http://www.uky.edu/KGS/coal/coal-macerals.

php

Coal is a readily combustible rock containing more than 50 percent organic matter
(carbon) by weight, and 70 percent carbonaceous material by volume including inherent
moisture, which was formed from the compaction and alteration of plant remains.

Schopf (1956, 1966); Jackson (1997); Alpern and DeSousa (2002)

Similarly, the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM International)
recognizes coal as having less than 25 weight percent ash (on a dry basis), and impure
coal as having greater than or equal to 25 weight percent, but less than 50 weight
percent ash (on a dry basis). Ash is the noncombustible material in coal. If a coal has
more than 50 percent ash, it would be a carbonaceous shale, rather than coal.

Facts about coal

 Coal is a rock that can burn.

 Coal is an energy source.
 Coal is a sedimentary rock.
 Coal is an energy mineral (legally a mineral, scientifically a rock).
 Coal is fossil fuel (because it is derived from fossil plant remains).
 Coal is a solid hydrocarbon (because it consists mostly of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen; in contrast, oil is a liquid hydrocarbon, and natural gas is a gaseous
hydrocarbon).
 Coal and the peat it comes from are part of the carbon cycle.

How Is Coal Formed?

Coal is formed from the physical and chemical alteration of peat. Peat is composed of
plant materials that accumulate in wetlands ( bogs and fens), which break down through

1
the process of peatification. If peats are buried, then the peats can be altered into
different ranks of coal through the process of coalification.

Peat and Peatification

http://www.uky.edu/KGS/coal/coal-form.php

Peat is soil-like, partially decayed plant material that accumulates in wetlands. Most
people learn that coal is formed in swamps, but this is not completely accurate. The
term “swamps” can be applied to many different types of wetlands, but coal only forms
from peat-accumulating wetlands. Hence, peat deposits form in wetlands, but not all
wetlands form peat. Peat-accumulating wetlands, also called peatlands or mires,
include peat bogs, peat fens, and peat forests.

For peat to accumulate, the accumulation of plant debris in a mire must exceed the rate
of bacterial decay of the plant debris. The process of partial decomposition of plant
material in swampy, waterlogged environments is called peatification.

2
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/coal/coal-peat.php

\Peatification involves bacterial decay. The surface layer of most peats is dominated by

aerobic bacterial decay (with oxygen) and detritus-eating organisms, so has high decay
rates. If conditions in a wetland don’t allow for peat accumulation to exceed the rate of
aerobic bacterial decay, or local rates of erosion, a peat will not accumulate or be
preserved. In stagnant standing water, or in pore ater within the peat itself, oxygen can
become depleted. This happens naturally in organic-rich waters in which oxygen is used
up by the aerobic decay process. Under anaerobic (without oxygen) conditions, the
bacterial decay rate is greatly reduced, and peat accumulates. Many peatlands at high
latitudes (e.g., northern Canada and Siberia) have extensive peats greater than 15 feet
thick. Some modern tropical peats (e.g. Sumatra) may exceed 50 feet in thickness. If
these modern peats were buried to great depths, under the right geologic conditions,
they could become coal.

3
Peat deposits are quite varied and contain pristine plant parts (roots, bark, spores, etc.),
decayed plant parts, decay products, sediment, and charcoal from fires in the peat
swamp. They also contain minerals (mineral matter) from sediment carried into the
swamp by wind and water. The variable constituents in peat lead to a wide variety of
organic and inorganic constituents in the resulting coals. The constituents within coal
can vary both laterally and vertically in a coal seam, influencing the coal’s physical
appearance and quality.

Where Does the Carbon in Peat and Coal Come From?

Peat and coal are both part of the earth's carbon cycle. The carbon in peat and coals
comes from carbon in wetland plants. More specifically, it originates in sugars formed
from photosynthesis in wetland plants. The chemistry of photosynthesis can be shown
in a formula as:

6CO2 + 6H2O  photosynthesis C6H12O6 + 6O2

4
This means that carbon dioxide (CO 2) and water (H2O) in plant tissues react with
sunlight through photosynthesis to produce sugar (C 6H12O6) and oxygen (O2).

Natural sugars are incorporated into biological molecules (carbohydrates, etc.) and are
used to form plant tissues. When a plant dies, those tissues fall into the surface litter or
water of the peat-forming wetland. Bacteria, fungi, and invertebrates break down the
plant tissues. Some of the carbon in those plant tissues will be digested, and some will
be transformed into gases that will escape to the atmosphere, but other carbon in
partially decomposed plant tissues is preserved within the peat. If the peat is buried, the
decomposed plant tissues and byproducts (and the carbon they contain) will be
compacted. If the peat is buried deeply, it may become coal through the process
of coalification.

What's in Coal?

Coal beds are composed of coal bands or layers sometimes separated by thin
sedimentary rock layers (usually shale) called partings. Coal bands are described
as types and lithotypes. Coal bands are formed from peat, which is mostly composed of
plant debris with some amount of minerals. The thin sediment partings in most coals
form when the original coal-forming peats are flooded, but at least one parting in
Kentucky formed from volcanic ash that fell in the coal-forming peat.

5
Coal seams commonly contain rock partings. Upper Elkhorn No. 3 coal bed, eastern
Kentucky.

The Fire Clay coal bed in eastern Kentucky contains a parting that originated as a
volcanic ash fall.

Coal types and lithotypes are composed of altered plant parts such as roots, leaves,
stems, and spores. Through the process of peatification and
then coalification, distinctive plant parts partially decompose and are altered into tiny

6
organic particles and gels called macerals. The coal-forming peat and subsequent coal
also contain disseminated inorganic particles, called minerals. The proportion and types
of macerals and minerals in a coal bed influence its quality and how it can be used.

Coal beds contain organic components from plants and mineral components from
multiple sources.

Macerals

On the microscopic level, coal is made up of organic particles called macerals. Macerals
are the altered remains and byproducts of the original plant material from which the

7
coal-forming peat originated. Macerals are to coal as sediment grains and cements are
to sedimentary rocks.

Coal petrographers (people who study coal under a microscope) separate macerals into
three groups, each of which includes several maceral types. The groups are inertinite,
liptinite, and vitrinite. These groups were defined according to their grayness in reflected
light under a microscope. Liptinites are dark gray, vitrinites are medium to light gray,
and inertinites are white and can be very bright.

Microscopic macerals in coal are derived from plants and plant residues.

