Ve

tors
4
4.1 Vectors in R2

4.1.1 Definition of Vector in R2

Every point P in the x y-plane can be represented by an ordered pair (a, b) of real numbers,
where a is the x-coordinate, and b is the y-coordinate.

y
b
P (a, b)
b

O a x

−−→ −−→
Let OP denote the arrow from the origin O(0, 0) to the point P (a, b). Then OP is called the
position vector of P , denoted by
−−→
OP = a i + b j .
−−→
In general, if P (a1 , b 1 ) and Q(a2 , b 2 ) are two points in the x y-plane, then PQ determines the
change from its initial point P to the end point Q:

−−→
PQ = (a2 − a1 )i + (b 2 − b 1 )j .

−−→ −−−→
If PQ can be parallel shifted to P ′Q ′ , then they are the same vector:

−−→ −−′−→′
PQ = P Q .

82
CHAPTER 4. VECTORS 83

y
b
Q ′ (a 2′ , b 2′ )
b
Q(a 2 , b 2 )

P ′ (a 1′ , b 1′ )
b

b
P (a 1 , b 1 )
O x

4.1.2 Operations on Vectors in R2

Length of vector
−−→
The length (magnitude, modulus) of a vector OP = a i + b j is given by

−−→ p
|OP | = |a i + b j | = a 2 + b 2 .
p p
Example 4.1.1. (a) |3i + 4j | = 32 + 42 = 25 = 5,
p p
(b) |5i − 12j | = 52 + (−12)2 = 169 = 13.

Multiplication with constant

If u = a i + b j , and λ is a real number, then

λu = (λa)i + (λb)j .

Geometrically, λu is parallel to u, and its length is |λ| times |u|, i.e., |λu| = |λ| |u|.

(i) If λ > 0, then λu and u have the same direction.

(ii) If λ < 0, then λu and u have the opposite direction.
(iii) If λ = 0, then 0u = 0, the zero vector.

If |u| = 1, then u is called a unit vector. If u 6= 0, then the normalized vector of u,

(1/|u|)u

is the unit vector with the same direction as u.

Example 4.1.2. Let u = 2i + j . Then

(i) 2u = 2(2i + j ) = 4i + 2j .
(ii) −2u = −2(2i + j ) = −4i − 2j .
p p p p
(iii) |u| = 22 + 12 = 5, and the normalized vector of u is (2/ 5)i + (1/ 5)i.
CHAPTER 4. VECTORS 84

u
O 2u
u x
|u|
−2u

Addition and subtraction

Let u = a1 i + b 1 j and v = a2 i + b 2 j . Then

u ± v = (a1 ± a2 )i + (b1 ± b2 )j .

Geometrically, parallel shift v so that its initial point is the end point of u, then u + v is the
vector from the initial point of u to the end point of v ; parallel shift v so that u and v have the
same initial point, then u − v is the point from the end point of v to the end point of u.
u

v v
u+v
u−v
v

u u

Example 4.1.3. (i) (2i + 3j ) + (4i − 5j ) = (2 + 4)i + [3 + (−5)]j = 6i − 2j .

(ii) (2i + 3j ) − (4i − 5j ) = (2 − 4)i + [3 − (−5)]j = −2i + 8j .

Scalar (dot) product

Let u = a1 i + b 1 j and v = a2 i + b 2 j . Then their scalar (dot) product is a real number

u • v = a1 a2 + b1 b2 .

Let θ denote the angle between vectors u and v . Then

u • v = |u| |v | cos θ.

In particular, u and v are perpendicular (u ⊥ v ) ⇔ u • v = 0.

v
u−v
θ

u
CHAPTER 4. VECTORS 85

Example 4.1.4. Let A(1, 2), B(3, 4) and C (2, 1) be the vertices of △ABC . Find ∠ A and the area of
△ABC .
B
b

−→
AB

−→
A b AC
b
C

−→ −→
Solution. AB = (3 − 1)i + (4 − 2)j = 2i + 2j and AC = (2 − 1)i + (1 − 2)j = i − j . Then
−→ p p −→ p p
| AB | = 22 + 22 = 2 2 and | AC | = 12 + (−1)2 = 2.

