at failure
(Ao : Ao/). )
2. The minor principal stress (rotal) on the specimen at failure is oj (that is, the chamber
confining pressure). Calculate the maior principal stress (toldl) at failure, )
01 :03+Ao/ (18.e) T
I
3. Draw Mohr's circle with or and 03 as the major and minor principal sfesses. The )
radius of Mohr's circle is equal to cu. The results of the test reported in Table 18 3 and
Fig. l8-5 are plotted in Fig. 18-6.
GeneraI Comments )
1.For saturated clayey soils, the unconfitred compression tesf discussed in Chapter 16 is
a special case of the U-U test. For the unconfined compression test, 03 0. Howevet : )
the quality of the rcsults obtained from U-U tests is supedor.
2. Figure 18-7 shows the nature of Mohr's envelope obtained from U-U tests wift varying )
degrees of $aturation. For saturated specimens the value of Aq/, and thus c,, is constant,
irrespective of the chamber confining pressure o3. So Mohr's envelope is a horizontal )
line (O :
0). For soil specimens with degrees of saturation less than 1007o, Mohr's -)
envelope is cuwed and falls above the d 0 line. :
12
)
Aor = 11.6 lb/in.2
)
)
)
)
os = 15lb/in.2 )
or=15+11.6|b/in.'z
)
12 16
)
Axial strain € (%)
)
Figure 18-5. Ptot of ao against axiaL strain for test reported in Tabte '18-3.
)
:)
q
15
cu= 5-8lb/in 2
0 10 20 30
Nomal svess (lb/in.2)
Figure 18-6. Totat-stress Mohr's circte at faiture for test reported in Tabte 18-3 and
Fig. 18-5.
S = degree of saiuralion
q.E.q
Normal stress
Figure 18-7. Nature of variations of totat-stress faiture envetopes with degree of

a saturation of soit specimen lundrained testl.
- 3.In the foregoing Procedure section, Steps 4 and 5, the general straitr rate and the test
duratron were outlined. However, ASTM test designation D-2850 is more specific A
summary of the guidelines of D-2850 follows:
. The stuain rate of plastic matedal should be about 17olmin. However, for britde
matedal, it should be abont03qolnitl
r The axial load (i.e., the deviator stess) should continue to be increased until either
at least l57o of the axial stain is reached, or the deviator stess has peaked and
)
)
dropped 207o. or the &xial strain has reached 5tlo hevond the strain at which the
)
peak deviator stress occulled.
)
8.7 Laboratory Report (Unconsotidated-Undrained )

J
1
Testl
. Cover page )
. Equipment used
. Description of test procedure )
. Results-data sheets, graph showing plot of Ao versus axial strain, sarnple
calculations, a graph showing total stress Mohr's circle, and undrained shear )
strength
o Discussion repori degree of satuation and any sources of enor )
)
1 8.8 Consotidated-Undrained Test IASTM Standard :
D-t+7671 )
Procedu re
1. Place the triaxial cell with the saturated specimen on the compression machine plattbm )
and make adjustments so that the piston of the cell makes contact with the top platen
of the specimen. )
2. Fill the chamber ofthe triaxial cell with water, and apply the hydrostatic pressure (J3 to
the specimen through the fluid (see line 7 of Table 18-4). )
3. The application of the chamber pressrre ol will cause an increase in the pore-water
pressure in the specimen. For consolidation. connect the drainage lines from the speci- _J
men to a calibrated burctte and leave the lines open. When the water level in the burette
becomes constant, it will indicate that the consolidation is complete. For a saturated )
,l
specimen, the volume change due to consolidation is equal to the volume of water
drained from the burette. Record the volume of the drainage Ay (see line 8 of Table )
l8-4). -t
4. Now connect the drainage lines to the pore-pressure measunng device. )
5. Check the contact between piston and top platen. Zero the proving ring dial gauge and
the dial gauge that measures the axial deformation of the specimen.
)
6. Set the compression machine for a strain rate of about 0.5%/min and tum on the switch
(see col. 1 of Table l8 5). When the a,rial load on the specimen is increased, the pore- )
water pressure in the specimen will also increase- Record the prcving ring dial gauge
reading (col. 3 of Table 18-5) and the conesponding excess porc-water pressure Aa
)
(col. 7 of Table 18 5) in the specimen for every 0.01 in. (0.254 mm) or less of a,r-ial
deformation. The proving ring dial gauge reading will increase to a ma,timum and
)
-l
then decrease or remain approximately constant. Take at least four to flve readings
)
)
-,1
E Triaxial Tests in cLay 199
t;, after the proving ring dial gauge reaches the maximum value. According to ASTM
l-, test designation D-4767, the axial load (i.e., the deviator stress) should continue to be
increased until either at least 157. of the axial strain is reached, or the deviator stress
has peaked and dropped 207o or the axial strain has reached 5tlo beyond the strai. at
l:. , which the peak deviator stress occurred.
7. At the completion of the test, reverse the compression machine and lower the triaxial
cell. Shut off the machjne- Release the chamber pressure oi and drain the water out of
the triaxial cell.
rt
8. Remove the tested specimen ftom the cell and determine its moisture content.
9. Repeat the test on one or two more similar specimens. Each specimen should be tested
at a different value of ol.
r
Catculations and Graphs
", The procedure for making the required calculations and plotting the graphs can be
explained by referring to Tables 18 4and 18-5 and Figs. 18-8and18 9.
Fi$t refer to Table 18 4.
rt
L, 1 Calculate the
2. Calculate the
initial area of tle specimen (line 5),
A^ "D^
injtial volume of the specimen (line 6),

Vo:AoLo:line5 x
=
-rline4rl
4
line3
(r
(
8.10)
18.11)
L, 3. Calculate the volume of the specimen after consolidation (line 9),
; %: Vo - AV: line 6 - linc 8 (18.12)
\\ here y. i\ lhe hnal \ olume of Lhc cpecimen.
s
: 4. Calculate the length L. (line l0) and cross sectional
after consolidation,
area A. (line ll ) of the specimen
tr '":.,(#)'" =,r",, (r*ry)'"

tt
(18.13)
and
,.:rr(#)"' = ,,n" . ^ 1l1Tl \"'

\line 6/
( 18.l4)
E Now refer to Table 18 5.