Different macerals are formed from different plant parts or different residues of
bacterially, chemically, or physically broken-down plant parts. Different maceral groups,
and individual macerals, have different chemical compositions that, in total, influence
the chemical composition of the resulting coal (Stach and others, 1982; Bustin and
others, 1983; Teichmüller, 1989).

8
Mineral Matter

Coal also contains minerals, which mostly occur as inorganic crystalline and
noncrystalline particles or masses. A coal seam may consist of as much as 50 percent
minerals. At more than 50 percent mineral matter, the rock would be termed a
carbonaceous shale rather than coal. Most mined coals are less than 20 percent
mineral matter, and many coal contracts require less than 10 percent ash yield, which is
approximately (but generally less than) the actual mineral matter content of a coal. More
than 120 minerals and inorganic compounds have been documented in coals worldwide
(Finkelman, 1981; Vassilev and Vassileva, 1996; Ward, 2002; Schweinfurth and
Finkelman, 2003).

Minerals in coal can be divided into two broad categories: (1) minerals that originated in
the original coal-forming peat, termed syngenetic or primary minerals, and (2)
diagenetic or secondary minerals, which were introduced into the coal, remobilized in
the coal, or transformed from other minerals in the coal at any time after the original
coal-forming peat was buried. Some minerals can also form in coal by oxidation of
sulfides and other minerals when the coal is exposed at the surface. These would be
termed tertiary minerals. Most tertiary minerals are transformations of minerals that are
already in the coal (Mackowsky, 1982; Renton, 1982; Vassilev and Vassileva, 1996;
Ward, 2002).

9
Mineral matter in coal showing terms used for the origin of minerals in coal.

Syngenetic minerals tend to be tiny (microns) particles embedded in the coal matrix.
Biogenic sources of syngenetic minerals include plants and organisms in the original
coal-forming peats. Many plants incorporate minerals into their structures. An example
of this is the common horsetail, or scouring rush, which incorporates silica in its tissues
to provide structural strength. Some organism that live in, or are transported into peats,
or whose remains are transported into peats also contain minerals in their body
structures (see for example, Andrejko and others, 1983).

Detrital, syngenetic minerals include clays and other sediments transported into the
coal-forming peats during floods. Detrital minerals also include dust and silt carried into
the peat by wind. Thick, concentrated detrital sediments form rock partings in coal.
Finer, less-concentrated sediment input is disseminated into the coal-forming peat
without a visible rock laminae or bed.

A wide array of chemical precipitates may also occur in peat through various processes
involved in peatification, including the bacterial reduction of sulfates in peat pore waters.

10
Once a peat is buried, mineral introduction and transformation is said to be diagenetic.
Diagenetic minerals tend to be more coarsely crystalline than syngenetic minerals. After
coal has reached the lignite stage, diagenetic minerals tend to occur as thicker
concentrations in cleat and fracture fills, which are visible to the naked eye. This
distinction is significant, because cleat-filling minerals are easier to remove from coal
than from syngenetic, authigenic minerals (Rao and Gluskoter, 1973; Mackowsky, 1982;
Renton, 1982; Ward, 1989; van Krevelen, 1993).

The amount, particle size, and type of mineral matter in coal influences a wide variety of
uses, including combustion for steam for electrical energy production and the production
of metallurgical coke to make steel. Understanding mineral components is not only
important for the practical processes and maintenance of combustion equipment, but
also because of the chemical reactions that occur during combustion, and the resultant
composition of emissions and solid residues, especially in countries where the chemical
composition of the emissions or residues is regulated.

11
Maceral groups and macerals in subbituminous, bituminous. and anthracitic coals, and
their origins. Some of the macerals are the same for low-rank lignite coals, but there are
different maceral groups and additional macerals for lignites.

Liptinites are derived from spores, pollens, cuticles, and resins in the original plant
material. These plant parts are more hydrogen-rich than other macerals. They are also
fluorescent at some coal ranks.

Vitrinites are composed of partially "gelled" wood, bark, and roots, and contain less
hydrogen than liptinites.

Inertinites are mainly oxidation products of other macerals and are consequently richer
in carbon than liptinites or vitrinites, because much of the oxygen in the original plant
parts or residues has been consumed by oxidation. The inertinite group includes fusinite
(most of which is fossil charcoal) derived from ancient fires in the coal-forming peat
(see, for example, Scott, 1989). Other inertinite macerals ( for example, macrinite) owe
their origin to biological decomposition and decay of plant material (Hower and others,
2009). Still others ( for example, micrinite) result from thermal maturation of the peat.

12
Pyrite

Pyrite (FeS2) is the most common sulfide mineral in coal and a major source of the
sulfur in coal. Pyrite can form in peat while the peat is accumulating, or can form in
peats from the introduction of sulfate (SO 4) into the peat if the peat was buried by
marine waters (such pyrite is called syngenetic or authigenic pyrite). Within the buried
peat, the sulfate is reduced to sulfide (S 2), which then combines with iron to form pyrite.
Pyrite can also be introduced into the peat, after burial (diagenetic or epigenic pyrite),
during coalification (Casagrande, 1987).

Microscopic images of tiny syngenetic pyrite crystals (white) in cell structures of

macerals.

Pyrite (FeS2) is a mineral of particular importance in several coal markets. Sulfur from
pyrite can have a detrimental influence on many chemical processes including coking to
make steel. Sulfur from pyrite also contributes to sulfur emissions in industrial boilers
and steam coal. During mining, sulfur from pyrite contributes to acid-mine drainage.

Pyrite and acid-mine drainage

13
Weathering of coal and high-sulfur strata, or abandoned spoil piles with significant pyrite
concentrations, can result in acid-mine drainage (Appalachian Regional Commission,
1969; Brady and others, 1998; Greb, 2006). In order to limit the formation of acid-mine
drainage, modern mining regulations limit the exposure and storage of high-sulfur coal
or roof rocks. Surface and groundwater in the mining area and adjacent to the mining
area must also be monitored to ensure that mining is not causing acid-mine drainage. In
areas of past mining (before modern regulations were in place), a wide array of
mitigation techniques are used to limit acid-mine drainage.

Pyrite and sulfur emissions

Combustion of coal with pyrite results in the emission of sulfur dioxide (SO 2) in the flue-
gas stream, and can react with water vapor to form sulfurous acid (H 2SO3), which
oxidizes to sulfuric acid (H2SO4), a major component of acid rain (U.S. Energy
Information Administration, 1997; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2016a). In
addition, some trace elements that are potentially hazardous air pollutants (antimony,
arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, mercury, nickel, and selenium) are commonly associated with
pyrite (see, for example, Schweinfurth and Finkelman, 2003).