Then
−→ −→
AB • AC 2 · 1 + 2 · (−1)
cos ∠ A = −→ −→ = p p = 0.
| AB | | AC | 2 2· 2
So ∠ A = π/2 = 90◦ , and the area of △ABC is
1 −→ −→ 1 p p
| AB | | AC | sin ∠ A = · 2 2 · 2 · 1 = 2.
2 2

Example 4.1.5. Prove that any angle inscribed in a semi-circle is a right angle.

Solution. Suppose the semi-circle has radius a. Place semi-circle in the upper-half of the x y-
−→
plane so that it is centred at the origin O and its diagonal AB is along the x-axis. Then A is
(−a, 0) and B is (a, 0).
y P (a cos θ, a sin θ)
b

A θ B
−a O a x

Let P be a point on the semi-circle. If θ = ∠BOP , then P is (a cos θ, a sin θ), and
−→ −→
P A = (−a − a cos θ)i + (−a sin θ)j and P B = (a − a cos θ)i + (−a sin θ)j .

Then
−→ −→
P A • P B = (−a − a cos θ)(a − a cos θ) + (−a sin θ)(−a sin θ)
= a 2 cos2 θ − a 2 + a 2 sin2 θ = a 2 (cos2 θ + sin2 θ) − a 2 = a 2 − a 2 = 0.

−→ −→
Therefore, P A ⊥ P B; or equivalently, ∠ AP B = 90◦ (= π/2).
CHAPTER 4. VECTORS 86

4.2 Vectors in R3

4.2.1 Definition of vectors in R3

Every point P in the x y z-space can be represented by a triple of real numbers (a, b, c), where a
is the x-coordinate, b is the y-coordinate and c is the z-coordinate.
z
c

b
P (a, b, c)

b
O
y
a b

−−→ −−→
Let OP denote the arrow from the origin O(0, 0, 0) to the point P (a, b, c). Then OP is the position
vector of P , denoted by
−−→
OP = a i + b j + c k.
−−→
In general, if P (a1 , b 1 , c1 ) and Q(a2 , b 2 , c2 ) are two points in the x y z-space, then PQ is the vector
from its initial point P to the end point Q:

−−→
PQ = (a2 − a1 )i + (b 2 − b 1 )j + (c2 − c1 )k.

−−→ −−−→ −−→ −−−→

If PQ can be parallel shifted to P ′Q ′ , then they are the same vector: PQ = P ′Q ′ .

4.2.2 Operations on Vectors in R3

Most of the operations of vectors in R3 are similar to the operations in R2 :
−−→
(i) The length (magnitude, modulus) of a vector OP = a i + b j + c k is
−−→ p
|OP | = |a i + b j + c k| = a 2 + b 2 + c 2 .

(ii) If u = a i + b j + c k, and λ is a real number, then

λu = (λa)i + (λb)j + (λc)k.

(iii) If |u| = 1, then u is a unit vector. If u 6= 0, then the normalized vector of u is

(1/|u|)u.
CHAPTER 4. VECTORS 87

(iv) Let u = a1 i + b 1 j + c1 k and v = a2 i + b 2 j + c2 k. Then

u ± v = (a1 ± a2 )i + (b1 ± b2 )j + (c1 ± c2 )k.

(v) Let u = a1 i + b 1 j + c1 k and v = a2 i + b 2 j + c2 k. Then their scalar (dot) product is

u • v = a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 .

Properties 4.2.1. Let u, v and w be vectors in R3 .

(i) u • v = v • u.
(ii) (u + v ) • w = u • w + v • w .
(iii) |u|2 = u • u.
(iv) |λu| = |λ| |u|. In particular, if u 6= 0, then (1/|u|)u is a unit vector.
(v) If θ be the angel between vectors u and v , then u • v = |u| |v | cos θ.
(vi) u and v are perpendicular (u ⊥ v ) ⇔ u • v = 0.

