Group Theory

2020
GROUP THEORY
Prof. Dr. Badar Nawaz (PHD.)
Mr. Muhammad Usman (M.Phil.)
MUHAMMAD USMAN
PH. +923217197143
[COMPANY NAME] | [Company address]

𝐺𝑅𝑂𝑈𝑃 𝑇𝐻𝐸𝑂𝑅𝑌
BINARY OPERATION
Let A be a non-empty set. A binary operation ‘’*’’ is a function define as
∗: 𝑨 × 𝑨 ⟶ 𝑨 By a, b ∈ 𝑨 ⇒ 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∈ 𝑨
e.g. Plus, Minus, Multiplication, Division, composition of function etc.
𝑵 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … . } ∗: = +
For all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑁 ⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ 𝑁
The binary operation + hold in N.
PROPERTIES
Let G be a non-empty set and * be any binary operation
i) Closure Law (closed)

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 ⟹ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
(𝐺 ∗) 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
ii) Associative Law

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐)
(𝐺 ∗) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
iii) Identity Element

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝑎∗𝑒 =𝑒∗𝑎 = 𝑎
⟹ 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐺 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 ∗
iv) Inverse Element

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝑎∗𝑏 = 𝑏∗𝑎 =𝑒
𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑜𝑟
𝑎 & 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 ∗
Commutative Law
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
⟹ 𝑎∗𝑏 =𝑏∗𝑎
(𝐺 ∗) 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
MUHAMMAD USMAN +92-311-6545143 1 | Page

𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑𝒊𝒐𝒅
𝐴 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐺 𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝑺𝒆𝒎𝒊 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑
𝐴 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑒𝑚𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐺 𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠
𝑖 − 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 ∗
𝑖𝑖 − 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 ∗
𝑴𝒐𝒏𝒐𝒊𝒐𝒅
𝐴 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑒𝑚𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐺 𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 ∗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠
𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 ∗
𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑
𝐴 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑒𝑚𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐺 𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠
𝑖𝑣 − 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 ∗
𝑨𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑
𝐴 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑒𝑚𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐺 𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠
𝑖𝑣 − 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 ∗
𝑣 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑤 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 ∗
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 (𝐺 ∗) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝

Set/ Closure Associative identity Inverse commutative conclusion

Properties law element element
(ℕ,+) Yes Yes No No Yes Abelian

semi-
group
(ℕ,-) 2-3=-1 (2-3)-4≠2-(3- - - - Nothing
∉N 4)
not Not
(ℕ,×) Yes Yes yes No yes Abelian
Monooid
(ℕ,÷) 2÷3 (2÷3) ÷4≠2÷ - - - Nothing
2 (3÷4)
=
3 No
∉𝐍
No
(𝕨,+) Yes Yes Yes No Yes Abelian
Monooid
(𝕨,-) 2-3=-1 No - - - Nothing
∉W
No
(𝕨,×) Yes Yes Yes No yes Abelian
Monooid
(𝕨,÷) 2÷3 (2÷3) ÷4≠2÷ - - - Nothing
2 (3÷4)
=
3 No
∉𝐖
No
(ℤ,+) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Abelian
Group
(ℤ,-) 2-3=-1 (2-3)-4≠2-(3- - - - Nothing
∉ℤ 4)
(ℤ,×) Yes Yes yes No Yes Abelian

Monooid
(ℤ,÷) No NO - - - Noting
(ℚ,+) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Abelian
Group
(ℚ,-) Yes Not - - 2-3≠3-2 Groupiod
Not
(ℚ\{𝟎},×) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Abelian
Group
(ℚ\{0},÷) Yes Not - - 2÷3≠3÷2 Groupoid
Not
(ℚ’,+)

(ℚ’,-)
(ℚ’\{0},×)
(ℚ\{0},÷)
(ℝ,+)
(ℝ,-)
(ℝ \{0},×)
(ℝ
\{0},÷)
(ℂ,+)
(ℂ,-)
(ℂ \{0},×)
(ℂ \{0},÷)
Note
When we discuss a set with respect to multiplication we consider it without zero
element.
Some More Example

𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐶4 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖 }𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
x 1 -1 𝒊 −𝒊
1 1 -1 𝒊 −𝒊
-1 -1 1 −𝒊 𝒊
𝒊 𝒊 −𝒊 -1 1
-𝒊 −𝒊 𝒊 1 -1
Inverse of 1 is 1
Inverse of -1 is -1
Inverse of 𝑖 𝑖𝑠 − 𝑖
Inverse of –𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑖
(G x) is Abelian group
1. Cube root of unity

𝐶3 ={1, 𝑤 𝑤 2 } where 𝑤 3 = 1 is abelian group w.r.t multiplication
2𝑘𝜋𝑖
2. 𝑛𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑛 = {𝑒 𝑛 ∶ 𝑘 = 0,1,2,3, … 𝑛 − 1} is abelian group w.r.t
multiplication
𝑎 𝑏
3. 𝑀( 2 ℝ) = {[ ] ∶ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ}is abelian group w.r.t addition
𝑐 𝑑
4. 𝑀( 2 ℚ) = {[𝑎 𝑏 ] ∶ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℚ}is abelian group w.r.t addition
𝑐 𝑑
Similarly
Generally
𝑀( 𝑛 ℝ) = 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 ℝ.

(𝑀( 𝑛 ℝ) +) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝.
-
𝑎 𝑏
𝑀( 2 ℝ) = {[ ] ∶ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ}is not group w.r.t. multiplication because
𝑐 𝑑
inverse of every element does not exist
2 4 2 4
| |=0 so [ ] has no inverse (not invertible)
0 0 0 0
GENERAL LINEAR GROUP

𝑎 𝑏]
𝐺𝐿( 2 ℝ) = {[ ∶ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ | ad − bc ≠ 0} is group w.r.t multiplication
𝑐 𝑑
𝐺𝐿( 2 ℝ) is called general linear group of order 2 over ℝ
SOLUTION.
Closure Law
Let 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝐺𝐿( 2 ℝ)
𝑎 𝑏 ]And𝐵 𝑒 𝑓
𝐴=[ =[ ] where ad − bc ≠ 0 and eh − gf ≠ 0
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ
𝑎 𝑏] 𝑒 𝑓 𝑎𝑒 + 𝑏𝑔 𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏ℎ
𝐴𝐵 = [ [ ] = [ ]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ 𝑐𝑒 + 𝑑𝑔 𝑐𝑓 + 𝑑ℎ
Now
(𝑎𝑒 + 𝑏𝑔)( 𝑐𝑓 + 𝑑ℎ) − ( 𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏ℎ)( 𝑐𝑒 + 𝑑𝑔)
= 𝑎𝑒𝑐𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔𝑐𝑓 + 𝑎𝑒𝑑ℎ + 𝑏𝑔𝑑ℎ − 𝑎𝑓𝑐𝑒 − 𝑏ℎ𝑐𝑒 − 𝑎𝑓𝑑𝑔 − 𝑏ℎ𝑑𝑔
= 𝑏𝑔𝑐𝑓 + 𝑎𝑒𝑑ℎ − 𝑏ℎ𝑐𝑒 − 𝑎𝑓𝑑𝑔
= −𝑏𝑐(𝑒ℎ − 𝑔𝑓) + 𝑎𝑑(𝑒ℎ − 𝑔𝑓)
= (𝑒ℎ − 𝑔𝑓)(𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐) ≠ 0
⟹(𝑎𝑒 + 𝑏𝑔)( 𝑐𝑓 + 𝑑ℎ)-( 𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏ℎ)( 𝑐𝑒 + 𝑑𝑔) ≠ 0
⟹𝐴𝐵 ∈ 𝐺𝐿( 2 ℝ)
So 𝐺𝐿( 2 ℝ) is closed
Associative Law
For 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 ∈ 𝐺𝐿( 2 ℝ)
We can easily check