5. Calculate the axial sffain (column 2),
AL column I
; (18. r5)
L where Aa is the axial deformation.

L,. line t0 (Table 18-4)
L
J-J
SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL :I
:I
Tabte
Desctiplior ot
18-4. Preliminary Data-Consotidated-Undrained
soil 11")Mrl'dprl'ga"uallitpl
Triaxiat Test
Sampte no. 2
:l
Lo.ation
J
Tested by Daie
:l
1 . Moist unit weight of specimen (beginrLing of test) 18.4 kN/M;
J
J:l
2. Moisture content (beginning of test) 3 5.3 5%
)
3. Initial length of specimen, la 7.62 cr'h'
4. Initial diameter of specimen, Do 3.57 crlt
5. Initial area of speci

^.", h: f,nf,
LU,U Orn
:l
6. Initial volume of specimen, y0 : A0Zo / o,l cr/w
:l
7. Cell consolidation pressure, o: 3s2 kN/m]
:J
8. Net drainage from specimen during )
consolidation, AY
9. Volume of specimen after consolidation, 76.2 71.6 : 64.6 ow;

)
Vs- LV:V. :)
10. Length of specimen after consolidation, . ^,. -. 7/3
/ r/ \2/3 7 621 l :7.272c,nv )
L"-h'l\ ,!l \76.2 /
Ynl - )
11. Area of specimen after consolidation, , -,. -- 2/3
t v r 2/l 70l | :8.96c*w' )
A.=Ao{. I \ 76.2 )
\Yol -
:)
:J
:)
:)
:J
J
-l
l--
;
e Triaxiat Tests in Ctay 201
,'
I Tabte l8-5.
Proving ring catibration factor

Axiat Stress-Strain Calcutation*-Consotidated-Undrained
Triaxiel Test
;
Proving
,, Ring Excess
Diat Pore-
; Spe€imen Readi.g Corrected Oeviatory Waler
Detorma- Vertiaat lNo. of Piston Stresg Pre5-
al a=+;
J
; tion Strain Smatt Load P slrle Au
lcml ^, al 9iv.l tNl lcm2l ô=i
IkN/m2l lkN/rn" .:I;
(11 l2l l3l l4l l5l l5l l7l 18,
; 0 o o o 8.96 o o o
o.o7 5 o.oo27 75 76.07 8.98 77.90 2.94 0.764

;
o.o 3a o.oo53 109 776.77 9.O7 729.60 49.50 o.378
;
o.067 o.0085 735 74+.63 9.04 759.99 7 4.56 o.466
I
;
;
o.o76
o.114
0.152
o.o705
o.o7 58
0.0277
147
772
157.48
784.26
205.€,9
9.06
9.77
9.15
773.82
202.26
224.80
89.27
171.83
7 3 5.38
0.57+
0.553
o.602
o.183 o.o254 205 219.62 9.19 238.98 748.7 3 o.620

; o.229 o.o 318 225 247.O4 9.25 260.58 760.88 o.678
; 0.274 0.o 3Bo 235 252.8 3 9.3 7 277.57 167.7 5 o.678

o.37 5 0.o437 2+7 264.67 9.37 282.40 175.60 o.622
;
o.427 o.o592 265 283.89 9.52 298.20 776.58 o.592
; o.+57 o.o634 270 289.25 9.57 302.25 776.58 0.584
; o.503 o.0697 278 297.82 9.6i io9.26 77 6.5 8 0.570

o.549 o.o767 284 304.25 9.70 373.66 77 6.58 o.56 3
;
o.594 o.o824 307.46 9.7 6 375.O2 77 6.58 0.567
; 284 308.53 9.85 373.23 6.57 o.564
0.653 o.o905 77
; o.726 0.1007 286 306.39 9.96 307.62 160.88 o.523
I
o.853 o.783 275 29+.67 70.16 289.97 763.82 o.56 5
;
*The resutts have been edited.
J
s0tL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL
:l
202 )
o.7 280 350 )
0.6 240 300

Aor= 316 kN/m2
:J
)
{-E 6-
J
o.4 160
E
200
)
z z
)
o.2 100
:J
)
J
)
Fiqure 18-8, Ptots of Ao, Au,

2 4 6
Axial strain € (%)
and A vs. axiat strain

I 10
lor consotidated drained test

12
J-t
)
J
reported in Tabte 18-5.
6. Calculate the piston load P (column 4),

)
p : proving ring dial reading (column 3)
7. Calculate the corrected areaA (column 5),

x calibration factor (18.16)
J
)
A. line 11 (Table 18 4)
A
I €
8. Determine the deviatory stress Ao (colunrn 6),
I column 2
(18.17)
J
)
9.
6o:l:"olu*4
A column 5
Detemine the pore-water prcssure panmeter A (column 8),
(18.18)
:l
- Lu column
'-^.,-".1r-r6
7
(18.19)
IJ
:,,t
:l
1
u,
E Triaxiat Tests in Clay 203
1- 10. Plot graphs for

a- Ao ve$us e
b. Aa versus e
c. A versus e
N As an example, the results of the calculations shown in Table 18 5 are plotted in

Fig. 18 8.
ss 11. From the Ao vemus € graph. determine the maximum value of Ao : Ao/ and rhe
cooesponding values ol Lu : Lu.f and A : Ar. In Fit. t 8 8. Aq : Jlo kN/m2 ar
e : 8.2ol. and. at the same strain level, At : 17? kN/m2 andA : 0.56.
s
12. Calculate the elfectiyc major and minor principal shesses at failure. The effecd\,e minor
principal sffess at failure is
o!: o: L"r (18.20)
The effective major principal stress at failure is

;
o! : (o: + Aoy) LuJ (18.21)
;
For the test on the remolded grundite repofted in Tables 18 4 and I8-5,
; o'z:391. - 215 kN/mz
- 177
; o! : (392 + 316) - 177 : 53r kN/m2

13. Collect o! and oi for all the specinens tested and plot Mohr's circles. Plot
a failure
; envelope that touches Mohr's circles. The equation for the failure envelope can be
given by
;
s : c' + o'tan d'
; Detemine the values of c' and <f' lrom the failure envelopes. Figure 18 9 shows Mohr's
circles for two tests on the rcnolded grundite repofied in Table l8-5. (Nol?..The result
s
;
;
for Mohr's circle no. 2 is not givcn in Table 18-5.) For the failue envelope, c/ 0 and
0'- 25". So
r : o'tan25'
:
'18.8.1 Genera t Comments

; 1 For normally consolidated soils, c' : 0. Howevcr, for overconsolidated soils, c/ > 0.
tr 2. A typical range ofA values at failure for clayey soils is given in Table 18-6.
3. The friction angle $/ generaily decreases with aD increase in the plasticity index.
tr Figure 18 l0 shows the vadations of sin 4'/ with the plasticity index for several nor-
mally consolidated clays as repofted by Kenney (1959) and Bjemrm and Simons
L (1960).
4- Sorensen and Okkels (2013) compiles several test results on normall;y consolidated
cla)s and gave the following correlations for the friction aogle.
9/(deg) : 39 - 11 log(P/.) (mean value) (t8.22)

)
:l
20t SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL )
)
)
)
6-
E
z
400
:J
)
)
@ 200 -)
0 200 400 600 800

:J
Eil€ctive nomal slress o' (kN/m2) )
Figure 18-9. E feqtive-stress Mohr's circle for remotded grundite reported in
Tabte 18-5.
)
)
Table t8-6. R.nge ofi Values at Faiture
',r::.1 l,,r.gitiiit_ii t,i:'r.i,r.:.:..':. r,.l