4.2.3 Vector Product

Definition of vector product

Let u = a1 i + b 1 j + c1 k and v = a2 i + b 2 j + c2 k. The vector (cross) product is a vector in R3 :

u × v = (b1 c2 − b2 c1 )i + (c1 a2 − c2 a1 )j + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )k.

i j k i

u a1 ❙❙❙❙ ❦ b 1 ❘❘❘❘ c ❘ a
❧ ❧ 1 ❘❘❘❘❘❘❧ ❧ ❧ 1
❙❙❙❦ ❦ ❘❘❧
❘ ❘
❙
❦ ❙❙❙ ❧ ❘❘❘ ❧ ❘❘❘
❦ ❦ ❙ ❧ ❧ ❘ ❧ ❧ ❘
v a2 b2 c2 a2

u×v k i j

Example 4.2.2. Let u = i + 2j + 3k and v = 4i + 5j + 6k.

i j k i

u 1 ❙❙❙❙
❙❙❙❦ ❦ ❦
2 ❙❙❙❙
❙❙❙❧ ❧ ❧
3 ❙❙❙❙
❙❙❙❦ ❦ ❦
1
❦ ❙❙❙❙ ❧ ❙❙❙❙ ❦ ❙❙❙❙
❦ ❦ ❙ ❧ ❧ ❙ ❦ ❦ ❙
v 4 5 6 4

u×v k i j

So u × v = (2 · 6 − 3 · 5)i + (3 · 4 − 1 · 6)j + (1 · 5 − 2 · 4)k = −3i + 6j − 3k.

CHAPTER 4. VECTORS 88

Properties of vector product

By definition, one verifies immediately that

i × i = 0, j × j = 0, k × k = 0,
i × j = k, j × k = i, k × i = j,
j × i = −k , k × j = −i, i × k = −j .

Properties 4.2.3 (Properties of Vector Product). Let u, v and w be vectors in R3 . Then

(i) u × u = 0.
(ii) u × v = −v × u.
(iii) (u + v ) × w = u × w + v × w .
(iv) w × (u + v ) = w × u + w × v .
(v) (u × v ) • w = (v × w ) • u = (w × u) • v .

Geometric meaning of vector product

Let u and v be non-parallel vectors in R3 . Then u × v is perpendicular to both u and v , and its
direction satisfies the right-hand rule:
One points the thumb finger in the direction of u and the index finger (forefinger) in the
direction of v , then the middle finger points in the direction of u × v :

u×v

v ×u

Let θ be the angle between u and v . Then

|u × v | = |u| |v | sin θ = the area of the parallelogram formed by u and v .

v Area = |u × v |
θ
u

Consequently, the area of the triangle formed by vectors u and v is given by

A = 21 |u| |v | sin θ = 12 |u × v |.
CHAPTER 4. VECTORS 89

Area = 12 |u × v |
v
θ
u

There are two methods for finding the area of △ABC .

B
b

−→
AB

−→
A b AC
b
C

Method 1: Scalar product:

−→ −→
(i) Find AB and AC .
−→ −→
(ii) Evaluate | AB | and | AC |.
−→ −→ −→ −→
(iii) Evaluate cos ∠ A = ( AB • AC )/(| AB | | AC |).
p
(iv) sin ∠ A = 1 − cos2 ∠ A.
−→ −→
(v) Area of △ABC is 21 | AB | | AC | sin ∠ A.

Method 2: Vector product:

−→ −→
(i) Find AB and AC .
−→ −→
(ii) Evaluate AB × AC .
−→ −→
(iii) Area of △ABC is 21 | AB × AC |.

Example 4.2.4. Find the area of △ABC with vertices A(1, 2, 3), B(3, 2, 1) and C (1, −1, 2).
−→ −→
Method 1: Scalar product. (i) AB = 2i − 2k and AC = −3j − k.
−→ p p −→ p p
(ii) | AB| = 22 + (−2)2 = 2 2 and | AC | = (−3)2 + (−1)2 = 10.
−→ −→ −→ −→ p p p
(iii) cos ∠ A = ( AB • AC )/(| AB | | AC |) = 2/(2 2 · 10) = 5/10.
q p p
(iv) sin ∠ A = 1 − ( 5/10)2 = 95/10.
−→ −→ p p p p
(v) Area of △ABC is 12 | AB | | AC | sin ∠ A = 21 · 2 2 · 10 · 95/10 = 19.