(𝐴𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴(𝐵𝐶)
𝐺𝐿( 2 ℝ) is Associative
Identity element
𝑎 𝑏] 1 0
For all 𝐴 = [ ∈ 𝐺𝐿( 2 ℝ)∃ 𝐼2 = [ ] ∈ 𝐺𝐿( 2 ℝ) such that
𝑐 𝑑 0 1
A I2= I2 A= A
𝑎 𝑏 1 0 1 0 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
[ ][ ]=[ ][ ]=[ ]
𝑐 𝑑 0 1 0 1 𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑑
1 0
⟹ I2=[ ] is identity element of 𝐺𝐿( 2 ℝ)
0 1
Inverse element
𝑑 −𝑏
𝑎 𝑏] 𝐴𝑇 [ ]
∀𝐴 = [ ∈ 𝐺𝐿( 2 ℝ)Where𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0∃ 𝐴−1 = |𝐴| = −𝑐|𝐴| 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺𝐿( 2 ℝ) such
𝑐 𝑑
that
A A-1= A-1A= I2
Inverseelement exist
Hence 𝐺𝐿( 2 ℝ) is group w .r .t multiplication
Note that𝐺𝐿( 2 ℝ) w.r.t multiplication is not Abelian group because

In general 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴
SPECIAL LINEAR GROUP

𝑎 𝑏]
𝑆𝐿( 2 ℝ) = {[ ∶ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ | 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 = 1} is group w.r.t multiplication
𝑐 𝑑
𝑆𝐿( 2 ℝ) is called Special linear group of order 2 over ℝ
SET OF RESIDUE CLASS MODULO n

̅, 𝟏
ℤ𝒏 = {𝟎 ̅, 𝟐,
̅ … … . . , ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝒏 − 𝟏}𝒏 ≥ 𝟐 group under addition
If n is prime then ℤ𝑛 \{0̅} is group under multiplication
Particular n=6
ℤ6 = {0̅, 1̅, 2,
̅ 3, ̅ 5̅ }Set of class modulo6.
̅ 4,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟔 𝟕 𝟖 𝟗 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟏
𝟔√ 𝟔√ 𝟔√ , 𝟔√ , 𝟔√ 𝟔√
𝟔 , 𝟔 , 𝟔 𝟔 𝟔 , 𝟔
−−−−− −−−−− −−−− −−−− −−−− −−−−
𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓

𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟒 𝟏𝟓 𝟏𝟔 𝟏𝟕
𝟔√ 𝟔√ 𝟔√ 𝟔√ 𝟔√ 𝟔√
𝟏𝟐 , 𝟏𝟐 , 𝟏𝟐 , 𝟏𝟐 , 𝟏𝟐 , 𝟏𝟐
−−−−− −−−−− −−−− −−−− −−−− −−−−
𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏𝟖 𝟏𝟗 𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟏 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝟔√ 𝟔√ 𝟔√ 𝟔√ 𝟔√ 𝟔√
𝟏𝟖 , 𝟏𝟖 , 𝟏𝟖 , 𝟏𝟖 , 𝟏𝟖 , 𝟏𝟖
−−−−− −−−−− −−−−− −−−−− −−−−− −−−−−
𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟒
0̅ = 6̅ = 12̅̅̅̅ = 18
̅̅̅̅ = 24
̅̅̅̅ = 30
̅̅̅̅=36
̅̅̅̅ = 42
̅̅̅̅=48 ̅̅̅̅ = − − −−= 6𝑛
̅̅̅̅ = 54 ̅̅̅̅𝒏 ∈ 𝒁 ̅1 = 7̅ = 13
̅̅̅̅ =
19 ̅̅̅̅ = 31
̅̅̅̅ = 25 ̅̅̅̅=37
̅̅̅̅ = 43
̅̅̅̅=49 ̅̅̅̅ = − − −−= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅ = 55 6𝑛 + 1𝒏 ∈ 𝒁
2̅ = 8̅ = 14̅̅̅̅ = 20
̅̅̅̅ = 26
̅̅̅̅ = 32
̅̅̅̅=38
̅̅̅̅ = 44 ̅̅̅̅ = 56
̅̅̅̅=50 ̅̅̅̅ = − − −−= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ =
6𝑛 + 2𝒏 ∈ 𝒁3̅ = 9̅ = 15
̅̅̅̅ = 27
21 ̅̅̅̅ = 33̅̅̅̅=39 ̅̅̅̅=51
̅̅̅̅ = 45 ̅̅̅̅ = 57
̅̅̅̅ = − − −−= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
6𝑛 + 3𝒏 ∈ 𝒁
4̅ = 10
̅̅̅̅ = 16
̅̅̅̅ = 22
̅̅̅̅ = 28
̅̅̅̅ = 34
̅̅̅̅=40
̅̅̅̅ = 46 ̅̅̅̅ = ̅58
̅̅̅̅=52 ̅̅̅ = − − −−= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
6𝑛 + 4𝒏 ∈ 𝒁5̅ = 11
̅̅̅̅ =
̅̅̅̅ = 23
17 ̅̅̅̅ = 29 ̅̅̅̅=41
̅̅̅̅ = 35 ̅̅̅̅ = 47 ̅̅̅̅ = 59
̅̅̅̅=53 ̅̅̅̅ = − − −−= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
6𝑛 + 5𝒏 ∈ 𝒁
× ̅
𝟏 ̅
𝟐 ̅
𝟑 ̅
𝟒 ̅
𝟓
̅
𝟏 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅
̅
𝟐 2̅ 4̅ 0̅ 2̅ 4̅
̅
𝟑 3̅ 0̅ 3̅ 0̅ 3̅
̅
𝟒 4̅ 2̅ 0̅ 4̅ 2̅
̅
𝟓 5̅ 4̅ 3̅ 2̅ 1̅
ℤ6 \{0̅} = {1̅, 2,
̅ 3, ̅ 5̅ } is not group because
̅ 4,
2̅. 3̅ = 0̅ ∉ ℤ6 \{0̅} not closed
We can see above table
+ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅
0̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅
1̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 0̅
2̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 0̅ 1̅
3̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅
4̅ 4̅ 5̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅
5̅ 5̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅
1- Closed
It is closed as clear from table

̅ ∈ ℤ6 ⇒ a̅ + b
∀ a̅, b ̅ ∈ ℤ6
2- Associative
From the table it is clear that∀a̅, b̅ , c̅ ∈ ℤ6
̅ ) + 𝑐 = a̅ + (b
(a̅ + b ̅ + c̅)
3- Identity element
0̅ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℤ6 𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 ∀𝑎 ∈ ℤ6 ⇒ 0̅+𝑎̅=𝑎̅
4- Inverse Element
𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 0̅ 𝑖𝑠 0̅
5- Commutative Law
As clear from table
∀ a̅, b̅ ∈ ℤ6 ⇒ a̅ + b̅ = b̅ + a̅
⟹ (ℤ𝟔 , +) is Abelian group
For n=5
̅, 𝟏
ℤ𝟓 ={𝟎 ̅, 𝟐,
̅ 𝟑,
̅ 𝟒̅ }
1 1 1 1 1
5 6 7 8 9
5√ , 5√ , 5√ , 5√ , 5√
5 5 5 5 5
−−−−− −−−−− −−−−− −−−−− −−−−−
0 1 2 3 4
2 2 2 2 2
10 11 12 13 14
5√ , 5√ , 5√ , 5√ , 5√
10 10 10 10 10
−−−−− −−−−− −−−−− −−−−− −−−−−
0 1 2 3 4
3 3 3 3 3
15 16 17 18 19
5√ , 5√ , 5√ , 5√ , 5√
15 15 15 15 15
−−−−− −−−−− −−−−− −−−−− −−−−−
0 1 2 3 4
0̅ = 5̅ = ̅10
̅̅̅ = ̅15
̅̅̅ = ̅20
̅̅̅ = ̅25
̅̅̅ = ̅30
̅̅̅ = ̅35
̅̅̅ = ̅40
̅̅̅ = ̅45
̅̅̅ = − − −−= ̅̅
5𝑛̅̅ 𝒏∈𝒁
̅1 = 6̅ = ̅11
̅̅̅ = ̅16
̅̅̅ = ̅21
̅̅̅ = ̅26
̅̅̅ = ̅31
̅̅̅ = ̅36
̅̅̅ = ̅41 ̅̅̅ = − − −−= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅ = ̅46 5𝑛 + 1 𝒏 ∈ 𝒁
2̅ = 7̅ = 12
̅̅̅̅ = 20
̅̅̅̅ = 22
̅̅̅̅ = 27
̅̅̅̅ = 32
̅̅̅̅ = 37
̅̅̅̅ = 42 ̅̅̅̅ = − − −−= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅ = 47 5𝑛 + 2 𝒏 ∈ 𝒁
3̅ = 8̅ = 13
̅̅̅̅ = 21
̅̅̅̅ = 23
̅̅̅̅ = 28
̅̅̅̅ = 33
̅̅̅̅ = 38
̅̅̅̅ = 43 ̅̅̅̅ = − − −−= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅ = 48 5𝑛 + 3 𝒏 ∈ 𝒁