)
Clays with high sensitivity 0.75-1.5
)
Normally consolidated clays 0.5-1.0
Overconsolidated clavs -0.5 { )
Compacted sandy clay 0.5-0.75
)
)
and
)
qt(deg) : 43 l0 log(Pl) (lower bound) (r8.23)
)
where P1 :
plasticity index
Equations (18.22) and (18.23) are based on clays with plasticity index varying from )
5 to U0.
5. Based on tests conducted over 30 years on clays obtained in Denmark, Sorensen and )
Okkels (2013) gave the following corelatiots fot overconsolidated clays.
)
J
:l
1.0
o Kenney (1959)
0.8
a Bjenum and
Simons (1960)
0.6
o.4
o.2
0
s 10 20 30 50 80 100 150
Plaslicity index (%)
Figure 18-10. Variation of sin 0/ with ptasticity index Pt for severat normatty
consolidated clays.
Mean value of g/:
9'(deg) : 45 - 14 log (P4 (for 4 < P1 < 50) (t8.24)
d@es):26-3loE (PO (for 50 5 P,l < 150) (18.25)
Lower bound value of g :
a'{dee) :44 - 14log (P0 (for 4 < P/ < 50) (18.26)
e'(deg) : 39 - 6 Lt (P0 (for 50 Pr < 150) (18.2'7)

=
Lower bound value
ue of c':
c'(kN/m2):30 (for 7 <P1 <30) (18.28)
c'(kN/m2) : 48 - 0.6 log (P4 (for 30 : PI < 80) (18.29)
c'(kN/m2): o (for PI < 80) (18.30)
18.9 Laboratory Report [Unconsotidated-Undrained

Testl
The labomtory report should contain the following:
. Cover page
. Equipment used
. Results-data sheEts, sample calculations. graphs for Ao, Ar. ald A versus arial
strain, plots showing effective stress MohJ's circles, and effective-sfess envelope.
Report the effective-stress friction angle, d/.
I
. Discussion-ff the plasticity index of the soil is known, compare the experimentally
detemined value of S' with that given in Fig. 18-10. Report and discuss any sources
of error
1
7
:I
3
1
1
:t
:t
H
u,
APPENDIX A
Weig ht-Vo[u me Retationsh i ps

Appendix A: Weight-Votume Retationships 211
For the weight-volume relationships given in this appendix, the follo*ing ooru,ion, \l7"*
used
e : void ratio
G: specific gravity of soil solids
7 : porosity
S : degree of satuation
Y: total volume of soil
%: volume of solids in a soil mass
Vu : volume of voids in a soil nuss
Vr: volume of water in a soil rrLass
W: total weight of a soil mass
IV, : dry weight of a soil mass
I/" : rryg;gh1 .1r.,.r in a soil mass
, : moisture cotrtent
y : moist unit weight
yd : dry unit weight
Ysat : saturated unit weight
y. - unit weight of water
A.1 Votume Relationships

v, G,y*
vs 1-n -l
ll
V"e
V l+e
-= G,y,
- vA wG,
v,e
A.2 Weight Relationships
Moisture content
W* Se
w" G.
Moist unit weight
w
y: v
(l + rr)cry,
l+e
(Gj + Se)y-
1+e
(1 + w)Gy,
1 + (wcs /8
y: Gyw(l - /,)(1 +lr)
y:G,y,(I-n)+nSys
Dry unit weight

w,
v
v
1 +,,r
G'v*
Yd : G'Y"(r n)
G,t*
I t(wGl^t)
eS'|.
\L + e)r)
ef-
Yd- Y:rl--
| +e
^. (y*r y")G
Yd-
Saturated unit weight

(G" + e)y,
l+e
y,1 : [(1 -n)G"+r]y,
I + usat
G,y.
I + lrsatcr
e \+w*ut
vw
rtsat 1 + e
I t wsat
Ysat: n-Yw
e
Ysat:Yd+-Y,
Appendix A: Weight-Votume Relationships 213
/ r\
yet:(l-G"Jyd+y.
y,", : 1t + ,'.",jya
APPENDIX B
Data Sheets for

Laboratory Experi ments
Determination of Water Content
Description ot soil Sample no.
Tested by Date -
Can no.
Mass of can, Ml (g)

Mass of can + wet soil, M2 (g)
Mass of can + dry soil, M3 @)
Mass of moisture, M2 - M3 G)
Mass of dry soil, M3 - Mt (g)
M,.M,
: fri
water conrent. w (zo) / tN
Averaqe water content w
copyright oxford University Press
217
Specific Gravity of Soit Sotids
D€scription of soit Sampte no.
lblume ot tLas\ at 20"C lemperalure ot lesl, fl A (Tabte 3-4)
-nl -
Tested by
- Date
^
"'q:
larqer vatue of G.
sm;Ler val"e ot c.
:
Averaqe 6s
Sieve Anatysis
l:!cr ption of soit Sample no.
V3ss of oven-dry specimen M g
-
Iested by - llate
Sieve
No,
)]
MM.
Vass.oss dur;19 sieve ara,ysis: 1nn= % {0K if Lessthan 2%l
M
copyright 0xford University Press
221
u
l-
+- HydrometerAnatysis
U, ::s.r prion orsoir Sample no.
l-r nass of soiL Ms s Meniscus correction Fm Zero correction F,

U, -:si:dbv Date -
t14
l;
I#;
-
E__
L-,. rrt
Et_
E
E
t;_
h
u .H:;;il'iJi,;;:lilJ;:
li
t;
-c
223
u
I'
:escriorior of soit SampLe no.
:esied by 0ate
-
Can IIo.
Vass of can. Ml lg)
Mass of can+moist soil, M2 (g)
Mass of can+dry soil, M3 (g)
-
Moisture content,
M,
' M,">.
rr'(%):
' Mt-Mt lfi)
Liquid timit lL
E
t:
t:
l':
l:
l:
"r 225
Liquid Limit Test-FaLL Cone Method
Descripti on of soit SamPte no
Location
Date
Tested by
-
Can no.
Mass of can, Mr G)
Mass of can + moist soil, M2 (g)
Mass of can + dry soil, M: (g)

Moisture content,
-
M.' M.'ÎOO
w(1or:
' Mt-Mt
Penetration of cone. d (mm)
Liquid
copyright Oxford University Press
227
Ptastic Limit Test
tlescription of so L Sampte no.
l-Gtion
Tested by Date
Averaqe vatue of plastic [imit:

Ptasticity index P/ = Ll - Pl:
229
Determination of Dry Unit Weight
::-cripi on of so t SampLe no.
ft3 Weight of hammer tb
-:uld timit Plasiiclty index
\u:rber ol bLows/layer Number of layers
-:.ied by Date
Item
1. \\'eighr of mold and base
plate, W1 (1b)
l. Weight of mold and base
plate + moist soil, W2 (lb)
l. Weight ot' moist soil,

tv: wr 0b)
-1. Moist unit wi.ight,
v: w,
- ' nh/fr')
w,
' 110
5. Moislure can number
6. Mass of moisture can.

