MINERAL-

INSULATED
HEATING CABLE
Considerations for application
of mineral-insulated electrical
resistance heating cable

BY N.R. RAFFERTY, PETER BAEN,

D.O. BROWN, & WILLIAM HANTHORN

IEEE INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS MAGAZINE • SEPT|OCT 2007 • WWW.IEEE.ORG/IAS

ENERAL APPLICATION INFORMATION REQUIRED

G to design and install mineral insulated (MI) heating

cables is readily available from manufacturers of MI
heating cable. Industry standards such as IEEE-515-
2004 [1] and IEC 60286 [2] establish minimum requirements for
©DIGITAL STOCK, COMSTOCK
industrial applications. Beyond the general information available
from manufacturers and standards, the specialized knowledge
required to support the lifecycle of an MI heating cable system has
diminished over time in the industrial workplace as MI heating
cables have moved from broad use for surface heating to niche appli-
cations. MI cable applications for heating include specialized con-
struction for process heating applications such as immersion heaters,
heat exchangers, and industrial heating cables for high-power-densi-
ty, high-temperature, or corrosive service. This article provides com-
prehensive information to grant the reader a greater understanding
of important issues related to the construction, design, installation,
and maintenance of MI heating cables in industrial surface heating
applications.

59
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MIA.2007.901381

1077-2618/07/$25.00©2007 IEEE
 MI Cable Construction ture. The resistance of pure copper, for example, when
MI cables are comprised of one or more solid conductors maintaining a pipe at 200 ◦ C (392 ◦ F) is about two
that run longitudinally in the cable, a mineral powder elec- times its resistance at room temperature. Temperature
trical insulation, and a continuous metal sheath, as shown resistance change needs to be taken into account when
in Figure 1. the heater is designed. Typical values for a selection of
the materials commonly used for the heating
Conductors conductor(s) of MI cables are listed in Table 1.
In MI heating cable, the conductors selected are usually a
resistance alloy or copper depending on the resistance per MI Cable Dielectric Insulation
unit length required and the desired dielectric rating The electrical insulation may be one of a number of dif-
which impacts the finished cable diameter. The resis- ferent ceramic powders such as aluminum oxide or boron
tance of heating cables ranges from as high as 56 /m nitride, but magnesium oxide (MgO) is by far the dielec-
down to 0.0021 /m (17 /ft down to 0.000641 /ft). tric of choice because it is readily available, inexpensive,
For most alloys, the resistance increases with tempera- easy to process, and has good thermal and electrical prop-
erties when compressed. The physical structure of
MgO is stable to extremely high temperatures
(1,000 ◦ C or 1,830 ◦ F).
Compressed MgO has a higher thermal conduc-
tivity compared to other insulation types (see Table
Insulation 2) and, therefore, the heat is more rapidly transferred
(Magnesium Oxide) out of the cable. For this reason, the conductor will
Solid Heating be cooler than that of a polymer-insulated cable
Conductors loaded to the same watt density and operating at the
Solid Sheath
same sheath temperature.
The insulation resistance of compressed MgO
decreases with increasing temperature (see Figure 2).
Dual-Conductor Cable Similarly, as shown in Figure 3, the dielectric
1 strength of compressed MgO decreases with increas-
Typical MI cable construction. ing temperature.

Metal Sheath
TABLE 1. PROPERTIES OF RESISTANCE ALLOYS.
IEEE INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS MAGAZINE • SEPT|OCT 2007 • WWW.IEEE.ORG/IAS

While a sheath of copper may be

Temperature used on heating cables that operate
Resistivity Coefficient of continuously at temperatures of 204
@20 ◦ C, Resistance ◦
C (400 ◦ F) or less, stainless steel or
Conductor Alloy Composition % μ-cm ohm, /◦ C high nickel alloys are more common-
Evanohm 75Ni 20Cr 2.5Al 2.5Cu 133 ±0.000005 ly selected for refinery and petro-
chemical applications. However, the
Nichrome A 80Ni 20Cr 108 0.000085
series 300 stainless steels (such as
Cupron 45Ni 55Cu 49 ±0.00004 304 and 316) are susceptible to
180 Alloy 22Ni 78Cu 30 0.00018 stress corrosion cracking in the pres-
ence of chlorides. Since most thermal
Everdur 655 3.1Si 1.1Mn 95.8Cu 27 0.00025 insulations contain chlorides, alloy
Everdur 651 1.5Si 0.25Mn 98.25Cu 16 0.00053 825 or 600 are more often used as
60 Alloy 6Ni 94Cu 10 0.0005 the sheath material for MI cables in
the process industries. Also, there are
Nickel 99.8Ni 9 0.0048 many applications requiring much
OFHC Copper 99.99Cu 0.17 0.00393 higher temperature ratings than that
For additional information, including SI units, see “Handbook of Electrical Heating for Industry” [3].
of copper sheaths.