4̅ = 9̅ = ̅14
̅̅̅ = ̅22
̅̅̅ = ̅24
̅̅̅ = ̅29
̅̅̅ = ̅34
̅̅̅ = ̅39
̅̅̅ = ̅44 ̅̅̅ = − − −−= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅ = ̅49 5𝑛 + 4𝒏 ∈ 𝒁
× 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅
1̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅
2̅ 2̅ 4̅ 1̅ 3̅
3̅ 3̅ 1̅ 4̅ 2̅
4̅ 4̅ 3̅ 2̅ 1̅
1- Closed
̅ ∈ ℤ5 ⇒a̅ × b
∀a̅, b ̅ ∈ ℤ5
2- Associative
̅ , c̅ ∈ ℤ5
From the table it is clear that ∀a̅, b
̅ ) ×c=a̅ × (b
(a̅ × b ̅ × c̅)
3- Identity element
1̅ 𝑖𝑠 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℤ5 𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 ∀𝑎̅ ∈ ℤ5 ⇒1̅ × 𝑎̅ =𝑎̅
4- Inverse Element
5- Commutative Law
As clear from table
̅ ∈ ℤ5 ⇒ a̅ × b
∀ a̅, b ̅=b
̅ × a̅
̅} ,×) 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑
⟹(ℤ𝟓 \{𝟎
+ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅
0̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅
1̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 0̅
2̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 0̅ 1̅
3̅ 3̅ 4̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅
4̅ 4̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅
1- Closed
̅ ∈ ℤ5 ⇒ a̅ + b
∀ a̅, b ̅ ∈ ℤ5

2- Associative
̅ , c̅ ∈ ℤ5
From the table it is clear that ∀ a̅, b
̅ ) + 𝑐̅ = a̅ + (b
(a̅ + b ̅ + c̅)
3- Identity element
0̅ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℤ5 𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 ∀𝑎 ∈ ℤ5 ⇒ 0̅+𝑎̅=𝑎̅
4- Inverse Element
5- Commutative Law
As clear from table
̅ ∈ ℤ5 ⇒ a̅ + b
∀ a̅, b ̅=b
̅ + a̅
⟹ (ℤ𝟓 , +) 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑
̅ in ℤ15
Example: Find additive inverse of 𝟗
6̅ +9̅ =0̅ 6̅ is additive inverse of 9̅ in ℤ15.
MCQ: the multiplicative inverse of 3̅ in ℤ7.
1) 2̅ 2) 5̅ 3)4̅ 4) none
𝑯𝑶𝑴𝑬 𝑾𝑶𝑹𝑲.
Q1- Find Order of all element of Z5 w.r.t multiplication.
Q2- Find additive and multiplicative inverse of all element of Z 7.
Q3- Find Additive Inverse of All element of Z 15.
𝑺𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑
Let G be a group then the element which has multiplicative inverse in G is called unit
element.
𝑼(𝑮) = 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐺
Example 𝑈(ℤ) = {±1}
No. of element in ℤ which has multiplicative inverse are 2.
𝑈(ℝ) = ℝ\{0}, 𝑈(ℚ) = ℚ\{0}, 𝑈 (ℂ) = ℂ\{0}
MUHAMMAD USMAN +92-311-6545143 10 | P a g e