M3 G)
7- Mass of can +noist soil,
Ml (s)
8. Mass of can + dry soil,
M: (e)
9. Moisture content.
M^ Ms-^100
r (7r):
Ms-Mt
10. Dry unit weight oI
compaction, y.l (lb/ft3) :
v
I + 0r, (%)/ 100)
copyriqht oxford University Press
231
Zero-Air-void Unit Weight
Il€script ion of soiI SampLe no.
l-ocation
-
Tested by
'Equation l12.ll.
copyright oxford lJniversity Press
233
Sand Cone Method
FieLd Unit Weiqht
-ested by Date
Catibration of Unit Weiqht of ottawa Sand
1 weight of Proctor mold, W1
l. weight ot' Proctor mold + sand, W2
l. Volume of mold, Yr
1. Dry unit weight, y71.,.61 : Wz-Wt

V1
Catibration Co.e
5. w-eight ot'bottle + cone + sand (before use), W3
b. \\ei9ht ol bolllc-iune I'rndraneru.e). l,[/-l
7. weight of sand to fill cone, W. : Wq - W

Resutts from Fietd Tests
8. weighr ol bolle + cone + .anJ (belore u.e). W"

9. weight ofbottle + cone + sand (afler use),
'y8
W6-W8-l/"
10. Volume ofhole, V2 :
11. weight of gallon can, w5

12. weight ofgallon can + moist soil, W7
I3. Weight of gallon can + dry soil, lVe
14. Moist unit weight of soil in field, y : WWs

Vt
15.Moisturecontentinfield,w(7o) : wf-!2 , rcs

Wn w,
r 16. Dry unit weight in field, yd :
1 + (w (7o)/100)
copyr qht 0xford University Press

Minimum and Maximum Dry Densities of Granutar Soil
!escription o{ soit Sampte no.
-ccatlon Spe.,ly qrav ly o'.oil solids
i.sted by - Date -
A. Minimum Dry Density p,i(,i,)

-
,{.1 Volume of mold, Y- A.2 Mass of mold, M^
-\.3 Mass of mold + dry soil, Ml A.4 Mass of dry soil inmold, Mz
-\.5 Minimum dry density, p,l A.6 Maximum void ratio, e-"'
B. Maximum Bry Density p4.i,)
B.l Volume of mold, V' B-2 Tnternal diameter of mold. d
B.:l Tntemal heisht of mold. 11 8.4 Mass of mold, M-
B.5 Thickness of surcharge base plate, 16 8.6 Average initial dial reading, Ri
B.? Average final reading, R/ 8.8 Mass of mold + dry soil, M3
B.9 Mass of dry soil in the mold, M4 8.10 Volume of soil at end of test. y"
8.11 Maximum dry density, pa,,, ,

B.l2 Minimum void ratio, e.i,
237
Constant-Head Permeabitity Test
Determination of Void Ratio of Specimen
Description of soil Sample no
Location
Length of specimen I Diameter of specimen ,

Tested by Date
Volume of sDecimen.
-4 V: -D2l.tcmtt
t*,t" -r"t,t "t..
Mass of specimetr tube with fittings, Ml (g)
Mass of tube with fittings and specimen, M2
@)
Dry demity of specimen, p,/ :

M, M.
,i Glcn!t
Void ratio of specirnen e

G'P'
= pd - I=
lNoteipw=1glcm3.)
239
Determination of Coefficient of Permeabitity
0escription of soil Sample no.
Tested by Date
Ittrn
Average flow, Q (cm3)
Time ofcollection, I (s)
Temperature of water, T('C)

Head difference, h (cm)
Diameter of specimen, D (cm)
Lengrh of specimen, I (cm)
Area of specimen, A :!o2 G^2)
OL
l:-(c Vs)
Temoerature of water
it_"^
126.5:11"6--1-!:
t20.c
2t1
Fatting-Head PermeabiLity Test
Description of soit S.mpte no
Location
Length ol specimen I cm Diameter of specimen D
Tested by Date
Volume of specimen, V : !o2t("rrr!)

Specific graviry of soil solids, c"
Mass of specimen tube with fittings, Ml (g)
Mass of tube with fittings and specimeq M2 G)
Dry density of specim po : a3O!) {el

3)
"n, "
G'P*
Void rdtio of specimen e = - I=
pd
lNofej pw :1 g/cm3.l
copyright 0xford university Press
2L3
Fatting-Head PermeabiLity Test
Determination of Coelficient of Permeabitity
l.:cription of soil S.mpte no
-:.3iion
_:s!ed
by Date
Item
Diameter of specimen, D (cm)
Lengrh ot' specimen, a (cm)
{rea of specimen, A (cm2)

Beginning head difference, ir (cm)
Ending head difference, /rz (cm)
Test duration, a (\)

Volume of water flow through specimen,
l,',, (cmr)
k: 2.103v,r
loeh acnts)
lht-h,)tA'ht
cm/s Temperature of water .c
A2o.c -l !:
=lr.c t20'c
copyrlghi oxf ord llniversity Press
2L5
Void Ratio Catcutation
Description of soil Sampte no.
L-ocation
Tesied by Date
l. Specimen length,I (in.)

2. Specirnen width, B (in.)
3. Specimen height, t1 (in.)
4- Mass ofporcelain dish + dry satrd (before use), M1 (g)
5. Mass ofporcelain dish + dry sand (after use). M2 @)

Mt-Mt
6. D.) unjt weighr oI \pecimen. yd{lb ltl) - 3.808
LBH (in.') ^
7. Specific gravity of soil solids, G" -

8. Void ratio, e : 9fr - I
Yd
(Note: y. - 62.4lblft3; yl is in lb/ft3.)
copyriqht Oxford University Press
2L7
Stress and DispLacement Calculation
l::.ript on of soiI Sample no
..ied by Date
No, of Proving
Normat oiv. in Ring Cati-
Stress Horizontal Vertical Proving bration Shear Sheer
Displacem€nt Disptacement' Ring Diat Factor Force S Stress r
{tb/in.'?l lin.l lin.l Gauge ttb/div.l Irbl ttb/in.2l
ht t2l l4l (51 l6l 17t
- Ptus (+l sign means expansion.
copyright oxford univers ty Press
21+9
Stress and Disptacement Calculation
Descript SampLe no.
Normal load N
Tested by
No, of Proving
llormal Div. in Ring CatF
Stress Horizontat Verticat P.oving bration Shear Shear
Displacement Disptacement' Ring Diat Factor Forces Slress r
ttb/in.2, {in.l lin.l Gauqe Itb/div.l lr.bl Itb/in-21
tlt t2l l3l t41 t5l l6l 17l
' Ptus (+l sign rneans expansion.
251
Stress and Displacement CaLcutation
: a:a_lci on oi soiI Sampte no.
-=.::l by Date
No. ot Proving
NormaI Div. in Rin9 Cali-
S$ess Horizonlal Verticat Proving bration Shear Shear
Di5pta.ement Displacement' Ring Diat Factor Force 5 Stress T
tth/in.2l Iin.l lin.l Gauge Itb/div.l Irbl ttb/in.2l
tlt (31 tll l6l l7l
E
t:
t: " PLus [+l sign means expansion.
t: copyrlqht 0xJord University Press
ct:
t:
g
Unconfined Compression Test
l:sc.ipt on of soit Specimen no
''' r si m;ss of specirn€n g Mo stu re content

ala
-:n!th of specimen I in. Diameier o1specimen ,

:-c,/il']g rinq calibration factor: 1 div = tn trea.aa:
lD2
DEte
-sied by
Proving
Ring Diat Correrted
Specimen VerticaL Reading Load P lcotumn 3
_ 1,, Cotumn 4
Deformation Strain lNo. of x Catibration Âo
^. €o-inmn 5
al lin.l AI smatt Div.l Factorlltb) lrn.'I Itb/in.2l
'=-
tll l2l t3l l5l l6l
255
Consolidation Test
Time versus Verti€aL Dial Reading
Descflptron of soi
Daie
Pressure on specimen ton/ft2 Pressure on specimen ton/ft2
-
Time after
Load
Apptication f
lminl
copyright 0rford Unrve.sity Press