The Complete MI Heating Unit

MI heating units are normally supplied as complete fac-
TABLE 2. COMPARATIVE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES
tory-assembled units. The required length of MI heating
OF COMMON HEATING CABLE INSULATION.
cable is connected to an MI cold lead section that is usu-
Material W/m·◦ K Btu/h·ft2 ·◦ F ally 1 or 2 m (3 or 7 ft) long by means of a brazed hot-
MgO 28.34 16.4 to-cold splice. For two-conductor heating units, the two
conductors of the heating cable are joined within a brazed-
HDPE 5.36 3.1
in-place end cap, while for single-conductor heating units a
FEP Teflon 2.93 1.7 single conductor cold lead is applied at each end of the
PVC 1.71 0.99 heating cable. Because MgO absorbs moisture if exposed to
60
air, the end of the cold lead is sealed. This seal usually
consists of a small “pot” (custom-machined fitting) filled
with a sealing compound through which the polymer-insu-
lated power supply leads extend. A threaded connector is
applied so that the cold lead is ready to connect into a junc-
tion box.
Figures 4 and 5 show typical heating unit configura-
tions. The single-conductor heaters are often applied in
multiples of three on long/large pipes and connected to
form three-phase circuits.
Typical Applications
Every type of electrical resistance heat tracing is suitable
for freeze protection, but there are many attributes of MI
heating cables that make them
uniquely qualified for specific applica-
tions, including the following:
use field cut-to-length polymeric heating cables; exact line
lengths are not required to complete the design. The instal-
lation is more expensive than using MI cable, due to the
additional layer of thermal insulation. The installation of
the inner layer of thermal insulation is very craft-sensitive.
The thermal insulation is put on the pipe at normal ambi-
ent temperatures. The metal pipe elongates more than the
thermal insulation as the lines heat up due both to different
thermal expansion coefficients and temperature differences.
The butt joints of the thermal insulation must be sealed
with a soft compressible material to prevent gaps from
opening between the sections of thermal insulation as the
pipe reaches operating temperatures. If a gap opens, it will

High-Wattage Applications 100,000 30,480

Process piping or large-diameter piping
Insulation Resistance (M-Ω-1,000 ft)

Insulation Resistance (M-Ω-1,000 m)

requiring higher maintenance tempera- 10,000 3,048
tures also require more power from the
heating cables, even with the use of
thicker thermal insulation. MI heating 1,000 305
cables can generate higher power out-
puts due to their inorganic construction
and higher temperature ratings than
100.0 30
comparable polymeric heating cables.
As such, the use of the MI heater can
reduce the number of passes of trace on
a pipe in comparison to polymeric heat-
ing cables. This is particularly helpful 10.0 3

IEEE INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS MAGAZINE • SEPT|OCT 2007 • WWW.IEEE.ORG/IAS

around heat sinks (supports and valves),
where the multiple pass designs can 1.0 0.3
212 °F 392 °F 572 °F 752 °F 932 °F 1,112 °F 1,292 °F
require more heating cable to be added (100 °C) (200 °C) (300 °C) (400 °C) (500 °C) (600 °C) (700 °C)
than can physically be installed at a Temperature
specific location. In applications where 2
the heat-up or melt-out of process pip- Typical insulation resistivity of MgO as a function of temperature.
ing is required, high-watt-density MI
cables are a logical consideration to
minimize the number of tracers per
pipe (Figure 6).
90 3,540
Freeze Protection of Super-Heated
Steam Lines 80 3,150
Superheated steam found in power gen- 70 2,755
V per MIL of Insulation

