Maharaja sayajirav University

Faculty of technology

Welding Metallurgy
Heat Flow and Heat Input
Prepared by:- Siddharth Shah & Sahil Mevawala
Guided by:- Dr. Hemant Panchal
1
Heat Flow in Welding I
 Heat Flow in Welding- Importance
-Arc welding processes involve the melting of the faying surfaces and
the filler metal, followed by solidification of the molten weld metal.

-Melting and solidification steps of welding are associated with the flow
of heat and are affected by rate of heat transfer in and around the weld
metal

-Metallurgical structure of metal in weld and region close to the weld

metal is mainly determined by the extent of rise in temperature and
then cooling rate experienced by the metal at particular location of HAZ
and weld

-Further, differential heating and cooling experienced of different zones

of weld joint cause not only metallurgical heterogeneity but also non-
uniform volumetric change which in turn produces the residual stresses
 Homogeneous and
Heterogeneous
-Homogeneous, means of the same kind, consisting of parts all of the same
kind (it is also the name for a chemical process involving substances in the
same phase, i.e. all liquids or all gases, if that helps you remember it).

-Heterogeneous, means diverse in character or content (a heterogeneous

chemical process is one involving substances in different phases, e.g. mixing a
gas with a liquid, in case that helps you remember).

-Soak Temperature
-It is a temperature range where the heated weld part is held for some time, to
effectively reduce the stress level. Soak Temperature is set according to the
type of material and normally ranges from six hundred (600) to seven hundred
and sixty (760) degree Celsius.

-Soak Time
-It is a specific time during which the material is allowed to heat at sock
temperature range,
 Heat Flow in Welding- Importance
-These residual stresses adversely affect the mechanical performance of the weld joint
besides distortion in the welded components if proper care is not taken

-Since heating, soaking and cooling cycle affect the metallurgical & mechanical
properties, development of residual stresses and distortion of the weld joints therefore
it is so important to study various aspects related with heat flow in welding such as:
weld thermal cycle,
cooling rate and solidification time,
peak temperature,
width of heat and affected zone.
 Weld Thermal Cycle
-Weld thermal cycle shows variation in temperature of a particular location (in and
around the weld) during the welding as a function of welding time. As the heat source
(welding arc or flame) approaches close to the location of interest first temperature
increases heating regime followed by gradual decrease in temperature cooling
regime.

-A typical weld thermal cycle (Figure below) shows the rate of heating (slope of a b),
peak temperature, and time required for attaining the peak temperature, cooling rate
(slope of b c).
 Weld Thermal Cycle

-Since distance of the point of interest away from the weld centerline directly affects
all the above parameters heating and cooling rate, peak temperature of weld thermal
cycle therefore each location/point offers different and unique weld thermal cycle
(Figure above).

-In general, an increase in distance of point of interest away from the weld center-
line:
– decreases the peak temperature
– decreases the rate of heating and cooling
– increases time to attain peak temperature
– decreases rate of cooling with increase in time
Factors affecting welding thermal cycle
-However, weld thermal cycle varies with distance form the weld center line but it is
also influenced by heat input rate, amount of heat supplied for welding, weldment
geometry, thermal properties of base metal and initial plate temperature.

-Rate of heat input is primarily governed by the energy density of heat input source
which to a great extent depends upon the welding process being used for
development of weld joints besides the welding parameters.

-High energy density processes like plasma arc welding and laser beam welding offer
higher rate of heating, peak temperature and cooling rates than low energy density
processes such as gas welding, shielded metal arc welding as shown in Fig. below

Higher is the energy

density of welding
process, lower will be
the heat input.
 Factors affecting welding thermal
-Weld geometry parameters such as cycle
thickness of plates being welded also affect
the heating rate, soaking time and cooling rate for a given rate of heat input
(welding parameters) owing to changes in heat transfer condition.

-In general, an increase in thickness of plate increases the rate of heat transfer
from the weld pool/heat affected zone to the base metal which in turn

a)decreases the high temperature retention time of HAZ,

b) decreases the solidification time and
c) increases the cooling rate experienced by the HAZ and weld metal.

-Thermal properties of metal like thermal conductivity and specific heat also have
affect on weld thermal cycle similar to that of thickness of plates as they
increase the rate of heat transfer from the weld metal and HAZ.

-Preheating of the plates reduces the rate of heating and cooling and increases
the peak temperature and soaking period above certain temperature because
preheating reduces the rate of heat transfer away from the weld zone.
 Factors Affecting Welding Thermal Cycle

-Peak temperature near the weld fusion boundary

decides the width of heat affected zone (HAZ).

