Heat Treatment

Why?

Improve mechanical properties

Change microstructure

Reduce residual stress level

How?

Flame oven

Electric oven/electric heating blankets

induction/HF heating elements

Many metals must be given heat treatment before and after welding.

The inspector’s function is to ensure that the treatment is given correctly in

accordance with the specification or as per the details supplied.

Types of heat treatment available:

Preheat

Annealing

Normalising

Quench Hardening

Temper

Stress Relief
ANNEALLING

Annealing is a heat treatment that alters the physical and sometimes chemical
properties of a material to increase its ductility and reduce its hardness, making it
more workable.

NORMALISING

Normalizing Heat Treatment process is heating a steel above the critical

temperature, holding for a period of time long enough for transformation to
occur, and air cooling.

QUENCHING

Quenching is a mechanical process in which steel and cast iron alloys are
strengthened and hardened. These metals consist of ferrous and alloys. This is
done by heating the material to a certain temperature, depending on the
material.

TEMPERING

Tempering is applied to ferrous alloys, such as steel or cast iron, to achieve

greater toughness by decreasing the hardness of the alloy. The reduction in
hardness is usually accompanied by an increase in ductility, thereby decreasing
the brittleness of the metal.

Pre-heat treatments
These are used to increase weldability, by reducing sudden reduction of
temperature, and control expansion and contraction forces during welding.

Preheat temperature
is the temperature of the workpiece in the weld zone immediately
before any welding operation (including tack welding!)
Interpass temperature
is the temperature in a multi-run weld and adjacent parent metal
immediately prior to the application of the next run

Used to control the solidification cracking and hydrogen induced

cracking

Pre heat maintenance temperature

the minimum temperature in the weld zone which shall be
maintained if welding is interrupted and shall be monitored during
the interruption.

Pre-heating methods
Furnace - Heating entire component - best
Electrical elements -Controllable; Portable; Site use; Clean; Component
cannot be moved.
Gas burners - direct flame impingement; Possible local overheating; Less
controllable;Portable; Manual operation possible; Component can be
moved.
Radiant gas heaters - capable of automatic control; No flame impingement;
No contact with component; Portable.
Induction heating - controllable; Rapid heating (mins not hours); Large
power supply; Expensive equipment

Application Of Preheat
Heat either side of joint
Measure temp 2 mins after heat removal
 Always best to heat complete component rather than local if possible to
avoid distortion
Preheat always higher for fillet than butt welds due to different combined
thicknesses and chill effect factors.

Post Weld –Heating

Post heating is used to minimize the potential for hydrogen induced cracking
(HIC). For HIC to occur, the following variables must be present : a sensitive
microstructure, a sufficient level of hydrogen, or a high level of stress (e.g., as a
result of highly constrained connections). In ferritic steels, hydrogen
embrittlement only occurs at temperatures close to the ambient temperature.
Therefore, it is possible to avoid cracking in a susceptible microstructure by
diffusing hydrogen from the welded area before it cools. After welding has been
completed, the steel must not be allowed to cool to room temperature; instead, it
should be immediately heated from the interpass temperature to the post heat
temperature and held at this temperature for some minimum amount of time

Post Hydrogen Release (according to BS EN1011-2)

Temperature: Approximately 250°C hold up to 3 hours

Cooling: Slow cool in air

Result: Relieves residual hydrogen

Procedure: Maintaining pre-heat / interpass temperature after completion of

welding for 2 to 3 hours
Post weld heat treatments
These are used to change the properties of the weld metal, stress relieving
and controlling the formation of crystalline structures

Post weld heat treatment (PWHT) is a controlled process in which a

material that has been welded is reheated to a temperature below its lower
critical transformation temperature, and then it is held at that temperature
for a specified amount of time. It is often referred to as being any heat
treatment performed after welding; however, within the oil,
gas, petrochemical and nuclear industries, it has a specific meaning.
Industry codes, such as the ASME Pressure Vessel and Piping Codes, often
require mandatory performance of PWHT on certain materials to ensure a
safe design with optimal mechanical and metallurgical properties.

The need for PWHT is mostly due to the residual stresses and micro-
structural changes that occur after welding has been completed. During the
welding process, a high temperature gradient is experienced between the
weld metal and the parent material. As the weld cools, residual stress is
formed. For thicker materials, these stresses can reach an unacceptable
level and exceed design stresses. Therefore, the part is heated to a
specified temperature for a given amount of time to reduce these stresses
to an acceptable level.[1] In addition to residual stresses, microstructural
changes occur due to the high temperatures induced by the welding
process. These changes can increase hardness of the material and reduce
toughness and ductility. The use of PWHT can help reduce any increased
hardness levels and improve toughness and ductility to levels acceptable
for design.