Consolidation Test
Time versus VerticaL Diat Reading
Descript
Location
Tested by Date
Pressure on specimen ton/ft2 Pressure on speclmen ton/ft2
-
time atter Verticat
Load Diat Time after Load Verticat DiaI
Apptication I Reading Apptication t Reading
5 (minl s
lminl {minlo lin.l lminlo lin.l
copyriqht oxford lJ niversity Press
259
Consolidation Test
Time Yersus Verticat Diat Reading
l:...lpti
::sied by Date
:_Essure on specirnen ton/fi2 Pressure on spec men ton/ft2
Time after
Load Time after Load
Application I AFpLication t
{minl lminl
copyright Oxford Universily Press
261
Consotidation Test
Pressure, Void Ratio, and Catculation of Coeflicient of Consotidation
::s:ription of soit
::..iTen diam.ter D lnitlatspecimen height H.l,l
content: Beg nnin g End of lest w,
ry so l spec men Mr GS
.::::d by D:te
Pressure Chang€ in Average C' x 103
p Specimen Height lin-2lsl

Height during from
Iton/ftz1
AH lin.l consol-
idation
Hru't lin.
t3l 17l
copyr ght 0xlord Lln versiiy Press

Consolidation Test
Pressure, Void Ratio, and Catculation of Coefficient of Consotidaiion
Descr ption of soit
Specrmen d ameter, nitiaI specimen height Hrtr]
n,
Moisture content: Beginning % End of test w2 o/d
Mass of dry soit spec men Ms s6.

Iested by Date
Pressure Chanqe in Finat Average

Specimen Speci- H€i9ht Fitting
P
Iton/ft21 Height during Time (51
Ag lin.l Height consoF
tro
Hun idation
Itn.l 4t.vt tin',
l1l l7l t10l
E
E
ct:
t: copyright oxford University Press
l:
1:
t:
r{
265
Unconsotidated-Und rai ned TriaxiaI Test
Preliminary Data
Descr prlan of so I Specimen no.
:ested by Date
Item
1. Moist mass of specimen (end of test), M1
2. Dry mass of specimen, M2
:'', *t r00
3. Moisture content (end of test), 1r (7o) --
M. ^
1. Initial average length of specimen, 4)
i. Initial average diameter of specimen, D0
6- Initial area, Ao : lra

7. Specific gravity ol soil solids, Gr
8. Final degree of saturation
9. Cell confining pressure, 03
10. Proving ring calibration factor
267
E Unconsotidated-Undrained TriaxiaI Test
AxiaI Stress-Strain Calculation
Proving
Ring Dial. Piston Load P
Specim€t VeaticaI Reading lcottmn 3 x Coraected Area Deviatory
Detormation Strain
AI
lNo. of Catibration a={ Stress Ao = f,
lin.l Smatt Div.l Faclorl ttbl lin.'?l Itb/in.2l
^l Lo
lll lzt (3t t11
cc
ct: copyright oxf ord liniversity Press
c 269
F
L
t:
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va: Consolidated-Undrained TriaxiaL Test
Descripl on or so I
Pre[iminary Data
Specimen no.
l:
t:
):
Tesied by
Beqinning of Test
Date
J: l. Moist unit wcight ol specimen (beginning of rest)
t:
t:
2. Moisture
3.
contelt (beginning of test)
Initial length of specimen. L6
t:
4. Initial diametel of specimen, D9
:
InitilJ lLer rrf specimen.,49
I,t
t:
5.
lnitial volume ol spccimen. y0 :
t:
6. A0a0
After Consotidation of Saturated Specimen
t:
l:
7. Cell consolidation pressure, 03
8. Nct drainage tiom specimen during

consolidrlion- A Y
t:
t:
9. Volume of specimen atier consolidation,
VO LV: V,
10. Length ot' specimen after consolidation.

, Y ,ll
E ' r^l
r...: .
" \YolI
t:
ct:
I l. Area of specimen after consolidation,
:
,,r' 'r""
, ., ..? ]
lll \
\ Yi,,/
copyriqht oxford Universiiy Press
vl:
):
v 271
Consotidated-Undrained TriaxiaI Test
Provinq rirq catibration iactor
Proving
Ring Excesg
Diat Pore-
Reading Corrected Deviatory Water
Specimen VerticaI lNo. of Piston Area Stress Pressure
Defo.mation Strain 5ma1t Load P a={ x=f, Lu
al {rml "_ al Div.l lNl {cm2l IkN/m2l lkN/m2l
l1l l2l l3l lll l5l 16, l7l l8l
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copy.lght Oxiord Un versity Press
273
si
Consolidated-Undrained TriaxiaI Test
PreLiminary Data
Descript on of so I Specimen no.
Beginning of Test
1. Moist unit weight of specimen (beginning of test)
2. Moisturc contelt (beginning of test)

3. Initial length of specimen, Lo
4. Initial dianeter ol specirnen. D9
5. Iiitiai area of specimen, eo :

E 6. lnitial volume of specimen, V9
Jofr
: A9l0
Atter Consolidation of Saiurated Specimen
E
t:
7. Cell consolidation pressure,
8. Net drainage from specimen during

consolidation- AV
ol
c
1:
9. Volume
Ve -
of specimen atier consolidation,
AV - V"
cc
1{J. Length of specimen after consolidation,
r 7. \i '
a =h
\ur-l
ll. Area of specimen after consolidation,
cl: ,4,:An(:)
Yo \
,r7.1l)
''l
copyrlqht oxford Unjvercity Press
cl:
l:
t:
u
275
Consotidated-Undrained TriaxiaI Test
Axial. Stress-Strain Calcutation
Proving ring caUbration factor
Proving
Ring Excess
Diat Pore-
Reading Correcled Deviatory Water
Specimen Verticat lNo. of Piston Stress Pressure
Deformation Strain Smalt Load P a= 11 *=f;
at [.ml Div.l (Nl
lcm2i lkN/m2l lkN/m2l
tlt l2't lll lsl l6l 17l t8l
E
c
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27'1
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E
APPENDIX C
E Data Sheets for
h Preparation of
cc Laboratory Reports
u
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L 279
N
Determination of Water Cont ent
l:!:ript on of so I Sampte no
-::ed by Date
Can no.
]Ia\\ ofcan. M €)
\Iass of can +wet soil, M2 (g)
\{ass ofcan+dry soil, M'l (g)
\{ass of moisture, M2 M3 (g)