V per mm of Insulation

eration reaches temperatures well above

the melting point of polymer-insulated
60 2,360
heaters. Those steam lines must be pro-
tected from freezing when the boiler is
shut down during subfreezing weather. 50 1,970
Two common methods of heating these
high-temperature pipes are to either 1)
apply MI directly to the pipe (Figure 7) 40 1,575
or 2) install two successive layers of
thermal insulation, installing a poly-
meric heater between the two layers
(Figure 8). 30 1,180
752 °F 932 °F 1,112 °F 1,292 °F 1,472 °F 1,652 °F 1,832 °F
The second technique is referred to (400 °C) (500 °C) (600 °C) (700 °C) (800 °C) (900 °C) (1000 °C)

as double insulation or sandwiching the Temperature

heating cable. The primary benefit of 3
61
this type of installation is the ability to Typical dielectric strength of MgO as a function of temperature.
 expose the heater to the superheated steam temperature, rigid insulated enclosure around a pump. Typically, the
melting the polymeric dielectric and causing heater failure. enclosure will be fabricated in two halves, with a latch-
ing system to easily separate the two parts. Soft insula-
Design tion covers or removable blankets are not as effective;
The basic design equation for a series heater includes the their lack of rigidity will cause the heater to flex and
elements in Figure 9. bend during removal, temporary storage, and re-installa-
The metallic oxide dielectric (typically MgO) elec- tion. Care should be taken to assure the mated enclosure
trical insulation and metallic sheath are both stable surfaces have good contact, as gaps in those surfaces will
to very high temperatures. This makes the heater sta- result in convective air flow that will carry away the heat
ble for applications well above the melting point of intended for the enclosed device. Operating temperatures
polymeric heaters. The inorganic construction of MI, of the heat trace could be much higher, depending on
which provides its high temperature rating and its watt densities, based on poorer heat transfer than when
ability to withstand high temperatures, must be installed in contact with the pipe being heated.
accommodated in the application design.
Conductor Resistance Increase
Eliminate Repeated Bending of the Heater at Elevated Temperatures
MI cable is not as flexible as polymeric cable, and thus it
Conductor resistance increases at higher temperatures,
must be designed and installed in ways that will not sub- resulting in lower power outputs. Higher-resistance
ject it to significant repeated flexing or bending. When heating elements are made from nickel-chrome alloys
the item being heat traced will require frequent servic- that can operate at very high temperatures with a mini-
ing, consider construction of a removable insulation mum electrical resistance change. Lower-resistance heat-
shell, with the MI heater mounted to the inner wall of ing elements are constructed from copper alloys that
the shell to minimize bending of the heater during have lower maximum operating temperatures and have a
removal/servicing periods. One common application is a greater change of resistance with temperature. Longer-
length heaters usually have the
lower-resistance heating elements, so
Heating Cable Length Cold Lead Length consider maximum element tempera-
tures in the longer-length designs.
The copper alloy heating elements
can experience a resistance increase
Two Conductor Heaters from 15–100% for a high-mainte-
IEEE INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS MAGAZINE • SEPT|OCT 2007 • WWW.IEEE.ORG/IAS

4 nance-temperature design. This

Two-conductor MI cable configuration. resistance change must be considered
in the electrical design of the heater;
otherwise, the heater output may not
Cold Lead Length Heating Cable Length Cold Lead Length provide sufficient power at operating
temperature.