Many different types of mitigation are employed to remove or reduce sulfurous

emissions before and after combustion in power plants. Most coals are “cleaned” at
preparation plants, a process called beneficiation or preparation, prior to combustion to
lower the sulfur content of coal before it is sent to a power plant. At the power plant,
many techniques are also available for limiting sulfurous emissions, including trapping
sulfurous gas and sulfur-bearing particles in the flue gas through bag houses
(electrostatic precipitators) and scrubbers (flue-gas desulfurization). These methods
generally trap most of the sulfur emitted from the combustion of coa

14
Major, Minor, and Trace Elements

The elements in coal are shown on the table below. Major elements are elements that
constitute more than 1 percent of the coal by weight: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, and sulfur. The relative percentage of carbon increases with rank, whereas the
percentages of oxygen and hydrogen decrease with rank.

Periodic table of elements showing major elements found in all coal seams.

Minor elements ae elements that constitute 1.0 to 0.01 percent of a coal by weight.
Common minor elements in coal are sodium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, titanium, manganese, and iron. Most of the minor
elements are associated with the minerals in coal, although phosphorus also is
associated with the organic coal matrix. Minor elements are relatively common in coal.
Not all of these minor elements occur in all coal seams, and those that do occur will do

15
so in different concentrations in different seams. In fact, the concentrations of minor
elements may change vertically and laterally within a single coal bed (see, for example,
Finkelman, 1981, 1995; Schweinfurth and Finkelman, 2003; Swaine, 2013).

Minor elements that have been reported in coal seams. Not all seams have these
elements.

The rest of the elements outlined in the periodic table occur in concentrations of 100
parts per million or less. These are called trace elements. Not all coals contain these
elements, and their concentrations vary greatly among and within coal beds. Similar to
mineral matter, trace elements may be introduced during peatification (syngenetic) or at
any stage of coalification (diagenetic).

16
Trace elements that have been reported in coal seams. Not all seams have these
elements.

An important aspect of trace elements is chemical association. Trace elements can be

organically bound to the coal matrix or associated with mineral matter. Antimony,
beryllium, boron, gallium, and germanium are usually organically bound; this means
they are intimately attached to the coal matrix. Arsenic, chromium, nickel, selenium,
titanium, uranium, and vanadium, among other elements, may be either organically
bound or occur in mineral matter, depending on the coal (Gluskoter and others, 1977;
Miller and Given, 1986; Given and Miller, 1987; Goodarzi, 1988; Finkelman, 1995;
Swaine, 2013).

Understanding the chemical associations of trace elements in a coal can aid in

determining (1) if the elements can be or need to be removed or diminished from the
coal prior to utilization, (2) where the elements will end up (emissions, solid residues)
during and following coal utilization, and (3) the best mechanisms for mitigating any
potential technological or environmental issues an element may have in the utilization
process based on best practices and regulations.

17
Of the trace elements in coal, 15 are listed as hazardous air pollutants by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Mercury is currently the only HAPs element regulated
and monitored from coal-fired power plant emissions in the United States (U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, 1997, 1998, 2016b). Many of the other HAPs
(arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, mercury, lead, some selenium, and antimony) are commonly
associated with sulfide minerals such as pyrite, so removing (or at least reducing)
sulfide minerals from the coal prior to combustion in preparation plants, and removing or
transforming sulfurous flue gases after combustion, aids in mitigation.

Hazardous air pollutants elements that have been reported in coal seams. Not all
seams have these elements.

Coal and coal beneficiation products are also potential sources of useful trace elements.
Coal has recently been investigated as a potential source of rare-earth minerals. Rare-
earth minerals include many elements that most people have not heard of, including
the lanthanide series elements (cerium through lutetium) and ytterbium. Although
relatively unheard of, rare-earth minerals are very important in our modern technological
world, because they’re used in a variety of products used every day, including

18
televisions and cellphones. Scientists are looking for new sources of these elements as
demand increases.

Rare-earth elements that have been reported in coal seams. Not all seams have these
elements.

19
Coal Rank

The stages of physical and chemical changes that proceed from peat through coal are
called coalification, and are classified and described by rank. In general, rank
categories are defined based on recognizable changes in coal parameters. Slightly
different categories and parameters are used in different countries, but in general,
proceed in increasing rank from lignite, to sub-bituminous, to bituminous, to anthracite
coal. Different ranks of coal cannot always be differentiated based only on their physical
appearance. Testing of different parameters is often needed to differentiate coal ranks.

20
U.S. coal rank system showing the parameters used to define ranks.

Different ranks of coal:

Lignite Coal

Sub-Bituminous Coal

Bituminous Coal

Anthracite Coal

21
Lignite Coal

Lignite is the lowest rank of coals. Lignites are brown in color and have an earthy,
crumbly texture. They look more like dirt, than what people normally think of when they
think of coal. In the U.S. rank classification, lignites are defined based on calorific value.
Lignites have calorific (heating) values less than 8,300 Btu/lb (ASTM, 2014). In some
other countries, lignites are defined based on their moisture content. In other
classifications, vitrinite reflectance (%Ro) may be used to define lignites. Vitrinite
reflectance in lignites is generally %Ro less than 0.4 (UNECE, 1998; Alpern and
DeSousa, 2002; ISO, 2005).

Lignite rank and defining characteristics.

22
Physical and Chemical Changes (Lignite Rank)

Stages of coalification cited in different reports relative to their approximate U.S. coal
rank. The term diagenesis was used by Tissot and Welte (1984) for the initial stages of
coalification but it has also been used for the entire coalification process. %Ro= Vitrinite
reflectance in oil. %Ro data from Teichmüller and Teichmüller (1982). In the U.S. rank
system, vitrinite reflectance values overlap between subbituminous A and high volatile
bituminous C ranks, which is shown here as a dashed line.
The dominant processes during the lignite stage of coalification are physical
compaction, dewatering (sometimes called dehydration) and biogeochemical
gelification. Biochemical gelification is the biological and chemical breakdown of carbon
molecules in the lignite (Stach et al., 1992; Teichmüller, 1989). These processes are
part of the broader phases of diagenesis, and eodiagenesis in coalification (see figure).

Moisture content decreases dramatically from peat through lignite rank, through
expulsion of water and through changing coal chemistry (the loss of certain chemical
functional groups) resulting from biochemical gelification (Barnes et al., 1984; Levine,
1993; Mukhopadhyay, and Hatcher, 1993). At the peat to lignite transition, lignite

23
commonly has moisture contents of 60%, but moisture decreases to approximately 20%
in subbituminous coals (Teichmüller and Teichmüller, 1982; UNECE, 1998).