\{ass of dry soil, M3 M1 (g)
{
Mt-M.
M:- Mt x 100
Water content. u {7. )
Average water content w

copyright oxford Universrty Press
E
t:
ct:
tc
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; 241
H
E Specific Gravity of Soit 5otids
E
Sampte no.
r,-:c:ftaskat20'C-m[ Temperatureof test Il_'C / (Tabte 3-41
-
- Daie
E \ -r r;pi1;" fl".tr no.
\1:s: ol flask + water filled to mark, M1 (g)
\L.! of fiask+ soil+ watel lllled to maft,

',r; -s
r
E \l:'
\l:ii
r,l-id:.
,,f dn \oil. M, lg)
arl equal volune of water and soil

(g) = (M1 + M,) M1
11.,
-
G.:.r 'ct: MtlM',
E G, ;, .n,6, =
ll'sjlre!!! ,! q'
:maller vatue of Gj
G5111 1,"C1 xA
E .
=-:9e 6.
cc
r:.i -i9ht 0xtord University Press
E
s
L:
;
E
Sieve Analysis
:.s.riptlon ol soit Sample no.
\r3ss of oven dry specimen M-g
-.sted by Oaie
Sieve
l{o-
E
b"
ct: T
l: vasslossou irg sieve araLysis:
MM, . 100- % {0K if tess than 2%l
cc
M-
copyr ght oxford University Press
ct: 285
u
Hydrometer Analysis
lesc.lption of soiI Sample no.
Hydrometer type
:l mass of soit M5 g Meniscus correciion Fm Zero correction Fz
E Time Percent Finer

{minl
*"oo
hl (51
E
t:
E
l:
ct: 'Tabte 5-5; iTabte 5 1; iTable 5-2
cc copyriqht oxford lJnivers ty Press
t:
t:
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287
::.:-:: on of soit Sample no.
Date
\hss ol,.a1. ,rtr1r 1g;
E
\llss ol can + moist soil, M2 G)
\IJi\ ol can + dry soil, M] (g)
-c \loisrure content.
tuM1
rl L17): --:---------- x 100
M:-Mt
\urnber of blows. N
b" - j'r id timit ll
t:
e
:.pyriqht 0xford lJniversity Press
E
F
LJ
LJ
ft 249
u
Liquid Limit Test-Fatt Cone Method
Sdmpl€ no
E \1a.s of can. M1 (g)
\la!\
\his
of can + moist soil. M2 (g)
ol can + dry soil. Mq (g)
\loislure conte[t.
:,(i): M,
-
T41
). I00
M:-Mt
E PenelratiLrn of cone. al (mnl)
:::,/right 0xf ord University Press
E
cc
cL:
E
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291
u
""
1-
a.-
u
l- ::::rlption
Ptastic Limit Test
of soiI Sample no.
1-
l- Date
l-
L;
L; Can no.
L; \lass ofcan, M1 (g)
l- \lass of can + moist soil, M2 G)

\Iass of can +dry soil, M3 (g)
|- PL= Mt-Mt
- - lOO
M:-Mt ^
L; A,/era!e vahe of plestic limit =
L; :rasiicity ndex P/: Ll PL :
copyr ght oxford University Press
;
L.
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L.
Il-
293
Determination of Dry Unit Weight
Descr ption of sort Sampte no.
mold ft3 Weighi of hammer

- ib
Liquid tinl t Plasticity index
Number o f btows/iayer Number of [ayers
Tesied by Date
Item
1. Weight of mold and base
plate, Wr (lb)
2. Weight of mold and base
plate + moist soil, W2 (lb)
3. Weight of moist soil,
E Wz Wt 0b)
ct: :1. Moist unit weight,

v:
w1 -w'
,^rob/ft't
5. Moisture can number
rj
t:
6. Mass of moisture can,
Mz (.9)
L: 8. Mass of can+ dry soil,

Ms (c)
LJ
f
L Moistnre contenT.
M^ M.'^100
w(%\=
Ms-Mt
10. Dry udt weight of
: compaction, y.l (lb/ftl) :
E v
t
LJ
t + (w (Eo) ltoo)
295
u
Zero-Air-Void Unit Weight
Samp[e no
Daie
spe<ific Gravity of Soit Assumed Moislure unit Weight of Wat€r

Sotids Gs Cont€nt w l%l y, ll.b/ft3l
h
{
E
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297
Sand Cone Method
Fietd Unit Weight
Date
h
Itern
-
Catibration ot Unit Weight of Ottawa Sand
1. \\eiqht of Procbr mold. Wl

:. \\eight of Proctor mold + sand. ll4
E -r. \blume of mold, I/1
u : \h - rvr
-. Dn unir u ei3ht. y2,,,n,1,
Vt
c i. \\eight oi bottle
6.
Calibration Cone
+ conc + sand (before use), ly3

\\eighr ofbottle + cone + sand (aftet use). W4
E 7. ['eight of sand to fill cone. W.. : Wa Wr
cs 8. $reight
Resutts from Fietd T€sts
of bottle + cone + sand (beforc use).

9. Weight of bottle + cone + sand (afrer use), lt/8
W6
cJ 1{J.
11.
Volume of hole, Yr
Wcight of ga1lon can,

=
Wa
W5
Wt - W,.
12. Weighl of gallon can + moist soil, l4r7

;
13. Weight of gatlon can + dry soil, We
;
,J : lI7 %
l-.
,J
lrt. Moist unit wcighl of soil in field. y
-v.
15. V,ri.rure conrenr il tield. lf(71 '
l'l r ^
tOO
,t w9 -"
L
,t
16. Dry unit weight in field, y2 :
L
,t
copyrlght Oxf ord llnlversity Press
I + (n (7o)/100)
L
tt
l{inimum and Maximum Dry Densities of Granutar Soit
Sampte no.
Specify graviiy of soiL sotids
Date
E r--r \blume of mold, V,,

A. Minimum Dry Density pd{,,r)
A.2 Mass of mold, M,,

{.i \lass of mold + dry soil, M1 A.4 Mass of dry soil inmold, M2
i.: \linimum dry density, p,1 ,4.6 Maximum void ratio, e-o,
E B.I \blume of mold, Yft

B. Maximum ory oensity p,r(.,,,)
B.2Internal diameter of mold. d
8.3 Inremal height of mold. f/ B.4 Mass of mold, M,n
B.5 Thickness of surcharge base plate, t, 8.6 Average inilial dial reading, R;
B.7 Average final reading, R,. 8.8 Mass of mold + dry soil, M3
8.9 Mass of dry soil in the mold,,l.1a B.l0 Volume of soil at etd oftest, y"
h B.11 Maximum dry density, p4,,,,.,, B .I 2 Minimum void ratio, e,,r,

L:
F capy.ight 0xford University Press
J
L:
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30f
l-.
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1: ::s..iption of soit
Sampte no.
|;
-! c:h of specirnen L Diamete. of specimen D
h -::::d by
\blume of specimen, v : !n2f k^3)

Date
--
2 Specinc gratity ofsoil solids, G.
h \Iass of specimen tube with fittings,

\lass oftube wirh nftings and specimen, M2 (g)
,M1 G)
h Dry density of specim .n, po : alO!) k/" 3)
h . -iC rario of specim€n e