−→ −→
Method 2: Vector product. (i) AB = 2i − 2k and AC = −3j − k.
CHAPTER 4. VECTORS 90

−→ −→
(ii) AB × AC = [0(−1) − (−2)(−3)]i + [(−2)0 − 2(−1)]j + [2(−3) − 0 · 0]k = −6i + 2j − 6k.

i j k i
−→
AB 2 ◗◗◗◗ ♠ 0 ◗◗◗◗ −2 ◗◗◗ ♠2
◗◗◗ ♠ ♠ ◗◗◗♠ ♠ ♠ ◗◗◗ ♠ ♠
♠◗◗ ♠ ◗◗ ♠ ◗◗
−→ ♠ ◗◗◗ ◗◗◗ ◗◗◗
♠♠ ♠ ♠ ♠ ♠ ◗
AC 0 −3 −1 0

−→ −→
AB × AC k i j
−→ −→ p p
(iii) Area of △ABC = 21 | AB × AC | = 12 (−6)2 + 22 + (−6)2 = 19.

4.3 Lines

4.3.1 Vector Equation of Lines

−→
Let L be a straight line in R3 . Let A and B be any two distinct points on the line L. Then AB is a
direction vector of L.
−→ −→ −→ −→
For any point P on the line L, AP ∥ AB, then AP = λ( AB ) for some real number λ, and
−−→ −−→ −→ −−→ −→
OP = O A + AP = O A + λ( AB).

z Pb
−→ B
b
AB
A
b

O y

In general, a straight line L is uniquely determined by its direction vector u (u is parallel to

−−→
L, denoted by u ∥ L), and the position vector a of any point A on L (a = O A). Each point on the
line L has position vector

r = a + λu where λ is a real parameter.

This is called a vector equation of L. Note that vector equation of a straight line is not unique.

Example 4.3.1. Find vector equations of the following lines in R3 :

(a) L passes through the point (3, 4, −5) and is parallel to the vector −2j + 3k.
(b) L passes through the points (−2, 3, 1) and (1, 4, −2).
CHAPTER 4. VECTORS 91

Solution. (a) The position vector of a point on L is 3i + 4j − 5k and a direction vector of L is

given by −2j + 3k. So L has equation

r = (3i + 4j − 5k) + λ(−2j + 3k), λ ∈ R.

(b) A direction vector of L is given by the vector between the given two points:

(1 − (−2))i + (4 − 3)j + (−2 − 1)k = 3i + j − 3k.

We may use the position vector of any point on L in the vector equation: −2i + 3j + k or i + 4j −
2k. So L has vector equation

r = (−2i + 3j + k) + λ(3i + j − 3k), λ ∈ R, or

r = (i + 4j − 2k) + µ(3i + j − 3k), µ ∈ R.

4.3.2 Relations of Lines

Angles between two lines

Let L 1 and L 2 be two lines in R3 with vector equations:

L 1 : r = a + λu, λ ∈ R,
L 2 : r = b + µv , µ ∈ R.

Then the (acute) angle θ between lines L 1 and L 2 is given by

cos θ = |u • v |/(|u| |v |) 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2 (or 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 90◦).

Note that the angle ϕ between vectors u and v is given by cos ϕ = (u • v )/(|u| |v |) with 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
L2 L2
v
v

u v u

θ θ

L1 v L1

Example 4.3.2. The (acute) angle θ between the lines

L 1 : r = (3i + 4j − 5k) + λ(−2j + 3k), λ ∈ R,

L 2 : r = (i + 4j − 2k) + µ(3i + j − 3k), µ ∈ R.

is given by
|(−2j + 3k) • (3i + j − 3k)| |−11| 11
cos θ = =p p =p ;
|−2j + 3k| |(3i + j − 3k)| 13 · 19 247
so θ ≈ 0.796 (radian) ≈ 45.6◦ .
CHAPTER 4. VECTORS 92

Skew lines

Let L 1 and L 2 be two lines in R3 with vector equations:

L 1 : r = a + λu, λ ∈ R,
L 2 : r = b + µv , µ ∈ R.