Biogenically-sourced methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are also expulsed from
lignite during the chemical and physical changes that accompany gelification (Stach et
al., 1982; Levine, 1993).

An important physical change in coal during the lignite rank of coalification is the
formation of organized sets of fractures or joints, called cleats. Cleats are what give
coal its common blocky appearance. They are also pathways for moisture and gas
movement and subsequent mineralization (Stach et al., 1992, Laubach et al., 1998).

Sub-Bituminous Coal

Sub-bituminous coals are the second division of low-rank coals. They are transitional
between lignite and bituminous coal. In the U.S. rank classification, sub-bituminous
coals and their subdivisions (A, B, C) are supposed to be based on calorific value. By
ASTM standards, sub-bituminous coals have calorific (heating) values of 8,300 to
11,500 Btu/lb (ASTM, 2014). In practice, however, there is considerable overlap
between what is called a higher rank sub-bituminous coal (subbituminous A) and a
lower rank bituminous (high volatile C) coal. For example, coal beds of the Illinois Basin
(and western Kentucky) are considered high volatile C bituminous coals although they
have calorific values of less than 11,500 Btu/lb. Vitrinite reflectance (%Ro) in
subbituminous coals is generally Ro between 0.4 to 0.5%Ro. As with calorific values,
reflectance values for what are considered bituminous C and subbituminous A coals in
the United States overlap.

Sub-bituminous C (lower rank sub-bituminous) coals in the U.S. rank system are brown
and earthy like lignites, whereas, sub-bituminous A (higher rank sub-bituminous) coals
are gray to black and shiny like bituminous coals. Sub-bituminous coals are sometimes
referred to as black lignite (Jackson, 1997).

24
Sub-bituminous rank and defining characteristics.

Physical and Chemical Changes (Sub-bituminous Rank)

Stages of coalification cited in different reports relative to their approximate U.S. coal
rank. The term diagenesis was used by Tissot and Welte (1984) for the initial stages of
coalification but it has also been used for the entire coalification process. %Ro= Vitrinite
reflectance in oil. %Ro data from Teichmüller and Teichmüller (1982). In the U.S. rank

25
system, vitrinite reflectance values overlap between subbituminous A and high volatile
bituminous C ranks, which is shown here as a dashed line.

During coalification of sub-bituminous coals, moisture loss continues, but biochemical

gelification is replaced by geochemical gelification, also termed vitrinization. Vitrinization
is the process by which low-rank components of coals called huminite macerals  are
transformed into vitreous (shiny) vitrinite macerals, which are characteristic of higher
rank coals. Vitrinization is followed by bituminization, in which biogenic breakdown of
the coal matrix is replaced by thermal breakdown (Mukhopadhya and Hatcher, 1993;
Levine, 1993; Teichmüller, 1989; Stach et al., 1982). Above the rank of sub-bituminous
B coals, most of the changes to coal chemistry and structure are driven by increased
thermal (heating) rather than biogenic processess. The phase of increased thermally-
driven changes is termed catagenesis in maturation studies (e.g., Tissot and Welte,
1984).

ituminous Coal

Bituminous coals are black, shiny, and generally hard. They are a medium-rank coal.
Bituminous coals generally have calorific values above 11,500 Btu/lb and volatile
matter below 14% (ASTM, Jackson, 1997). In the Illinois Basin (and western Kentucky),
however, the lower rank end of what are termed bituminous coals in the United States
have calorific values of 11,100 to 11,300 Btu/lb. The international coal classification
system uses vitrinite reflectance (%Ro) to subdivide bituminous coals. In this system,
bituminous coals have %Ro between 0.5 and 1.9. As for calorific value, reflectance
values for what are considered bituminous C and subbituminous A coals in the United
States overlap.

26
In the U.S. classification system, bituminous coals are divided into five subdivisions.
High-volatile bituminous coals (high volatile B and C) are classified using gross calorific
(heating) value. High volatile bituminous C coals have calorific values of 11,500 to
13,000 Btu/lb. High volatile bituminous B coals have calorific values of 13,000 to 14,000
Btu/lb. Above the high volatile bituminous rank, however, calorific values are less
distinctive for increasing rank. Medium and low volatile bituminous ranks in the U.S.
system, are defined based on volatile matter or fixed carbon rather than calorific value.
Medium volatile bituminous coals have 22 to 31% volatile matter on a dry mineral-
matter free basis. This corresponds to a fixed carbon content of 69 to 78%. Low volatile
bituminous coals have 14 to 22% volatile matter on a dry mineral matter free basis. This
corresponds to a fixed carbon content of 78 to 86% (ASTM, 2014).

Bituminous rank and defining characteristics.

27
Physical and Chemical Changes (Bituminous Rank)

Stages of coalification cited in different reports relative to their approximate U.S. coal
rank. The term diagenesis was used by Tissot and Welte (1984) for the initial stages of
coalification but it has also been used for the entire coalification process. %Ro= Vitrinite
reflectance in oil. %Ro data from Teichmüller and Teichmüller (1982). In the U.S. rank
system, vitrinite reflectance values overlap between subbituminous A and high volatile
bituminous C ranks, which is shown here as a dashed line.
Bituminous coals begin with abundant volatile matter (high volatile bituminous coals) but
with increasing rank, volatile matter is lost forming medium and then low volatile
bituminous coals (e.g., Stach et al., 1982). Chemically, the process of bituminization
continues through the bituminous rank. The term “bituminous” comes from the increase
in bitumen at this rank. Bitumen is petroleum tar or natural asphalt. Heating coal to the
rank of high bituminous coal is approximately equivalent to the maturation level in
organic-rich source rocks at which oil is generated (Dow, 1977; Teichmüller, 1974;
1989; Tissot and Welte, 1984; Levine, 1993; Mukhopadhyay and Hatcher, 1993).
Bitumen is petroleum tar or natural asphalt.

28
Coalification from the upper high volatile A bituminous through low volatile bituminous
ranks is dominated by thermal degradation and “cracking” of the molecular components
of the coal and expulsion of thermogenic methane (methane evolved from heating). The
process of cracking, also called “repolymerization” essentially breaks down complex
carbon compounds into simpler carbon compounds. This process is part of the
catagenesis phase of maturation. Thermogenic methane generation begins in the early
catagenesis stage, but peak methane expulsion from the coal matrix occurs in mid-
catagenesis, in medium and low volatile bituminous ranks (Dow, 1977; Hunt, 1979;
Teichmüller, 1974; 1989; Tissot and Welte, 1984). This is why some medium volatile
bituminous and higher rank coals are gassy underground. Methane is flammable, so
cautions are taken in underground mines to monitor and prevent the buildup of methane
leaking from higher rank coal beds to prevent underground mine explosions.