= ::11 I :
4
pd
to.e pp: I q/cmJ.l
l, copyr ght oxford University press
b
L"
a
a
a
J
a
J
a 303
a
E Constant-Head Permeabitity Test
Determination of Coeflicient ol permeabiLiiy
::.:_iptlon of soiL Sampte no
E Date
Item
E Ar erage flow, O (cm3)
lmc of Lolle!rion. I (s)

Trmperarure of $ iter. 1('C)
Head difference, ,4 (cm)
E Diameter of specilnen, D (cm)
Lenglh of specimen, L (cm)
E {rca of specimen, / = 1/)2 (".,)
L: oL
cL: '.r c =Ar c\120'c

cm/s Tempera tu re af wa
L: copyr ght 0xlord University Press
L:
L:
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J 305
L:
s
l*
l:
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c Fatting-Head PermeabiLity Test
Determination ot Void Ratio of Specimen
cc
Description of soiL
; Sample no
Length of specimen I cm Diameier of specimen , -

Tested by
L- Date
L
sc :
volume of \pecimen. y 1D2t tcmr )
S pec ific grarity of soil solids, G,

Mass ol specimen tube with fittings, Ml (g)
c Mass of tube with ittings and specimen, M2 (g)
L
L
Dry density of specime n, po
Void ratio of specimen e =

GrP*
: U} !) {e/"^r)
L: {Notej p* = 1 g/cm3 )
copyright 0 {fo rd Universrty press

;
;
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L-
sL- Fatting-Head PermeabiLity Test
Determination of Coefticient of PermeabiLity
L. l:script on of soll Sample no.
sL. -a:::d by Daie
l-
l- Itam
l- Diameter of specimen, D (cm)
Length of specimen, I (cm)
L. .\rea of specimen, A (cm2)
L. Beginning head difference, /r1 (cm)
Ending head difference, ,2 (cm)

L. Tesr duration, 1(s)
L. volume cf water flow through specimen,

i, (cm- l
L. t = (h)
2.301v' L
loq r(cm/s)
h.
1- ht)tA 'ht
); cm/s Temperature of water 'c
t- kro.. = kr..lr!
rl20.c
=
t- copyright oxford LJniverslty Press
L.
t-
t-
t-
u
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309
E :...- . rion of soil
Void Ratio Catcutation
SampLe no
Date
i. Specimen width, B (in.)
,1. Specimen height, tI(in.)

+. \{a5s of porcelain dish + dry sand (before use), Mt (g)
:. l{ass of porcelain dish + dry sand (afrer use), M2 G)
F b. Dr1 unirweighrotspecimen.yrrlb n'1

vL- l:
= LBH(tn.1) . 3.rO*
t:
t:
i.
8.
Specific gravity of soil solids, G.
lbid ratio, e : 9fl1 - 1

v't
L. (\ote: f r.:62.4lblft3; ya is in lb/ft3.)
ri .cpyright oxford universiiy P.ess
cL:
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311
ru Direct Shear Test on Sand
Stress and Displacement Catcu[ation
:. r Ft on ol soit Sampte no.
E =..:l by
tb Void rat o e
Date
E Normat
Stress Horizontat Ve ical
No, of
Div. in
Proving
Proving
Ring Cati-
bration Shear Shear
Bisplacement Disptacement' Ring Diat Factor Force 5 Stress r
ttb/in.2l lin.l lin,l Ga!9e {tb/div.l (rbl ttb/in.'?l
tli t2t t3t (41 ls1 l6j 17l
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L:
L: - P:! s [+] sign rneans expansion.
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L:
L:
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I-
E l:script on
Stress and Disptacement Calcu[ation
Sanrple no
E ::ied by Date
E Normat
Stress Horizontat Verticat
No. of
Div. in
Proving
Proving
R'ng CatF
bration Shear
-
Shear
E Stress r
Disptacement Disptacement* Ring DiaL Factoa Force 5
Itb/in.2l t;n.l lin.l Gauge llb/div.l Irbl Itb/in.'zl
t:
t:
t1l 11) t5l l6l t7t
t:
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L:
t:
t: '
L:
Plus {+)sigf means expansion.
copyrighi 0xford University Press
tr
tr
l.: 315
L:
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la
I
- Direct Shear Test on Sand

Stress and Disp[acement Catculation
-
::::_ :i on ol soit Sampte no.
a
-
a
a
Date
2 Xormal
No. of
Div. in
Proving
Ring Cali-
q Stress Horizontal
Bisptac6ment
Vertical
Di5ptacement'
Proving
Ring Diat
bration
Factor
Shear
Force 5
Shear
Stress r
a t{.b/in.'?} lin.l lin.l

(31
Gauge
l4l
(tb/div.l
lsl
Itbl
l6|
ttb/in.'?l
a
17l
?
a
a
e
a
a
a
a
a - P[!s {+}sign means expansion.
t .:py.ight oxford University Press
,
a
t 317
t
I
B
L
h Unconfined Compression Test
h
::s:_:: or of soil Specimen no
h r': =:
-=-::_ !i
-ass of specimen
spec men I in.

g Moisture content
,
%
l-a : _.. -: - ng ral brat on factor. :

Diameter of specimen
] d v. tb Area.Aq = = in.2
l-a ,1D2
l-. Date
h Proving
Ring Diat Corrected
b Specimen
Delormation
Venical
Strain
Reading
lNo. of
Load P lcolumn 3
x Calibration
Area
a"=fu
Stress d =
Cotumn 4
l" al {in.l
t1l
AT
l2l
Smatt Div.l
(31
Factorl ltbl Iin,2l
lsl
eoEmn:
Itb/in.2l
t5l
f"
l-a
L"
I
a
-
-
J
-
-
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J
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J copyr ght oxford Untvelsity Press
J 319
a
L
Consolidation Test
Time versus Vertical. Diat Reading
E l=.:-:i:- r'soil
Dat.
E -_:r:__a:-:p:ctrnen
Time after
ton/fi2 Pressure on specimen ton/ft2