(i) They are parallel (L 1 ∥ L 2 ) ⇔ u ∥ v ⇔ u = c v for some c ∈ R.

(ii) They intersect at a point if there exist λ, µ ∈ R such that a + λu = b + µv .
(iii) They are skew lines if they do not parallel and do not intersect.

For example, in the following picture, L 2 and L 3 are parallel, L 1 and L 3 intersect at the point
P , L 1 and L 2 are skew lines.
L2

L3
P
b

L1

Example 4.3.3. Let L 1 be the line with vector equation r = (i − j − 2k) + λ(−i + 2j + 3k), λ ∈ R.
If the line L 2 is parallel to L 1 and passes through the point (1, 2, 3), then L 2 has vector equation

r = (i + 2j + 3k) + µ(−i + 2j + 3k), µ ∈ R.

Example 4.3.4. Determine if L 1 and L 2 are parallel, or they intersect, or they are skew:

L 1 : r = −2i + 3j + k + λ(3i + j − 3k), λ ∈ R,

L 2 : r = −5i + j − 5k + µ(2i + j + k), µ ∈ R.

Solution. The two direction vectors 3i + j − 3k and 2i + j + k are not parallel. So L 1 ∦ L 2 .

Suppose −2i + 3j + k + λ(3i + j − 3k) = −5i + j − 5k + µ(2i + j + k), i.e.,

(−2 + 3λ)i + (3 + λ)j + (1 − 3λ)k = (−5 + 2µ)i + (1 + µ)j + (−5 + µ)k.

Compare the x-, y- and z-coordinates to get

−2 + 3λ = −5 + 2µ, 3 + λ = 1 + µ, 1 − 3λ = −5 + µ.

Note that we have a linear system of 3 equations and 2 variables λ and µ. First solve λ and µ
using the first two equations

−2 + 3λ = −5 + 2µ and 3 + λ = 1 + µ,
CHAPTER 4. VECTORS 93

to get λ = 1 and µ = 3. Then substitute into the last equation to check the validity:

1 − 3 · 1 = −5 + 3 ⇒ −2 = −2.

So L 1 and L 2 intersect at the point with position vector:

(−2i + 3j + k) + 1(3i + j − 3k) = i + 4j − 2k;

equivalently, L 1 and L 2 intersect at the point (1, 4, −2).

Example 4.3.5. Determine if L 1 and L 2 are parallel, or they intersect, or they are skew:

L 1 : r = −2i + 3j + k + λ(3i + j − 3k), λ ∈ R,

L 2 : r = 2i + 3j + 4k + µ(−i + j + k), µ ∈ R.

Solution. The two direction vectors 3i + j − 3k and −i + j + k are not parallel. So L 1 ∦ L 2 .

Suppose −2i + 3j + k + λ(3i + j − 3k) = 2i + 3j + 4k + µ(−i + j + k), i.e.,

(−2 + 3λ)i + (3 + λ)j + (1 − 3λ)k = (2 − µ)i + (3 + µ)j + (4 + µ)k.

Compare the x-, y- and z-coordinates to get

−2 + 3λ = 2 − µ, 3 + λ = 3 + µ, 1 − 3λ = 4 + µ.

First solve λ and µ using the first two equations

−2 + 3λ = 2 − µ and 3 + λ = 3 + µ

to get λ = 1 and µ = 1. Then substitute into the last equation to check the validity:

1 − 3 · 1 = 4 + 1 ⇒ −2 = 5,

which is absurd. Therefore, L 1 and L 2 do not intersect. It follows that they are skew.

4.3.3 Projection of a Point onto a Line

Let P be a point with position vector p, and L be a line with vector equation

r = a + λu, λ ∈ R.

Draw the line from P which is perpendicular to L, and let Q be the foot of perpendicular. The
−−→
point Q is also called the projection of P onto L, and |PQ| is the distance from P to L.
b
P

u
L b

A Q
CHAPTER 4. VECTORS 94

−−→
The following is the procedure to find the projection P and the distance |PQ|:

(i) Since Q is a point on L, it has position vector q = a + λu for some λ ∈ R.