Anthracitic Coal

Anthracitic coals are high-rank coals. They are shiny (glassy) and break with a
conchoidal (glass-like) fracture. Most coals do not reach anthracitic rank, which requires
high heat from very deep burial, tectonic metamorphism, or contact metamorphism with
igneous intrusions. The anthracitic rank is divided into three parts; semi-anthracite,
anthracite, and meta-anthracite. In the U.S. rank classification system, anthracitic ranks
are defined based on volatile matter and fixed carbon contents. Anthracitic coals
have volatile matter less than 14% and fixed carbon contents greater than 86% on a dry
mineral-matter free basis (ASTM).

29
Anthracite, which is a specific rank of anthracitic coals, has volatile matter from 2 to 8%,
and fixed carbon contents of 92 to 98% on a dry mineral-matter free basis (ASTM;
Jackson, 1977).

Anthractitic rank and defining characteristics.

30
Physical and Chemical Changes (Anthracitic Rank)

Stages of coalification cited in different reports relative to their approximate U.S. coal
rank. The term diagenesis was used by Tissot and Welte (1984) for the initial stages of
coalification but it has also been used for the entire coalification process. %Ro= Vitrinite
reflectance in oil. %Ro data from Teichmüller and Teichmüller (1982) except for the
uppermost value for anthracitic coals, which varies between different reports. In the U.S.
rank system, vitrinite reflectance values overlap between subbituminous A and high
volatile bituminous C ranks, which is shown here as a dashed line.

Anthracitic rank marks the beginning of distinctive physical and chemical changes to
coal termed anthracitization, graphitization, metadiagenesis, and telodiagenesis in
different reports (see figure). The most distinctive physical change at anthracite rank, is
the development of conchoidal fracture and the loss of cleats in coal. Conchoidal
fractures are curved, reflective, glass-like surfaces. Chemically, anthracites show a
sharp decrease in hydrogen content and the hydrogen to carbon (H/C) ratio relative to
medium- and low-rank coals. At the molecular level, coalification at anthracitic ranks
involves condensation of aromatic carbon-ring systems to larger ordered-carbon
structures (Stach et al., 1982; Krevelen, 1993; Levine, 1993). This results in a very
ordered, carbon-rich (98 to <100% C) coal at the meta-anthracite rank.

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Beyond Anthracite?

It was once thought that continued heating and burial of anthracite coal would result in
the formation of the mineral graphite (a crystalline form of carbon), and then even
diamond; the purest, most-ordered crystalline form of natural carbon. However, recent
research suggests that the activation energy for the formation of graphite may be too
high to be formed in nature just by normal geologic burial heating processes. Instead, it
appears that considerable strain energy (as occurs in mountain-building areas of
continental crust) are likely needed to transform anthracites into graphite (Wilkes et al.,
1993; Bustin et al., 1995).

Coal Grade

Coal grade is an economic or technological classification of the relative quality of a coal

for a particular use. A variety of grades of coal are defined for different uses or markets
in different industries and countries, and for the needs of a particular process or by
regulations concerning the process or end-use product. The terms are process- or
product-specific. For example, a coal which can be used to generate steam for
electricity, may not be a high-grade coal for metallurgical uses. Terms such as low-ash
or low-sulfur are also examples of grade terms. Different quality grades are used in
different coal markets.

Steam Coal

Steam coal (sometimes called thermal coal) is a grade of coal used in electric power
plants to generate steam to create electricity. Most of the coals mined in the United
States are steam coals. Steam coals for power plants must meet quality and heating
characteristics of the boiler design and for the design of pollution-control equipment at a
power plant.

Grades of steam coal are generally related to sulfur content and ash yield. Typically, the
term low-sulfur coal is used for coals with less than 1 percent sulfur. In the United

32
States, the Clean Air Act Amendments (1990) set a limit for sulfur emissions at power
plants of 1.2 pounds of sulfur per 10,000 Btu, which amounts to approximately 1 to 1.2
percent sulfur in a bituminous coal (Cobb and Eble, 1992; U.S. Energy Information
Administration, 1997). Hence, sulfur is used to define grades of coals that meet
emissions standards. Low-ash coals are grades of coal with ash yields below 10
percent. High-ash coals are generally coals above 10 percent ash yield.

Metallurgical Coal

Some coals can be used to produce coke, an important raw material used
in steel making. These coals are referred to as metallurgical coal, met
coal, or coking coal.These can be considered grade terms. Coke (not the
soft drink) is a hard, porous, carbon-rich compound. Only coals with specific
quality characteristics can be used to make coke. Metallurgical grade coals
for steel production must be very low in ash (generally less than 10 percent)
and sulfur (less than 1 percent), have volatile matter contents from 20 to 30
percent (medium- to high-volatile bituminous rank), and have a favorable
balance of reactive and inert components. Grade terms in the coking industry
include low-ash, low-sulfur, and low-volatile, based on the requirements to
make coke. Element concentrations are important as well, because certain
elements (for example, phosphorous) can cause problems in the resulting
steel (Zimmerman, 1979; Stach and others, 1982).

Chemical and Specialty Coal

Certain coals can be used to produce chemicals and specialty products. This
is a small percentage of the overall coal market. Chemical and specialty
coals must meet very specific requirements for the product or chemical
process in which they will be used. Requirements (and relative grade terms)
may be related to ash and sulfur contents, as with steam coals and
metallurgical-grade coals, but also may be related to mechanical properties
(e.g., Hardgrove grindability, free-swelling index), or to chemical composition
(e.g., trace elements, amounts of reactive macerals).

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 The Blue Gem Coal and Silicon Metal

The Blue Gem coal is an exceptionally high-quality coal found in several

areas of southeastern Kentucky. The coal can have sulfur contents below 1
percent and ash yields below 1.5 percent, which is less than the ash content
of the living plants from which the coal formed! Because of its low sulfur and
extremely low ash content (among other properties), this coal is one of only a
few coals in the world that can be used to make silicon metal.Silicon metal is
metallurgical-grade silicon, which is used to make aluminum-silicon alloy
materials, in the chemical industry, and in the manufacture of electric semi-
conductors.

Other properties

Low ash-fusion temperature: The mineral fraction of the Blue Gem is

dominated by siderite, rather than silicates. This gives the coal a low ash-
fusion temperature that is favorable in the production of silicon metal
(Gardner and others, 2007; Hower and others, 2007).