Set of unit elements of ℤ𝒏
𝑼(𝒏) = 𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 ℤ𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒍𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒏
ℤ2 = {0̅, 1̅} ⇒ 𝑈(2) = {1̅}
ℤ3 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅} ⇒ 𝑈(3) = {1̅, 2̅}
ℤ4 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅} ⇒ 𝑈(4) = {1̅, 3̅}
ℤ5 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅} ⇒ 𝑈(5) = {1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅}
ℤ6 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅} ⇒ 𝑈(6) = {1̅, 5̅}
ℤ7 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅, 6̅} ⇒ 𝑈(7) = {1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅, 6̅}
ℤ8 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅, 6̅, 7̅} ⇒ 𝑈(8) = {1̅, 3̅, 5̅, 7̅}
ℤ9 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅, 6̅, 7̅, 8̅} ⇒ 𝑈 (9) = {1̅, 2̅, 4̅, 5̅, 7̅, 8̅}
ℤ11 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅, 6̅, 7̅, 8̅, , 9̅, 10
̅̅̅̅} ⇒ 𝑈 (11) = {1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅, 6̅, 7̅, 8̅, , 9̅, 10
̅̅̅̅}
→ 𝑼(𝑮)𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
No of unite element of n=𝝓(𝒏)
EULER PHI-FUNCTION
𝑛Be any integer the prime factorization of n are
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑛 = 𝑝1 1 𝑝2 2 . . 𝑝𝑟 𝑟
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝜑(𝑛) = 𝜑(𝑝1 1 𝑝2 2 . . 𝑝𝑟 𝑟 )
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝜑(𝑛) = 𝜑(𝑝1 1 )𝜑(𝑝2 2 ) … 𝜑(𝑝𝑟 𝑟 )
𝑛 𝑛 −1 𝑛 𝑛 −1 𝑛 𝑛 −1
𝜑(𝑛) = (𝑝1 1 − 𝑝1 1 )(𝑝2 2 − 𝑝2 2 ) … (𝑝𝑟 𝑟 − 𝑝𝑟 𝑟 )
𝑛 = 12 = 22 3
𝜑(12) = 𝜑(22 3) = 𝜑(22 )𝜑(3 ) = (22 − 22−1 )(31 − 30 ) = (2)(2) = 4
|𝑈 (12)| = 𝜑(12) = 4
108 = 22 33
𝜑(108) = 𝜑(22 33 ) = 𝜑(22 )𝜑(33 ) = (22 − 21 )(33 − 32 ) = (2)(18) = 36
|𝑈(108)| = 36
MCQ: how many numbers of elements in 𝒁𝟓𝟐 which have multiplicative inverse
.(a) 5 (b) 10 (c) 26 (d) none

MCQ: how many number of element in 𝑹 which have multiplicative inverse
.(a) 2 (b) 1 (c) R\{0} (d) none
MCQ: how many element in 𝒁𝟑𝟐 which are not unit element
(a) 10 (b) 16 (c) 32 (d) none
MCQ: how many element in 𝒁𝒑 where p is prime which not unit element are
.(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) p-1 (d) none
MCQ: the set of unit element of any group G is group w.r.t._____
.(a) addition (b) multiplication (c) (a) & (b) (d) none
𝑶𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑
The number of element in group G is called order of group denoted by |𝐺| or 𝑂(𝐺)
EXAMPLE
G={1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} |G|=4
| ℤ15|=15
ℤ={0, ±1, ±2, ….} | ℤ|= ∞
𝑶𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 𝑮