−−→ −−→
(ii) PQ ⊥ L ⇔ PQ ⊥ u ⇔ (a + λu − p) • u = 0. Solve this equation to get the value of λ.
(iii) Using the value of λ found in (ii) to evaluate the position vector of Q: q = a + λu.
−−→ −−→
(iv) Find the vector PQ = a + λu − p and hence the distance |PQ|.

Example 4.3.6. Let P (7, 4, 2) be a point and L be a line with vector equation

r = 2i + 3j + 4k + λ(−i + j + k), λ ∈ R.

Find the projection Q of P onto L, and the distance from P to L.

Solution. The position vector of Q is of the form

q = 2i + 3j + 4k + λ(−i + j + k) for some λ ∈ R.

−−→ −−→
Then PQ = q − (7i + 4j + 2k) = (−5 − λ)i + (−1 + λ)j + (2 + λ)k. So PQ ⊥ L implies
−−→
0 = PQ • (−i + j + k) = 6 + 3λ ⇒ λ = −2.

So Q has position vector 2i + 3j + 4k + (−2)(−i + j + k) = 4i + j + 2k, i.e., Q is the point (4, 1, 2).
−−→
Finally, PQ = (4i + j + 2k) − (7i + 4j + 2k) = −3i − 3j . So the distance from P to L is
−−→ p p
|PQ| = (−3)2 + (−3)2 = 3 2.

4.4 Planes

4.4.1 Equation of Planes

Let Π be a plane and n be a vector perpendicular to Π, denoted by n ⊥ Π. Then n is called a
normal vector to the plane Π. Note that if n1 and n2 are both normal vectors to Π, then n1 ∥ n2 .

b
A
R
CHAPTER 4. VECTORS 95

−→
For any point R on the plane Π, we must have AR ⊥ n. If r is the position vector of R, then
(r − a) • n = 0, i.e.,
r • n = a • n.
This equation is called the normal form of the plane Π.
Suppose n = a i + b j + c k, and let d = a • n. Then the point R(x, y, z) is on the plane Π if and
only if
ax + by + cz = d ,

which is called the Cartesian equation of the plane Π.

Note that if both a1 x + b 1 y + c1 z = d 1 and a2 x + b 2 y + c2 z = d 2 are Cartesian equations of a
plane, then a1 : a2 = b 1 : b 2 = c1 : c2 = d 1 : d 2 .

Example 4.4.1. Find the equation of the plane Π that is perpendicular to the vector 2i −3k, and
contains the point (4, 5, 6).

Solution. A normal vector of Π is 2i − 3k, and the position vector of a point on Π is 4i + 5j + 6k.
So the normal form of Π is

r • (2i − 3k) = (4i + 5j + 6k) • (2i − 3k), i.e., r • (2i − 3k) = −10.

The Cartesian equation of Π is 2x − 3z = −10.

Example 4.4.2. Find the equation of the plane Π that contains points A(1, 2, 3), B(3, 4, 1) and
C (−1, −2, −3).

−→
AC b C
b
A
−→ b
B
AB

Solution. A normal vector n of Π is perpendicular to every vector which is parallel to Π. In

−→ −→
particular, n ⊥ AB and n ⊥ AC . Hence, we can choose
−→ −→
n = AB × AC = (2i + 2j − 2k) × (−2i − 4j − 6k) = −20i + 16j − 4k.

So the normal form of Π is

r • (−20i + 16j − 4k) = (i + 2j + 3k) • (−20i + 16j − 4k) = 0.

The Cartesian equation of Π is −20x + 16y − 4z = 0; or equivalently, 5x − 4y + z = 0.

CHAPTER 4. VECTORS 96

Example 4.4.3. Find the equation of the plane that contains the point A(−2, 1, 5) and the straight
line L with vector equation

r = 2i + 3j + 4k + λ(−i + j + k), λ ∈ R.