Length Determination
Single Conductor Heaters Since MI heaters are series type and
5 often not intended to be cut to
Single-conductor MI cable configuration. length in the field, you must have
good approximation or accurate mea-
sure of required lengths. This is easier on pipes that are 3
in and larger if supplied as prefabricated “spool pieces.”
These pipe lengths can be determined well ahead of
time. Smaller pipe is usually field run, and the length
cannot be confirmed until the pipe installation is com-
plete. If an MI heater is used on field run piping, it is
recommended that the pipe length be measured before
ordering the heater, including allowances for heat sinks.
Some minor length adjustments can be made by
slight changes to the adders for heat sinks. It is not a
good idea to double the heater back on the end of the
pipe to adsorb extra cable. Doubling the heat input can
result in a significant increase of the pipe temperature
in that area and should not be done arbitrarily in haz-
ardous areas. Using extra cable at the heat sinks will
6
not drive the temperature as much due to the higher
Reduced passes of MI heating cable adder on pipe and heat losses of the device (pipe support or valve) in that
62
heat sinks. area of the pipe.
Heating Section Elongation
The heater gets hotter than the pipe it is installed on, so
it will expand to a greater length than the pipe when
energized. Installation methods should allow for this
expansion in a manner that does not concentrate the flex-
ing of the MI heater in specific small areas. Failure to do
so can result in fatigue of the sheath at those locations.
The flexing should occur over greater distances. For
example, if fastened tightly with metal strapping, the
expansion will be forced to occur between the straps,
increasing the likelihood of fatigue and failure at the
strapping point. It is best to install the cable loosely,
allowing the expansion to occur along the pipe.
Operating-Voltage Considerations
When using voltages greater than 240 V, the quality of the
supply should be considered. Large motors and solid-state
drives on the same transformer may create significant volt-
age spikes that exceed the electrical insulation strength of
the MI heating cable. This is most easily accommodated by
limiting electrical equipment on the heater cable supply
transformer to noninductive items (no motors or solid-state
power drives). If that is not possible, then use specially
sized surge suppressors that will clip any peak voltages
below the expected break-over point on the MgO insula-
tion (based on projected maximum wire and sheath tem-
peratures). Standard surge suppressors clipping voltages are
usually too high to provide protection to these situations.
High-Temperature Considerations
There are a variety of sheath materials utilized in MI
heaters. Copper is the lowest-cost, most-flexible (easy to
form) sheath material and can be used on temperatures
up to 200 ◦ C (392◦ F). 300 Series stainless steels can be
used on temperatures up to 560 ◦ C (1,040 ◦ F); if
exposed to higher temperatures, carbon will migrate to
the surface, creating a blue tinting. Alloy 825 can be
used on temperatures up to 560 ◦ C (1,040 ◦ F) and, if
used above its rating, the material becomes brittle and
cannot be moved.
Sheath Temperatures
MI round geometry only makes tangential contact with
the pipe being heated. This results in minimal heat
transfer by conduction. The MI cable will also leave the
surface of the pipe when going over flanges and other
irregular surfaces, particularly when installed loosely on
the pipe. This results in the heater being suspended in
still air for parts of its installation.
The most common installation design is based on
heater sheath temperatures in still air. This is the lowest
installation cost, but also results in high sheath tempera-
tures. This is not a problem in nonhazardous locations.
However, auto-ignition temperatures for hazardous gases
require special considerations when calculating maximum
sheath temperature conditions. IEEE 515-2004 [1] pro-
vides a detailed explanation of these considerations. As an
example, specific abnormal conditions have to be consid-
ered for the calculations in Table 3.
If a fail-safe temperature controller or a high-tempera-
ture-limit thermostat is used, the conditions change. See
IEEE 515-2004 [1] for a complete description of all con-
ditions to be considered. Due to the complexity of these
abnormal design conditions, it is recommended that you
use the heating cable manufacturer’s design software. This
software’s accuracy is verified by approval agency during
their system approval testing.
It is possible to lower a heating cable’s sheath tempera-
tures with the use of a heat transfer aid such as metal foils
or heat transfer compounds. Care in maintenance is
required to be sure these aids are never removed or lost. If
Weatherproof Outer Lagging (−20 °C)
Insulation Layer
Pipe (500 °C)
MI Cable
7
MI heating cable mounted directly on pipe.
Weatherproof Outer
Lagging (−20 °C)
IEEE INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS MAGAZINE • SEPT|OCT 2007 • WWW.IEEE.ORG/IAS
Outer Insulation Layer
Metal Lagging (100–150 °C)
Field Cut-to-Length Pipe (500 °C)
Heater
Inner Insulation
8
Polymeric heating cable sandwiched between layers of
thermal insulation.
Basic Equation: P = V 2/R
Applied Equation: w/m x L = V 2/(L x Ω/m)
Where:
w/m (watt/meter) is based on heat losses
(temperature, pipe size, thermal insulation)