High silicon reactivity: The carbon in the Blue Gem exhibits high silicon
reactivity, which is favorable in the production of silicon metal (Myrvagnes
and Lindstad, 2007).

Coal Analysis

Most, if not all, coals are tested prior to being used. Some markets require specific
quality characteristics for the process in which the coal is used, and environmental
34
regulations also require knowledge of a coal’s quality. Some products also require
analysis of physical characteristics of coals for handling or processing. Standard tests
are prescribed by the American Society for Testing and Materials. ASTM sets
standardized procedures for sample preparation and analysis. Certified laboratories for
coal analysis in North America follow ASTM procedures, and must regularly check
equipment and results by using standard samples and interlaboratory comparative
testing. Common coal analyses include:

 Ash fusion: determines how coal ash will behave when heated in an industrial
furnace or boiler
 Ash yield (part of proximate analysis): determines the amount of
noncombustible material in a coal sample
 Calorific value: determines the heating potential of coal; usually expressed in
Btu per pound
 Fixed carbon (part of proximate analysis): determines the amount of
nonvolatile carbon remaining in a coal sample after combustion
 Float-sink (washability) : determines the relative amount of coal that can be
separated from attached rock and minerals
 Hardgrove grindability: determines how easily coal can be crushed
 Major and minor elements by X-ray fluorescence:  determines the elemental
composition of coal and coal ash
 Moisture content: explains tests and equations for different types of moisture
content used in coal analysis
 Palynology: identifies fossil spores and pollens in coal and shale for correlation
and reconstruction of original coal-forming mires
 Petrographic analysis: examines microscopic components of coal
 Proximate analysis: determines moisture, volatile matter, ash yield, and fixed
carbon content in coal
 Recording standards terminology: defines as-received, air-dried, etc.
 Sulfur forms : determines different types of sulfur in coal
 Total carbon (part of ultimate analysis)

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  Total sulfur (part of ultimate analysis)
 Trace element: determines the elemental composition of coal and coal ash
 Ultimate analysis: determines amounts of the major elements in coal: carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen
 Vitrinite reflectance (Ro): determines the relative rank of coal
 Volatile matter (part of proximate analysis ): determines the amount of
nonwater gases released by combustion of a sample

Coal Mining

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According to the Kentucky Department of Mines and Minerals, 131.8 million tons of coal
was mined in Kentucky in 2000; 62 percent (81 million tons) was from underground
mines and 38 percent (50 million tons) was from surface mines. There were 264 active
underground mines and 240 active surface mines in Kentucky in 2000.

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Underground Mining

Underground modes of access include drift, slope, and shaft mining, and actual mining
methods include longwall and room and pillar mining. Drift mines enter horizontally into
the side of a hill and mine the coal within the hill. Slope mines usually begin in a valley
bottom, and a tunnel slopes down to the coal to be mined. Shaft mines are the deepest
mines; a vertical shaft with an elevator is made from the surface down to the coal. In
western Kentucky, one shaft mine reaches 1,200 feet below the surface.

In room and pillar mining, the most common type of underground coal mining, coal
seams are mined by a continuous miner that cuts a network of "rooms" into the seam.
As the rooms are cut, the continuous miner simultaneously loads the coal onto a shuttle
or ram car, from which it will eventually be placed on a conveyor belt that will move it to
the surface. "Pillars" composed of coal are left behind to support the roof of the mine.
Each room alternates with a pillar of greater width than the excavated room for support.
Using this mining method normally results in a reduction in recovery of as much as 60
percent, because of coal being left in the ground as pillars. As mining continues, roof
bolts are placed in the ceiling to prevent ceiling collapse. Under special circumstances,
pillars may sometimes be removed or pulled toward the end of mining in a process
called retreat mining. Removing support during retreat mining can lead to roof falls, so
the pillars are removed in the opposite direction from which the mine advanced: hence
the term retreat mining.

Longwall mining is another type of underground mining. Mechanized shearers are used
to cut and remove the coal at the face of the mine. After the coal is removed, it drops
onto a chain conveyor, which moves it to a second conveyor that will ultimately take the
coal to the surface. Temporary hydraulic-powered roof supports hold up the roof as the
extraction process proceeds. This method of mining has proven to be more efficient
than room and pillar mining, with a recovery rate of nearly 75 percent, but the

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equipment is more expensive than conventional room and pillar equipment, and cannot
be used in all geologic circumstances. As mining continues, roof bolts are placed in the
ceiling to prevent ceiling collapse. In longwall mining, only the main tunnels are bolted.
Most of the longwall panel is allowed to collapse behind the shields (which hold the roof
as coal is excavated).

Surface Mining

Surface-mining methods include area, contour, mountaintop removal, and auger. Area
mines are surface mines that remove shallow coal over a broad area of fairly flat land.
Huge dragline shovels remove rocks overlying the coal (called overburden). After the
coal has been removed, the rock is placed back into the pit. Contour mines recover coal
in steep, hilly, or mountainous terrain. A wedge of overburden is removed along the coal
outcrop on the side of a hill, forming a bench at the level of the coal. After the coal is
removed, the overburden is placed back on the bench to return the hill to its natural
slope. Mountaintop- removal mines are special area mines used where several thick
coal seams occur near the top of a mountain. Large quantities of overburden are
removed from the top of the mountain , and this material is used to fill in valleys next to
the mine. Augur mines are operated on surface-mine benches (before they are covered
up); the coal in the side of the hill that can't be reached by contour mining is drilled (or
augured) out. Drift, contour, mountaintop- removal, and augur mining are more common
in the Eastern Kentucky Coal Field, and area, slope, and shaft mining are more
common in the Western Kentucky Coal Field.

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 Con
tinuous-mining machine. Photo submitted by Jerry Weisenfluh from the collection of Dr.
John Ferm.

A bolted
roof. Photo submitted by Jerry Weisenfluh from the collection of Dr. John Ferm.

39
 Surface mining. Photo
submitted by Cortland Eble.

Dra
gline. Photo submitted by Jerry Weisenfluh from the collection of Dr. John Ferm.