−→ b A
AB
b
u
L
B

Solution. Let n be a normal vector of Π. Then n ⊥ L, i.e., n ⊥ u, where u = −i + j + k is a

direction vector of L.
Let λ = 0. Then we obtain a point B on the line L with position vector 2i + 3j + 4k. Since Π
−→
contains L, B is also a point on Π. Then n ⊥ AB .
We can choose
−→
n = u × AB = (−i + j + k) × (4i + 2j − k) = −3i + 3j − 6k.
So the normal form of Π is

r • (−3i + 3j − 6k) = (−2i + j + 5k) • (−3i + 3j − 6k) = −21.

The Cartesian equation of Π is −3x + 3y − 6z = −21; or equivalently, x − y + 2z = 7.

4.4.2 Relations of Planes

Intersection of non-parallel planes

Let Π1 and Π2 be planes with normal vectors n1 and n2 respectively. Then

Π1 and Π2 are parallel (Π1 ∥ Π1 ) ⇔ normal vectors are parallel (n1 ∥ n2 ).

If Π1 and Π2 are not parallel, then they intersect at a line L. Note that L ⊥ n1 and L ⊥ n2 . Then
a direction vector of L is given by n1 × n2 , and L has a vector equation

r = a + λ(n1 × n2 ), λ ∈ R,
where a is the position vector of any point lies on both Π1 and Π2 .
CHAPTER 4. VECTORS 97

Example 4.4.4. Find the line of intersection of planes

Π1 : x − y + 2z = 2 and 3y + 5z = 3.

Solution. The normal vector of Π1 is n1 = i − j +2k and the normal vector of Π2 is n2 = 3j +5k.
Then the line of intersection has direction vector

n1 × n2 = −11i − 5j + 3k.

It is left to find a point which lies on both Π1 and Π2 . Substitute z = 0 in both Π1 and Π2 to get

x − y = 2 and 3y = 3.

Then y = 1 and x = 3. Hence, (3, 1, 0) is a point on both Π1 and Π2 , i.e., on the line of intersection.
Therefore, the line of intersection of Π1 and Π2 has a vector equation

r = 3i + j + λ(−11i − 5j + 3k), λ ∈ R.

Angle between planes

Let Π1 and Π2 be planes with normal vectors n1 and n2 respectively.

−n 2 n1
n2 n1 Π2

Π2 θ
θ Π1
θ
θ Π1

n2

Then the (acute) angle θ between Π1 and Π2 equals the angle between their normal lines:

cos θ = |n1 • n2 |/(|n1 | |n2 |).

In particular, if θ = π/2 = 90◦ , then we say Π1 and Π2 are perpendicular, denoted by Π1 ⊥ Π2 .

Example 4.4.5. Let Π1 and Π2 be planes with Cartesian equations

x − y + 2z = 2 and 2x + 5y − 7z = 4.

Then they have normal vectors n1 = i − j + 2k and n2 = 2i + 5j − 7k respectively. Then the

(acute) angle θ between Π1 and Π2 is given by
|(i − j + 2k) • (2i + 5j − 7k)| |−17| 17
cos θ = =p p = p .
|i − j + 2k| |2i + 5j − 7k| 6 · 78 6 13
Then θ ≈ 0.667 ≈ 38.2◦.
CHAPTER 4. VECTORS 98

4.4.3 Relations of Line and Plane

Intersection of line and plane

Let L be a straight line with vector equation r = a + λu, λ ∈ R, and Π be a plane of normal form
r • n = b • n. Substitution r = a + λu into r • n = b • n to find the value of λ.

(i) If there is exactly one solution, then L and Π intersects at exactly one point.
(ii) If there is no solution, then L and Π are parallel, denoted by L ∥ Π.
(iii) If every λ ∈ R satisfies the equation, then L is contained in Π, denoted by L ⊂ Π1 .

Example 4.4.6. Let L be the line with vector equation r = 2i + 3j + 4k + λ(i + j + k), λ ∈ R, and
Π be the plane x − y + 2z = 9. Substitute L into Π to get

9 = (2 + λ) − (3 + λ) + 2(4 + λ) = 7 + 2λ ⇒ λ = 1.

Let λ = 1 in the equation of L. Then r = 3i + 4j + 5k, i.e., L and Π intersects at the point (3, 4, 5).