L is determined by the length of cable (Pipe + valves +
other heat sink addres)
V is limited by the power system voltage (typically two
choices in typical power systems)
Ω/m (ohm/meter) is the adjustable variable (unit
resistance of heating wire)
9
63
Variables for a simple series heating cable design.
 removed, maximum sheath temperatures will elevate sig-
nificantly; thermal expansion will be increased and can
result in thermal fatigue of the heater sheath.
Metal foils provide a heat fin to conduct heat away
from the side of the heater that is adjacent to the thermal
insulation. Although the cross-sectional area of the tape
limits the heat conducted, lower operating temperatures
can be demonstrated.
Adhesive-backed aluminum foil tape is the easiest to
apply since it forms easily over the heating cable and the
adhesive will hold it in place until the thermal insulation
is installed. In many applications, the acrylic adhesive will
release with age and temperature. If the thermal insulation
is not tightly fitted, some means should be provided to
hold the foil tape in place. The aluminum foil tape is not
recommended when temperatures exceed 150 ◦ C (300 ◦ F).
For higher-temperature applications, a stainless steel
foil can be used. This foil is not as soft as the aluminum
foil and does not easily form to the heating cable instal-
lation surface. Due to its stiffness and maximum tem-
peratures expected, an adhesive is not practical for this
foil and needs to be held in place by external strapping.
The foil edges are sharp and it can be difficult to
install. Maximum temperature ratings are only limited
by the foil material itself, generally in the range of 500
◦
C (932 ◦ F).
Heat transfer compound is the most efficient at low-
ering the sheath temperatures. It contacts the heating
cable on all sides, conducting heat away from the heater
at a rapid rate. Some form of containment is usually pro-
vided to hold the compound in contact with the heater
IEEE INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS MAGAZINE • SEPT|OCT 2007 • WWW.IEEE.ORG/IAS
as the cement ages and is subjected to thermal stresses
during heater cycling. Typical maximum temperatures
for heat transfer compound are 190 ◦ C (375 ◦ F) for
resin-based nonhardening types and epoxy-based com-
pound, and 371–675 ◦ C (700–1,200 ◦ F) for water-based
compound.
Flexing Pipe Joints, such as Loading Arms
MI heating cable cannot traverse these moving joints. Seg-
ment the cable at these locations by wiring separate cold
leads to connection boxes on each pipe segment. Use flex-
TABLE 3. DESIGN BASIS FOR SHEATH TEMPERATURES.
Class I, II, III
Item Div. 1 Div. 2
Percent of rated voltage 120 110
Maximum pipe temperature NOTE 1 NOTE 1
for calculation
Percent of ignition <100 <100
temperature
Maximum wind speed 0 0
for calculation
NOTES:
1) The pipe temperature: maximum runaway pipe temperature or maximum pipe process temperature (whichever is greater) shall be used to calculate the maximum
sheath temperature. Maximum ambient temperature is used to calculate maximum runaway pipe temperature.
64 2) Electric heating devices are not permitted in Zone 0 areas.
conduit or other flexible wiring methods to connect the
two heater segments together electrically.
Corrosion Resistance
Several corrosion concerns that must be considered when
selecting the proper sheath material include:
1) Corrosion Resistance: Metal corrosion guides are
difficult to work with when dealing with MI
heating cables. They can be used for comparative
purposes (determining which sheath material
might do better in a particular installed environ-
ment). The thin cross-sectional areas of the sheath
material, the stresses in the sheath, and the ele-
vated sheath temperatures can accelerate corrosion
from rates shown in a typical guide. Heating
cable installations should be dry, as most thermal
insulation loses its insulation value if saturated
with a liquid. Generally, the MI sheath material
will not be exposed to wet chemicals that would
create the conditions (presence of moisture) for
corrosion to occur. The one exception to this
would be seasonal heaters that are off for periods
of time. Gases such as sulfur dioxide can saturate
water condensation on a cold heater, creating a
weak sulfuric acid solution on the heater’s surface.
2) Chloride Stress-Corrosion Cracking: Certain metals
(notably the 300 series of stainless steel) are subject
to a phenomena known as chloride corrosion stress
cracking. The MI heater has a residual hoop stress in
its sheath due to the different expansion coefficients
of the MgO and the metallic sheath. As the heater
cools from the annealing process, the metal jacket
shrinks at a higher rate than the MgO insulation.
This results in a slight hoop stress existing in the
metal sheath. Additional stresses are induced during
the bending of the cable during the installation
process. If chloride ions and moisture are introduced
to the stressed sheath, chloride stress corrosion
cracking will result. Even low-halide thermal insu-
lations (below 50 ppm) can experience a concentrat-
ing effect from rainwater leaks or leaky pipe seals.
The moisture will carry the leached chloride ions to
Class I Unclassifed
Zone 0 Zone 1 Zone 2 (ordinary)
NOTE 2 110 110 100
NOTE 2 NOTE 1 NOTE 1 NOTE 1
NOTE 2 <100 <100
NOTE 2 0 0 0
 the heater’s sheath. When the heater is energized,
the moisture is driven off, but the chloride ions stay.
The next rain washes more water and chloride ions
to the heater sheath. The heater cycles on and drives