40
 Area that has
been mined by contour mining. The exposed rock cliffs are the highwalls of past contour
mines. Photo submitted by Cortla

Uses of Coal

At one time, coal was predominantly used to heat homes and power railroad
locomotives and factories. Today, however, coal serves different purposes for society.
The chief use of coal is now electricity generation. More than 90 percent of the coal
mined in the United States is used for electric power. Other uses include coking coal for

41
steel manufacturing and industrial process heating. Small amounts are also used to
make chemicals and specialty products, often from byproducts of other processes. More
information can be found in the following sections:

oal for Electricity Generation

Most of Kentucky's coal is used to generate electricity. After coal is mined, it is

transported to power plants by trains, barges, and trucks. A conveyor belt carries the
coal to a pulverizer, where it is ground to the fineness of talcum powder. The powdered
coal is then blown into a combustion chamber of a boiler, where it is burned at around
2,550°F. Surrounding the walls of the boiler room are pipes filled with water. Because of
the intense heat, the water vaporizes into superheated (2,000°F) high-pressure (1,000
psi) steam. The steam passes through a turbine (which is similar to a large propeller)
connected to a generator. The incoming steam causes the turbine to rotate, creating a
magnetic field inside wire coils in the generator. This pushes an electric current through
the coils out of the power plant through transmission lines. After the steam passes
through the turbine chamber, it is cooled down in cooling towers and it again becomes
part of the water/steam cycle.

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How coal is used to generate electricity in a conventional coal-fired power plant with a
pulverized coal boiler.

Emissions Control

In the United States, gases produced by the combustion of coal in the boiler (called flue
gas) must be treated to remove air pollutants before they can be released to the
atmosphere through the power-plant stack. Federal regulations limit the amount of
nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and particulate matter that can be released
into the air from a power plant. Modern, coal-generated power plants use multiple
pollution-control devices to control the flue gas released from the boiler. These devices
are not simple filters or devices placed within the exhaust pipes to the stack. Most are
large, expensive buildings with complex internal workings. The exhaust stream is
redirected through these structures so that pollutants can be reduced before they are
emitted to the air.

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Typical pollution-control systems used to clean emissions from a coal-fired power plant.
Different plants use different technologies and different arrangements of technologies.

Selective catalytic reduction and selective noncatalytic reduction units are commonly
used to reduce NOx, which contributes to smog and haze. Selective catalytic reduction
units use gaseous anhydrous ammonia (NH 3) and catalysts to chemically reduce
NOx emissions to harmless gaseous nitrogen (N 2) and water (H2O). Noncatalytic
reduction units reduce NOx formation by injecting urea (CO(NH2)2) into the gas stream
without a catalyst. Advanced boilers and fuel changes are also used to reduce
NOx emissions.

Electrostatic precipitators and filter baghouses are used to trap and reduce particulates
in the flue-gas stream. Particles in the gas stream may be only microns in size. Some
are 10 to 100 times smaller than the width of a human hair. Filter baghouses use
collections of filters to trap particles; the principle is similar to the air filters in a car.
Electrostatic precipitators use electrically charged plates to attract particles from the gas
stream, capturing more than 99 percent of the solid particles in the gas stream.

44
How an ESP works in a coal-fired power plant. Modified from Beechler and Jahnke
(1981).

Flue-gas desulfurization units (commonly called scrubbers) are used to trap and convert
sulfurous gases from the flue-gas stream. There are several different types of
scrubbers. Some use dry limestone powder and others use wet limestone slurry, which
is sprayed directly in the path of the flue gas. The limestone reacts with the sulfur in the
gases in the stacks. The combination of carbonate (limestone) and sulfur forms solid
calcium sulfite (CaSO3) and calcium sulfate (CaSO 4)—essentially the mineral gypsum
(CaSO4•2H20). Gypsum is a solid that mixes with the liquid sprays to form a slurry (in
wet scrubbers) or falls out of the gas to the bottom of the stacks (in dry scrubbers). The
fly ash is then collected and either disposed of or used as a byproduct (discussed in the
next section).

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How a wet Flue Gas Desulfurization scrubber works in a coal-fired power plant.
Modified from Beechler and Jahnke (1981).

Another gaseous emission, which has garnered concern because of its contribution to
global climate change, is carbon dioxide (CO 2). Coal-fired power plants are large point
sources for CO2 emissions. Currently, the United States does not regulate
CO2 emissions, but regulations have been suggested, and different technologies are
being tested to determine their potential viability. One possibility is carbon storage or
sequestration.

Coal to Make Coke and Steel

Metallurgical coal (also called "met" coal) is an important raw material used in the
steel-making process, although very small amounts of coal (relative to the amount used

46
for electricity) are needed. The coal used to make steel is heated without air in an oven
at temperatures of as much as 2,060°F (1,125°F), until most of its volatile matter is
released. During this process, it softens, then liquefies, and re-solidifies into a hard
porous material called "coke". This is not the cola soft drink. Coke is a porous, carbon-
rich material used to make steel. The coke is mixed with iron ore and limestone to make
molten iron, which is then further treated and heated to make steel.

Generalized diagram showing how steel is made.

In the steel-making process, coke is used in the blast furnace as a (1) fuel to produce
added heat; (2) chemical-reducing agent for the reduction of iron oxides; and (3) as a

47
permeable support in the molten material in the furnace. By-products from coke ovens
are used in the chemical industry (see Coal for chemicals and specialty products).

Not all coals can be used as metallurgical coals to make coke. Met coals must have low
sulfur content (<1%), low ash yield (<7%), low volatile matter (15 to 40%) and low
phosphorous-, low chlorine-, and low alkali content. Ideally, they are medium-volatile
bituminous in rank, although other coal ranks can be used and blended to make a
suitable met coal. Because of the relative rarity of met coals, they are more expensive
than coals used for heating or electricity.

Both the coals and subsequent cokes are tested for their quality. Another important
quality of the coke, which is tested, is its strength. Coals and cokes are also
microscopically analyzed (called petrography) to determine the relative proportions of
"reactive" components (vitrinite and liptinite macerals) vs. "inert" components (inertinite
macerals and mineral matter), which influence coking properties.

The production of steel in the United States has declined in recent years because of the
increased use of imported and recycled steel. Not surprisingly, the amount of coal
mined in Kentucky to make coke has also declined. In 2014, in the United States,
approximately 22,000 tons of coal was sold in the met market, which was less than
three percent of the total mined coal that year (EIA, 2016 data).

Coal for Industry and Residential Markets

In the early 1900s, many homes used coal for home heating. Today, in developed
countries, few residences still use coal for heating. Similarly, the use of coal in boilers
for industries, factories, schools, etc. has declined substantially. Coal is still used in
some industrial and commercial boilers and ovens for heating and other purposes. The

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cement, glass, ceramic, and paper industries all use coal. Of these, the cement industry
is the dominant user of coal. Cement manufacturing is particularly energy-intensive.