-Heating and cooling rate affect the microstructure of

weld metal and HAZ therefore weld thermal cycle of
each point becomes of great interest especially in
structure sensitive metals like high carbon steels.
Agenda
Heat Input
• Introduction
• Factor Affecting Heat Input
• Effects due to incorrect heat input
• Controlling Heat input
Introduction
• Heat input is a critical parameter in welding that directly
influences the quality and efficiency of the welding process. It
refers to the amount of heat energy transferred to the workpiece
during welding.
• Proper control of heat input is essential for achieving desired
weld characteristics, such as penetration depth, fusion, and
mechanical properties. It also impacts factors like distortion
control, spatter reduction, and overall productivity.
Introduction
• Heat input is the amount of heat energy applied to the base
metal during welding. It is measured in joules per millimeter
(J/mm) or in kilojoules per inch (kJ/in). The heat input is calculated
by multiplying the welding voltage, welding current, and welding
speed. The higher the heat input, the more energy is applied to
the weld, which can affect the properties of the material and the
quality of the weld.
Factor Affecting Heat input
1. Welding Current: The amount of electric current flowing through the
welding circuit directly influences the amount of heat generated.
Higher currents result in more heat input, as more electrical energy is
converted into heat at the weld zone.
2. Welding Voltage: Voltage determines the electric potential difference
across the welding arc. Higher voltages generally result in higher heat
input. Voltage plays a critical role in controlling arc length and stability,
which in turn affect heat input.
3. Welding Speed: The speed at which the welding electrode or torch
travels along the joint affects the amount of heat delivered to the weld
zone. Slower welding speeds allow for more heat accumulation,
resulting in higher heat input. Conversely, faster welding speeds reduce
heat input.
4. Electrode Size and Type: The size and type of electrode used in the
welding process can significantly impact heat input. Larger electrodes
have greater current-carrying capacities and can generate more heat.
Additionally, different electrode types have varying efficiencies in
converting electrical energy into heat.
Factor Affecting Heat input
5. Arc Length: Arc length refers to the distance between the welding
electrode or torch tip and the workpiece. A shorter arc length leads to
higher heat input, as the arc is more concentrated and intense.
Conversely, a longer arc length reduces heat input.
6. Joint Design and Geometry: The design and geometry of the joint,
including its thickness, angle, and fit-up, influence heat input. Thicker
materials generally require more heat input to achieve proper fusion.
Additionally, joint configurations that facilitate heat dissipation, such as
a wider groove angle, can affect heat input.
7. Shielding Gas Composition and Flow Rate: In processes such as gas
metal arc welding (GMAW) and gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), the
composition and flow rate of the shielding gas affect the arc
characteristics and, consequently, heat input. Different gases have
varying thermal conductivities and heat transfer properties, which can
influence heat input.
8. Preheat Temperature: Preheating the base metal before welding can
affect heat input by reducing the amount of energy required to raise
the temperature of the workpiece to the desired welding temperature.
This is particularly important for welding thick materials or materials
with high thermal conductivity, as it helps to minimize heat loss during
the welding process.
Factor Affecting Heat input
9. Welding Technique: Different welding techniques, such as pulse
welding, spray arc welding, or short-circuiting transfer, can influence
heat input. Pulse welding, for example, allows for precise control over
the duration and intensity of the welding current, enabling finer
adjustments to heat input.
10. Equipment Settings: Parameters set on the welding equipment, such
as current, voltage, and travel speed settings, directly affect heat input.
Proper calibration and adjustment of these settings are crucial for
achieving the desired heat input and weld quality.
Effects due to incorrect heat
input
• Grain Growth: Excessive heat input can lead to accelerated grain growth
within the weld metal and HAZ. This occurs because higher
temperatures promote grain boundary mobility, causing grains to
coalesce and grow in size. Grain growth can result in a coarser
microstructure, which may reduce the mechanical properties such as
strength, toughness, and fatigue resistance of the welded joint.
Effects due to incorrect heat
input
• Phase Transformation: Incorrect heat input can alter the phase
composition of the base metal and the weld metal. For example, in
steels, excessive heat input may promote the formation of undesirable
phases such as coarse ferrite or untempered martensite, which can
negatively impact the mechanical properties of the weld, including
hardness and ductility.
• Softening or Hardening: Improper heat input can induce localized
softening or hardening of the weld and the HAZ. For instance,
overheating can lead to softening due to recrystallization and loss of
strength, while rapid cooling can result in hardening due to the
formation of martensite or other hard phases. These changes in hardness
can affect the overall integrity.
Effects due to incorrect heat
input
• Weld Metal Composition: Variations in heat input can affect the
chemical composition of the weld metal, particularly in processes like arc
welding where filler material is added. Deviations from the desired
composition can impact the material properties and the weld's
compatibility with the base metal.
• Microstructural Inhomogeneity: Incorrect heat input may result in non-
uniform heating and cooling rates across the weld and HAZ, leading to
microstructural inhomogeneity. This can manifest as differences in grain
size, phase distribution, and mechanical properties within the welded
joint, potentially compromising its overall integrity and performance.
Controlling Heat input
1. Welding Process Selection: Different welding processes have varying
heat inputs. For example, processes like TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) welding
generally have lower heat inputs compared to processes like submerged
arc welding. Selecting the appropriate welding process for the specific
application can help control heat input.
2. Adjusting Current and Voltage: In processes like arc welding (e.g.,
MIG/MAG, TIG, SMAW), the welding current and voltage directly affect
heat input. Increasing the current or voltage results in higher heat input,
while decreasing them lowers heat input. Welding machines are
equipped with controls to adjust these parameters.
3. Travel Speed: Adjusting the travel speed of the welding torch or
electrode affects the time the weld pool is exposed to heat. Slower travel
speeds increase heat input, while faster speeds decrease it. Maintaining
a consistent travel speed is crucial for controlling heat input uniformly
along the weld joint.
Controlling Heat input
4. Heat Sink Methods: Using heat sinks, such as copper backing bars or
water-cooled fixtures, can dissipate excess heat from the weld zone,
controlling heat input and minimizing distortion. Heat sinks act as
thermal conductors, absorbing and transferring heat away from the weld
joint.
5. Electrode Size and Type: In processes that use consumable electrodes
(such as stick electrodes in shielded metal arc welding), the electrode
size and type influence heat input. Larger electrodes and electrodes with
higher current-carrying capacities result in higher heat inputs.\
6. Preheat and Inter-pass Temperature: Preheating the base metal before
welding and maintaining inter-pass temperature during multi-pass
welding can help control heat input and prevent issues such as cracking
and distortion. Preheating reduces the temperature gradient between
the weld zone and base metal, resulting in lower heat input during
welding.