the water away, but the chloride ions stay. Over a
period of time, heater sheaths can develop an ade-
quate concentration of chloride ions, enough to
cause stress cracking of a 300 series stainless steel
sheath. Alloy 825 is often the sheath material of
choice for industrial applications. The relatively
high nickel content of 825 plus molybdenum and
copper makes the alloy resistant to stress corrosion
cracking, intergrannular attack, and increased resis-
tance to reducing environments (such as sulfuric and
phosphoric acid) and oxidizing environments (such
as nitric acid, nitrates and salts).
3) Galvanic Corrosion: This type of corrosion occurs
between dissimilar metals, with the more-active
(corroding) metal giving up material to the less-
active (protected) metal. This corrosion requires
the presence of moisture to facilitate an electrolytic
transfer. In year-round-use applications, moisture
should never be present and this would not be a
consideration. If the heater will be off for long
periods of time (allowing condensation cycles to
occur) or moisture will be present for other reasons
(period submersion or wash down as examples),
then galvanic action should be considered. In these
cases, the heater sheath should be the more pro-
tected metal (more noble) than the surface to
which it is applied. This would result in material
loss from the thicker pipe surface, not from the
thinner MI heating cable sheath.
Short-Circuit Protection
The MI heater is a series-style heater. A high-impedance
fault in the heating circuit will contain a portion of the
heating element’s resistance in the fault circuit. Depend-
ing on the fault location, the resulting circuit impedance
may never be low enough to trip a standard thermal
magnetic breaker. It is recommended that all MI heating
cable circuits be protected for both short-circuit and
ground-fault equipment protection.
Branch Circuit Wiring Voltage Drop
The wiring from the power transformer to the heating
cable can typically experience a 3–5% drop (or greater)
due to the resistance of the supply wiring. Excessive
voltage drop can often be accommodated in one of two
ways in the design: 1) adjust the transformer taps so
the voltage at the heater is the rated operating voltage
or 2) use a lower voltage rating for the heater design
voltage to compensate for the wiring voltage drop to
the heater.
■ Voltage Drop Example: Given a heater with a resis-
tance of 10 , if the full supply voltage of 120 V
was available at the heater terminals, the heater
would draw 12 A and provide 1,440 W. However, if
the branch circuit wiring has a drop of 10 V, then
110 V (or about 92% of the supply voltage) is avail-
able at the heater terminals. The heater resistance is
still 10 , so the heater will draw 11 A and provide
1,210 W, or 84%, of that if there was no voltage
drop. Depending on the safety factor used in heat
loss calculations and heater selection, this could
leave very little to overcome installation and thermal
insulation inconsistencies.
Installation
The installation phase is critical to the successful opera-
tion of any heat-tracing system. Standard IEEE 515-
2004 [1] includes a complete chapter dedicated to
installation of heat-tracing systems. The standard recom-
mends that all installers be suitably trained by the man-
ufacturer as a basic consideration. Also NEC-2005,
Article 110.3.B [4] states that listed equipment shall be
installed per the manufacturer’s instructions. Some criti-
cal issues during the installation phase are the following:
Thermal Insulation
Regardless of the heating cable type or application, one
of the most critical components of any heat-tracing sys-
tem is the thermal insulation. In the design phase, the
heat input from the heat trace is calculated to offset the
heat lost through the thermal insulation at thermal
equilibrium during the minimum ambient conditions.
The heat-loss calculation is straightforward, but it is
entirely dependent on the thermal insulation system
being properly installed and maintained. Any changes
to the insulation system, such as missing insulation or
water in the system (almost always a deterioration in
efficiency), will significantly increase heat losses, which
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almost always exceed the output of the electric heat-
tracing circuit.
Installing MI Cable
The installation of MI cable is not significantly different
than polymeric cable installation with a few exceptions,
such as:
■ Roll heater out along pipe to be traced. Fasten each
end at start and finish locations, working back
toward the middle.
■ Be careful not to kink/twist the cable or exceed
the minimum bending radius and avoid repeated
bending and straightening of the cable. Do not
bend the cable within 7.5 cm (3 in) of a splice,
junction, or end termination.
■ Do not fasten cable at heat sinks during initial
installation (spacing cable on pipe). Allow a loop
of cable of approximate adder length at each heat
sink. Once cable has been successfully propor-
tioned between all the heat sinks, go back and
form cable onto each heat sink.
■ As a general rule, MI heating cables should not cross
over themselves and a minimum 1-in separation
between heated sections should be maintained.
■ Use 16–18 AWG stainless steel tie wire to secure
the MI cable at 30-cm (12-in) intervals. For pipes
larger than 6 in, use stainless steel banding straps.
When using multiple tracers, use a prepunched
banding strap to maintain cable alignment and sep-
65
aration along the pipe.