Coal for Specialty Products and Chemicals

A very small percentage of the total coal mined (less than 1 percent) is used in the
chemical industry and to make specialty products. Coals used in the chemical industry
or for specialty products generally have specific, even unique quality characteristics.
High-quality coals and coal-derived tars and gases from metallurgical coking of coals in
the steel-making industry are important sources of aromatic chemicals. Aromatic
chemicals are carbon-based . Aromatic structures are compounds composed of six
carbon atoms bonded in hexagonal ring structures. Coal and metallurgical coking
byproducts derived from coal are dominated by aromatic and polycyclic aromatic
compounds (more than one ring), which makes them useful feedstocks for a wide array
of carbon-based chemicals ( Schobert and Song, 2002). Most of the chemicals currently
produced from coal and coke byproducts can also be produced from carbon chemically
derived from petroleum and natural gas refining, but some carbon compounds and
chemicals are more easily derived from coal.

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The simplest aromatic structure in hydrocarbons is benzene. Different compounds are
formed when different elements are attached to the benzene ring. Two benzene rings
bound together are the compound naphthalene. Napthalene is the simplest polycyclic
aromatic compound. These and other compounds can be extracted from coal to make a
wide array of carbon-based chemicals.

Rare Earth Elements from Coal

Coal and coal preparation products are also potential sources of rare-earth elements.
REEs are a group of elements (shown in purple on the periodic table below) unknown to
most people. They include the lanthanide series elements (cerium through lutetium),
yttrium, and scandium. Although relatively unheard of, rare earth elements are very

50
important in our modern technological world, because they are used in a variety of
products people use every day, including televisions and cellphones.

China currently produces most of the world's REEs (85 percent). They used to export
large quantities of REEs to other countries ; in 2000, more than 90 percent of the REEs
used in the United States were from China ( Haxel and others, 2002). Now, however,
China is using most of what they produce domestically. As Chinese sources have
diminished, world demand has increased. The U.S. Government and many
manufacturing companies are looking for new domestic sources of REEs. One of those
sources may be coal and coal waste.

Rare earth elements that have been reported in coal seams. Not all seams have these
elements.

Link to U.S. NETL’s Rare-Earth Element Poster.

51
Products made from rare earth elements.

REEs occur in very small trace amounts in coals and coal byproducts. Trace amounts
are measured in microscopic concentrations of 100 parts per million or less. However,
small amounts can be concentrated by large-scale mining and preparation. In fact, a
recent study suggests that Appalachian coal bed refuse may contain one of the largest
REE resources in the United States (Taggart and others, 2016).

Much work is ongoing to discover the highest commercial concentrations of REEs in

specific coal beds and specific coal byproducts. The Department of Mining Engineering,
Center for Applied Energy Research, and Kentucky Geological Survey, all at the

52
University of Kentucky, are testing Kentucky- mined coals and coal byproducts for their
REE content and concentration, and testing the potential for commercial extraction of
REEs from coal and coal byproducts. Professor Rick Honaker of the Department of
Mining Engineering at UK was awarded a $1 million research grant from the U.S.
Department of Energy’s National Energy Technology Laboratory to develop a mobile
pilot plant for the recovery of REEs from coal. In addition, Professor Jim Hower of UK’s
Center for Applied Energy Research is collaborating on several grants to test methods
to recover REEs from coal combustion residues and from the Fire Clay coal in eastern
Kentucky. The Fire Clay coal has relatively high REE concentrations in some areas
because it contains a volcanic ash bed, which may have been the source of its REEs
(Hower and others, 1999).

Coal Washing

The physical and chemical properties of coal are highly variable . Industries that use
coal specify a range of properties that are required for their intended process. Coal
suppliers try to find coals that most closely match those requirements. Coal is treated in
processes called beneficiation to prepare a material that meets the customer's needs
and is as homogenous as possible. Samples of coal from both cores and mines are
taken to determine the treatment that must be performed. Preparation plants that
perform specific beneficiation processes are constructed as near as possible to the
location where the coal is mined.

Three kinds of processes may be performed at the plants: (1) sizing —controlled by a
crushing and screening process, (2) increasing heating value —by removing
noncombustible ash and rock by gravity separation, and (3) removing or controlling
undesirable mineral and chemical components (sulfur, sodium, and trace elements) —
by a combination of gravity separation and blending. Traditionally, most coal preparation
was primarily concerned with sulfur and ash reduction. Today, however, much more
sophisticated processes have more narrow and complex physical and chemical
requirements for coal stock.

53
Rare Earth Elements from Coal References

 Crowley, S.S., Stanton, R.W., and Ryer, T.A., 1989, The effects of volcanic ash
on the maceral and chemical composition of the C coal bed, Emery Coal Field,
Utah: Organic Geochemistry, v. 14, p. 315– 331.
 Haxel, G.B., Hedrick, J.B., and Hendley, J.W., II, 2002, Rare earth elements
—Critical resources for high technology: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 87-
02, 4 p.
 Hower, J.C., Granite, E.J., Mayfield, D.B., Lewis, A.S., and Finkelman, R.B.,
2016, Notes on contributions to the science of rare earth element enrichment in
coal and coal combustion byproducts: Minerals, v. 6, no. 32, 9 p.
 Hower, J.C., Ruppert, L.F., and Eble, C.F., 1999, Lanthanide, yttrium, and
zirconium anomalies in the Fire Clay coal bed, eastern Kentucky: International
Journal of Coal Geology, v. 39, p. 141– 153.
 Mayfield, D.B., and Lewis, A.S., 2013, Environmental review of coal ash as a
resource for rare earth and strategic elements: Proceedings of the 2013 World
Ash Conference, Lexington, Ky., April 2013, 10 p.
 Seredin, V.V., 2010, A new method for primary evaluation of the outlook for rare
earth element ores: Geology of Ore Deposits, v. 52, p. 428 –433.
 Seredin, V.V., and Dai, S., 2012, Coal deposits as a potential alternative source
for lanthanides and yttrium: International Journal of Coal Geology, v. 94, p. 67–
93.
 Taggart, R.K., Hower, J.C., Dwyer, G.S., and Hsu-Kim, H., 2016, Trends in rare
earth element content of U.S.-based coal combustion fly ashes: Environmental
Science and Technology, v. 50, no. 11, p. 5919– 5926.
 U.S. National Technology Laboratory , 2016, Rare earth
elements: https://www.netl.doe.gov/File%20Library/Research/Coal/Rare
%20Earth%20Elements/REE-Project-Portfolio-2016.pdf .

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