Apptication t Jt Application f
lminl s
lmin;o tminl
E
h
E
!-;
13
b
b
.-
b
b
L
copyriqht 0rford Unrvers ty Pre5s
,J 321
le
:--
rh Consotidation Test
t Time versus Verticat Diat Readinq
E
l-e ton/ft2 PressL.rre on spec men ton/ft2
h Time aftet
f" Appiication
Imin]
f Appticalion t
lminl
h
h
h
!:
L
L
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L
,-
L
,-
,J
L
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L
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copyr ght 0{ford Lln versity Press
L
L
,- 323
,a
h
lr
F. Consotidation Test
l.t l==:-:: .r of soiL
Time versus Verticat Diat Reading
I'a
!'e
]'e ion/ft2 Pressure on specimen ton/ft2
l-o Titne after
l'',t Load Time after Load
b Atptication f
lminl
Apptication
lminl
f
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la
la
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f Consolidation Test
H ::.:-
Pressure, void Ratio, and Catculation of coefficient of Consolidation
:iion of soiI
h :::: -:n diameter D lniiial heig hi H11;1
\r: ::-r: conient: Beg in nlng a/r
\r.ss :f d:y soit spec men Ms GS
E
l-t PrEs$re
p
Change in
Specimen
Averaqe
Height Fittirg
ItorVFl Height during Titnel5l
Al, (in.l ConsoF
lm
idation
4t"": tin
l3l lel
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b
b
b
Ia
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b
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It
It Consotidation Test
L Void Ratio, and Catcutation of Coefticient of ConsoIidation
ft Location
l.t nitial h eig ht H,ll n
|t End of tesi n/,
1.. gG,
b llaie
l.t Pre55ure Finat Change in Average Cv x 103
L. p
Iton/ft21
DiaL
Read-
Specimen
Height
Height
during
lin.2/sl
b
Le
ing
lin.l
AH lin.l ConsoF
idation
Htr,"rlin.
l2l t3l 17l
,3
2
2
2
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2
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-
2
.-
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2
-
a 329
-
S.
t
h
h
tt Unconsotidated-Undrained Triaxiat Test
Pre[iminary Data
Specrmen no.
h
l.r Date -
It 0uantity
b - \lii\t
i. Dr
mass oI specimen (end of test), Ml
b
nrass ol specirnen. M2
M'
: \liriirure conrenr (end oltesr). r' (q.) : .,, 1119
=!l
Mt
le I
b -i.
Initial a\erage lengrh ofspecimcn,
ldlial a\erage diameter of specimen, ,0
1-0
l3 5. Inirial area. A9 : IOI

I? -. Specific grality of soil solids. G,
b
t?
:. Final
9. Ce11
degree ot' saturation
confining pressure. o3
i !.r. Pro\ ing .ing calibration lactor

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-
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€
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2
2
€
2
-
-
L
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It
t Unconsotidated-Undrained TriaxiaI Test
V AxiaI Stress-Strain Calculation
b
p Proving
Ring Diat Piston Load P
4 Specilnen
Deformation
Verticat
Strain
Reading
lNo. of
lcotumn 3 x
Catibration
Corrected Area
a= 11
Deviatory
Stress Ao : f,
b AL lin.l AL Smalt D;v,i Factorl ltbl lin.'?l Itb/in.2l
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b
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It ConsoLidated-Undrained TriaxiaL Test
It Preliminary Data
h l:::-:: :- ci soil Specimen no.
h
lt Date -
l" . \lo,.r unit rreighr olspecimen

geqinning of Test
rbeginningoftest.l
-
l't
a
:. \[oi\rure
,1.
contenr (beginning ot
Inirial lengrh of specimen, Id

resr.)
b J. Initial diameter of specimen, D0
l :
I?
la itial area ol specime",,eo
lA3
6. Initial volume of specimen, V0 : A0l,o
After Consotidalion of Saturated Spe.imen
L Cell consolidation pressure, oi
? 8. Net drainage from specimen during

consolidation. AY
a 9. Voiume of specimen after consolidation,
Vx LV:V"
- 10. Length of specimen after consolidation,
r 7" l
J t, = h\rr)tl
- 1 1 Area of specimen after consolidation,
J o,:o"(h)'''
- copyright oxford University Press
2
J
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'b
h
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L
--
--
Consolidated-Undrained Triaxiat Test
AxiaI Slress-Strain Calculation
b
L
:-i. nc rlng catibration lactor
Proving
.- Ring Excess
Diat
.- Reading Corrected Deviatory
I Specimen Vertical lNo- of Piston Area Stress Pte55ure
,- Deformation Strain Smatt Load P a={ r.'=f; Lu
-
at lcrnj AL Div.l lNl lcm2l tkN/m'?l lkN/m2l i= lt
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-
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-
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-
J
Consolidated-Undrained TriaxiaL Test
Preliminary Data
Specimen no.
Date
Beginning of Test
\l..ijr ulit \\'eighr of specimen (beginning ol test)
I \l.ri!!ure conrent (beginning of test)
-: I:'Liial length of specimen, l4

-: Li;rial dlameter ol specimen. D6
I.ilial area of specime",,eo = i4

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Soils Manual

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CONTENTS

1. Laboratory Test and Preparation ol Report 1

2. Determination of Water Content 9

13. Constant-Head Permeability Test in Sand 125

14. Fatting-Head Permeabitity Test in Sand 135

L C Data Sheets for Preparation of Laboratory Reports 279

SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY

Table 1-1, Some lmportantASTM Standard Test

Specific Gravity of Soil solids by Warer pycnomerer

Particle-size Analysis of Soils

Liquid Limir, Plastic Limir, and plasricity

Test Method for

Standard Test Method for Minimum

Standard Test Method for Measurcment

t: Tabte 1-'1. lContinuedl

t: Standard Test Method for Direct Shear Test of Soil under

L D 2166 Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compression

L D 46,18 Standard Test Method fbr Laboratory Miriature Vane l6

Standard Test Method lbr Field Vane Shear Test in

Consolidation Propelties of Soils Using Incremental

Standard Test Method lbr Unconsolidated t8

Staldard Method for Triaxial Compression Test on t8

vL equiprnent . il il !\erc )ourown

1.4 Data Recording

*'erimenq name, group

-l"er(s'' sample calculation{s,.

u . Joule (J) for work done

Table 1 2 gives some of the preflxes used in the SI system

u I kilometer(lkm) : (1 n)(103) : 1000 m

u I millimeler(lmm) = { I m){10 tl:0.u01 rn

u and SI to English units.

t- Tabte 1-2. Some Prefixes Used in Sl Units

Tabte l-3. Conversion from Engtish to St Units

Coef,fi cient of consolidation 6.452 ctl: ls

Tabte 1-4. Conversion from Slto English Units

Ifngth 1mm 3.937 x l0-2 in.

Velocity I cm/s 1.969 ftlmin

CoefRcient of consolidation I cm2ls 0.155 in.2/s

I Mass lkg 2.2046Ib

Water content is usually expressed in percent.

Tabte 2-1, Minimum Size ol Moist Soit Sampl.es

Figure 2-1. Moisture cans and batance.

Tabl.e 2-3. Determination ot Water Content

3. Mass of can+wet soil, M2 (g)

A complete sample calculation ol water content is given in Table 2 3.

Tabl.e 2-4, Typicat Vatues of Water Content in a Saturated State

.,,.: i:'.-. r. .. .Soi[..1

Dense angular-grained silty sand t5

Figure 2-2. A desiccator. lCourtesy of N. Sivakugan, James Cook University, Austratia )

2.6 Laboratory Report

l- ASTM Standard: D-854

L ume of the material to the density of an equal volume of distilled

L is an important parameter for calculating the weight_volume relationshipiThus

Table 3-1. Generat Ranges oI4 for Common

Montmorillonite 2.65 2.80

Potassium feldspar 2 5'7

Sodium and calcium teldspar 2.62-2.'16

Muscovite 2.'/6 3.1

TabLe 3-2. General Rangeg of 6s for

Srnd 2.63 2.6',7

Silts 2.65 2.1

Clay and silty clay 2.6'7 -2.9

tr 5. Bunsen burner and stand (and./or vacuum punp or aspirator)

Dry Mass ofSpe.imen lgl