Example 4.4.7. Let L be the line with vector equation r = 2i + 3j + 4k + λ(i + j + k), λ ∈ R, and
Π be the plane x + y − 2z = 9. Substitute L into Π to get

9 = (2 + λ) + (3 + λ) − 2(4 + λ) = −3,

which has no solution. Therefore, L and Π are parallel.

Example 4.4.8. Let L be the line with vector equation r = 14i + 3j + 4k + λ(i + j + k), λ ∈ R, and
Π be the plane x + y − 2z = 9. Substitute L into Π to get

9 = (14 + λ) + (3 + λ) − 2(4 + λ) = 9,

which holds for every λ ∈ R. Therefore, L is contained in Π.

CHAPTER 4. VECTORS 99

Angle between line and plane

Let L be a straight line with vector equation r = a + λu, λ ∈ R, and Π be a plane of normal form
r • n = b • n. Then the (acute) angle θ between L and Π is given by

sin θ = |u • n|/(|u| |n|).

In particular, if θ = π/2 = 90◦ , then L is perpendicular to Π, denoted by L ⊥ Π.

n u −n u

π −θ π −θ
2 2

θ v θ v

Example 4.4.9. Let L be the line with vector equation r = 2i + 3j + 4k + λ(i + j + k), λ ∈ R, and
Π be the plane x − y + 2z = 9. Then L has a direction vector i + j + k and Π has a normal vector
i − j + 2k. So the angle θ between L and Π is given by
p
|(i + j + k) • (i − j + 2k)| 2 2
sin θ = =p p = .
|i + j + k| |i − j + 2k| 3· 6 3

Hence, θ ≈ 0.491 ≈ 28.1◦.

4.4.4 Projection of a Point onto a Plane

−−→
Let Π be a plane with normal form r • n = a • n and P be a point with position vector p = OP .
Draw a straight line from P which is perpendicular to Π. Then the foot of perpendicular Q is
−−→
called the projection of P onto Π, and |PQ| is the distance from P to Π.
b

The following is the procedure to find the projection and distance:

(i) The position vector Q is of the form q = p + λn for some λ ∈ R. Substitute it into the
equation of Π to evaluate the value of λ:

(p + λn) • n = a • n.
CHAPTER 4. VECTORS 100

(ii) Evaluate the position vector of Q: q = p + λn.

−−→ −−→
(iii) Note that PQ = q − p = λn. The distance |PQ| = |λ| |n|.

Example 4.4.10. Let P (3, 2, 1) be a point and Π : x − 2y + 2z = −8 be a plane.

Let Q be the projection of P onto Π. Then its position vector is of the form

(3i + 2j + k) + λ(i − 2j + 2k) = (3 + λ)i + (2 − 2λ)j + (1 + 2λ)k.

Substitute into the equation of Π to get

−8 = (3 + λ) − 2(2 − 2λ) + 2(1 + 2λ) = 1 + 9λ ⇒ λ = −1.

Let λ = −1. Then Q has position vector 2i + 4j − k, i.e., Q is the point (2, 4, −1).
The distance from P to Π is given by
−−→ p
|PQ| = |−1| |i − 2j + 2k| = 1 · 12 + (−2)2 + 22 = 3.

4.4.5 Tangent Plane

Let w = f (x, y, z) be a function in three independent variables x, y, z. Then for any constant c,
f (x, y, z) = c determines a surface in the x y z-space.

z
2
−y 2
e −x −z =0

x y

Let P (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) be a point on the surface f (x, y, z) = c, i.e., f (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) = c.

The gradient vector of the surface at P is given by

(∇ f )P = [ f x (x0 , y 0 , z 0 )]i + [ f y (x0 , y 0 , z 0 )]j + [ f z (x0 , y 0 , z 0 )]k.

The normal line of the surface at P is the line passing through P and parallel to (∇ f )P :

r = (x0 i + y 0 j + z 0 k) + λ(∇ f )P , λ ∈ R.

The tangent plane of the surface at P is the plane containing P with normal vector (∇ f )P :

r • (∇ f )P = (x0 i + y 0 j + z 0 k) • (∇ f )P .