TDR
Open
10
TDR trace if heater is open circuited.
TDR
Short
11
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TDR trace if heater is short circuited.
■ Do not use ratcheting-type installation tools to
tighten the SS banding. Overly tightened banding
can restrict normal expansion and contraction,
resulting in cable fatigue and failure.
■ Extra cable for a heat sink does not have to be
entirely applied on the heat sink itself. For small
surface heat sinks, it is acceptable to put the extra
heater adder on the pipe in the vicinity of the heat
sink. A large, single “S” loop is often effective. This
also eliminates many small bends, allowing the
extra cable to be moved away from the heat sink
without having to significantly rebend any loops (as
in the case of a valve that requires periodic removal
for servicing).
Installation, Verification, and Commissioning
Proper verification of installation and commissioning of
heat-trace systems is a one-time event to determine if the
installation is compliant with design and installation pro-
cedures. Standard IEEE 515-2004 [1] is an excellent
source of information to support the installation phase and
provides an example “Heater Installation Checklist”
(Annex-G). The commissioning phase should document
system parameters including catalog information, installed
heater length, insulation resistance test value, start-
up/operating current, and voltage at the heater power con-
nection to provide the benchmark for future maintenance
66
and troubleshooting. IEEE 515-2004 [1] also provides a
sample “Heater Commissioning Record” (Annex-I) to sup-
port circuit or system commissioning.
Maintenance
Periodic maintenance is important not only to verify
operation of the heater and to service control compo-
nents, but also to inspect the system for damage that
will affect its operation. IEEE 515-2004 [1] provides
general maintenance information that applies to all
types of heating devices (cables and panels) and
includes a “Maintenance Log Record” (Annex-K) to
support maintenance records.
Troubleshooting
In the event that a malfunction is suspected, understand-
ing the symptoms is important to a prompt and effective
solution to the problem. It is important to understand
that a low-temperature condition is not always the result
of a malfunctioning heat-tracing circuit. In an adaptation
of the paper titled “Calculating Electrical Risk and Reli-
ability,” [5] the author applied the principles of reliabili-
ty to electrical heat-tracing systems, compiling data from
various sources to help understand the nature of the
problems reported. Based on that study, it was suggested
that the primary cause of system failure was damaged,
wet, or missing thermal insulation. (In each of these
cases, the electric heat-tracing system was properly
installed and checked out during startup before data was
collected for this study). The second most common cause
of system failure was cable abuse and the third was
improper or damaged terminations and connections.
Troubleshooting Techniques
If the initial troubleshooting at the heater power leads
finds that the heater is operating at rated voltage and
current, then look for thermal insulation problems first.
Broken or damaged heaters can usually be repaired in
situ using a brazed splice similar to the hot-cold splice
without stripping the insulation from the entire length
of the pipe or removing and replacing the heater.
Useful equipment for troubleshooting includes a 500- or
1,000-V megohmmeter (digital preferred), temperature
probe, ohmmeter, volt meter, and clamp-on ammeter. For
any problems, it is useful to “walk the line” looking for loca-
tions where maintenance work has been recently carried out,
as the heater or thermal insulation may have been damaged
during mechanical maintenance.
Troubleshooting Characteristics
That May Be Unique to MI Cable
If the circuit has alarmed on ground fault, de-energize the
circuit, disconnect the heater from the branch circuit
wiring in the junction box and from one of the tails of the
heater, and check the insulation resistance to ground with
a 500- or 1,000-V megohmmeter. The value should be
compared to maintenance records. If the insulation resis-
tance of the heater is satisfactory, check the insulation
resistance of the branch circuit conductors.
1) If the heater has a value less than 5 M, it may
require further action. The exception is during peri-
ods of rain or very high humidity. Moisture can track
 along the sleeving used to insu-
late the tails of the MI cold lead Cold Lead Length Heated Length
and across the face of the seal to
the pot, causing the insulation
resistance to temporarily decline
until the weather improves. If −
Zero Calibrated
this is the cause of the low read- Potentiometer
ing, wiping the tails and the + + −
face of the compound with a 6V Battery
clean dry cloth will often
Sheath
improve the reading. 12
2) If the insulation resistance of
the heater did not improve, High-resistance bridge.
and if signs suggesting mainte-
nance work was done to the piping system were be used as per Figure 12. When the bridge is balanced,
observed, remove the insulation at those locations the potentiometer indicates the percent of the distance
and look for physical damage to the heater. from the positive lead. The positive and negative leads
3) If neither damage nor sign of recent maintenance should then be transposed at the bridge, and the bridge
work can be seen, fault-locating equipment will be again balanced. The two readings when added together
required to find the location of the problem. should total approximately 100%.The distance to the
fault is Ra × heater length, where Ra is the percent
Fault Locating shown on the potentiometer from the positive terminal
Where the location of an open or short circuit in the on the bridge.
heating unit is not readily evident, fault-locating If the heater is broken or cut, it may have a low insula-
equipment can include a time-domain reflectometer tion resistance and an open circuit. If this is the case, a
(TDR), a capacitance meter (digital preferred), or a capacitance meter or high-resistance bridge will not find
high-resistance bridge. the location of the fault. In the case of a low insulation
A TDR can be used for detecting either an open or resistance, to determine if the problem is in a hot-cold or
short circuit. It sends a signal along the cable which is end splice: 1) connect one lead of the megohmmeter to
reflected back when it sees a change in impedance. By one of the tails of the heater and the other to ground or to
dialing in the velocity of propagation (VP) for MI cable the sheath of the cold lead, and then 2) lightly “wipe” the