The requirements specified within various pressure vessels and piping

codes are mostly due to the chemical makeup and thickness of the
material. Codes such as ASME Section VIII and ASME B31.3 will require that
a specified material be post weld heat treated if it is over a given
thickness. Codes also require PWHT based solely on the micro-structural
 make-up of the material. A final consideration in deciding the need for
PWHT is based on the components' intended service, such as one with a
susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking. In such cases, PWHT is
mandatory regardless of thickness.

Application
Rate of heating, hold times and temperatures, and rate of cooling are all
important variables that need to be controlled and monitored precisely, or the
desired effects may not be achieved. When PWHT is mandatory by a given
industry code, requirements for these variables will be specified.

Heating
The rate of heating when PWHT is performed is typically based on
the component’s thickness and is specified by the governing codes. If
the rate of heating is not performed properly, either by heating too
quickly or unevenly, temperature gradients within the component
can become detrimental to the component. As a result, stress cracks
may occur and residual stresses not previously created can form
when the component is cooled to ambient temperatures.
Holding temperature and time
Holding temperature and time are governed by the material and
thickness respectively. Regarding material thickness, longer holding
times are needed for thicker materials. This is to allow the material
to reach a stable condition where the distribution and levels of
stresses become more uniform and decrease. The specified holding
temperature is one that is at a high enough temperature to relieve
high residual stress levels, yet is still below the lower transformation
temperature. In addition to the reduction of stress, high hold
temperatures below the transformation temperature allow for
microstructural transformations, therein reducing hardness and
improving ductility. Great care should be taken as to not heat the
component above the lower transformation temperature, as
detrimental metallurgical effects and impaired mechanical properties
 can result. In addition, the holding temperature should not be
greater than the original tempering temperature unless later
mechanical testing is performed. Holding above the original
tempering temperature can reduce the strength of the material to
below ASME required minimums.
Cooling
As with the heating rate, the cooling rate must be controlled, as to
avoid any detrimental temperature gradients that could cause
cracking or introduce new stresses during cooling. In addition to this,
rapid cooling rates can increase hardness, which may increase the
susceptibility of a brittle fracture.
Monitoring technique
Thermocouples are typically attached to the component undergoing
PWHT to check and ensure that heating rates, hold temperatures,
and cooling rates meet code specification. Computer software is
typically used in conjunction with the thermocouples to monitor the
fore-mentioned variables and provide documentation that the PWHT
was performed properly.

The inspector, in general, should ensure that:

Equipment is as specified
Temperature control equipment is in good condition
Procedures as specified, is being used e.g.
o Method of application
o Rate of heating and cooling
o Maximum temperature
o Soak time
o Temperature measurement (and calibration)
DOCUMENTATION AND RECORDS
Temperature cycle

Recommendations

Provide adequate support (low YS at high temperature!)

Control heating rate to avoid uneven thermal expansions

Control soak time to equalise temperatures

Control temperature gradients - NO direct flame impingement!

Control furnace atmosphere to reduce scaling

Control cooling rate to avoid brittle structure formation

Post Weld Heat Treatment Methods
Gas furnace heat treatment

Advantages:

Easy to set up

Good portability

repeatability and temperature uniformity

Disadvantages:

Limited to size of parts

HF (Induction) local heat treatment

Advantages:

High heating rates

Ability to heat a narrow band

Disadvantages:
 High equipment cost

Large equipment, less portable

Local heat treatment using electric heating blankets

Advantages:

Ability to vary heat

Ability to continuously maintain heat

Disadvantages:

Elements may burn out or arcing during heating

Temperature Test Equipment
Temperature sensitive materials:

crayons, paints and pills

cheap

convenient, easy to use

doesn’t measure the actual temperature!

Contact thermometer
Accurate

Easy to use
 Gives the actual temperature

Requires calibration

suitable for moderate temperatures

Thermocouple
based on measuring the thermoelectric potential difference between a
hot junction (on weld) and a cold junction

accurate method

measures over a wide range of temperatures

gives the actual temperature

need calibration

Thermistors
temperature-sensitive resistors whose resistance varies inversely with
temperature

used when high sensitivity is required

gives the actual temperature

 need calibration

can be used up to 999°C

Devices for contactless measurement

IR radiation and optical pyrometer
measure the radiant energy emitted by the hot body

contactless method, can be used for remote measurements

very complex

for measuring high temperatures