IEEE INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS MAGAZINE • SEPT|OCT 2007 • WWW.IEEE.ORG/IAS

(about 0.39), the TDR will give a reading in feet so that splice with a torch. If the problem is moisture in the
distance along the heater can be approximated without splice, the needle on the megohmmeter will flicker.
calculation. A more accurate fault location can be obtained
by taking a reading from each tail of a heater and adjust- Conclusions
ing the VP until the two readings added together equals MI heating cable, when properly applied, has proven to
the length of the heater. Figure 10 shows a typical trace provide many years of service. The considerations provid-
for a cable with an open circuit, while Figure 11 is for a ed in this article can help to eliminate common mistakes
cable with a short. The vertical line shows the distance to that lead to short service life.
the open or short and is usually accompanied by a reading
in feet or meters. References
MI heating units are often used on pipe tracing circuits [1] IEEE Standard for the Testing, Design, Installation, and Maintenance of
that are over 300 m (1,000 ft) long. Although fed from Electrical Resistance Heat Tracing in Industrial Applications, IEEE 515-
2004, 2004.
one supply, they are usually divided into series-connected [2] Electrical Resistance Trace Heating in Potentially Explosive Atmospheres, IEC
sections of 45 to 90 m (150 to 300 ft) for ease of installa- 62086-1, 2001.
tion. Although TDRs are touted as being suitable for cir- [3] C.J. Erickson, Handbook of Electrical Heating for Industry. New York:
cuits up to 5 km (16,400 ft), be aware that stainless steel IEEE Press, 1975.
[4] National Electrical Code, NFPA-70, 2002.
sheathed MI cable is very “lossy” (signal dissipates more [5] J. Propst, “Calculating electrical risk and reliability,” in IEEE-PCIC
quickly than in other cable types) and many TDRs are not 1994 Conf. Rec. vol. 3, p. 25.
powerful enough for use with long lengths of MI cable.
Therefore, before purchasing a TDR, it is recommended
that you try it first on a heater of a length similar to the N.R. Rafferty (bob.rafferty@verizon.net) is retired from E.I.
longest series section that your specifications will allow. DuPont in Wilmington, Delaware. Peter Baen is with Ther-
If the heater is open circuited and the insulation resis- mon Americas, Inc., in San Marcos, Texas. D.O. Brown is
tance is 1 M or more, a capacitance meter could also be with EGS-Nelson Heat Trace in Claremore, Oklahoma.
used. Take a reading from each tail of the heater. The dis- William Hanthorn is retired from Tyco Thermal-Pyrotenax
tance to the fault from tail A is Ca/(Ca + Cb)× heater in Trenton, Ontario, Canada. Rafferty, Baen, Brown, and
length where Ca and Cb are the capacitance readings from Hanthorn are IEEE Senior Members. The article first
tail A and tail B, respectively. appeared as “Considerations for Application of Mineral Insu-
For a cable with an insulation resistance of less than 1 lated Electrical Resistance Heating Cable” at the 2005
67
M but with continuity on the conductor, a bridge can Petroleum and Chemicals Industry Conference.