Let G be a group and an element𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 the a least positive integer 𝑛 is called order
of 𝑎 if 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒, where 𝑒 is identity element in G
𝑖 1 = 𝑖, 𝑖 2 = −1 , 𝑖 3 = −𝑖, 𝑖 4 = 1 |𝒊| = 𝟒
(−𝑖)1 = −𝑖(−𝑖)2 = −1(−𝑖)3 = 𝑖(−𝑖)4 = 1 |−𝑖 | = 4
(−1)2 = 1 |−1| = 2
Remark:1-order of identity element is always 1.
2-Order of non-identity element always greater or equal to 2.
𝑖 1 = 𝑖, 𝑖 2 = −1 , 𝑖 3 = −𝑖 , 𝑖 4 = 1, 𝑖 16 = 1
𝑖 5 = 𝑖, 𝑖 6 = −1 , 𝑖 7 = −𝑖, 𝑖 8 = 1, 𝑖0 = 1 0 < 𝑛
𝑖 9 = 𝑖, 𝑖 10 = −1 , 𝑖 11 = −𝑖, 𝑖 12 = 1
MCQ: if 𝒂 be an element of any group G with |𝒂| = 𝟓 then 𝒂𝟐𝟐 =___

.(a) 𝒂𝟒 (b) 𝒂𝟐 (c) 𝒂𝟎 (d) none
𝑎22 = 𝑎20 𝑎2 = 𝑎2
𝑻𝑯𝑬𝑶𝑹𝑬𝑴:
If n is order of an element “a” in a group G. and another positive

integer k such that 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑒 where e is identity in G iff 𝑘 = 𝑛𝑞 𝑞 ∈ 𝑍.
PROOF: 𝑞
Given that |a|=n ⟹ an = e where n is least positive integer. 𝑘
𝑛√
𝑘𝑞
Also ak = e and k be any positive integer.
𝑟
Since n is least positive integer and k be any integer then k ≥ n by using division
algorithm
K=nq+r r<n -------(i)
Now
𝑎𝑘 = 𝑒
by using (i)
anq+r = e
⟹ 𝑎𝑛𝑞 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑒
⟹ (𝑎𝑛 )𝑞 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑒
since n is order of a then
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒
⟹ (𝑒)𝑞 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑒
⟹ 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑒
from (i) r<n and n is order of a
Then r=0 put in (i)
𝑘 = 𝑛𝑞
Hence Proved.
Concersely,
Suppose that 𝑘 = 𝑛𝑞

𝑎𝑘 = 𝑎𝑛𝑞 = (𝑎𝑛 )𝑘 = 𝑒 𝑘 = 𝑒
EXAMPLE- Find Order of all element of ℤ5 w.r.t multiplication.
ℤ5 ={0̅, 1̅, 2,
̅ 3,
̅ 4̅ }
SOLUTION an=1̅
Since 1̅ is identity element so 𝑂(1̅) = 1
(2̅)2 = 4̅ , (2̅)3 = 8̅ = 3̅, (2̅)4 = 16

̅̅̅̅ = 1̅, ⟹ |2̅| = 4
(3̅)2=9̅ = 4̅, (3̅)3=27

̅̅̅̅ = 2̅, (3̅)4=81
̅̅̅̅ = 1̅ ⟹|3̅| = 4
(4̅)2=16
̅̅̅̅ = 1̅, ⟹|4̅| = 2.
MCQ: the order of 5̅ in ℤ7 w.r.t. multiplication is
.(a) 𝟐 (b) 𝟓 (c) 𝟕 (d) none
𝟐𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟐
Remark.
If a least positive integer n is order of an element a∈ G
Where G is group w.r.t. addition then𝑛𝑎 = 0.
If G is group w.r.t. multiplication then 𝑎𝑛 = 1
EXAMPLE- Find Order of all element of ℤ5 w.r.t addition.
ℤ5 = {0̅, 1̅, 2,
̅ 3,
̅ 4̅ }
SOLUTION: |0̅| = 1 1.0̅ = 0̅
2. 1̅ = 2̅, 3.1̅=3, ̅ 5.1̅=5̅ = 0̅ |1|

̅ 4.1̅=4, ̅ =5
2. 2̅ = 4̅, 3.2̅=1,
̅ 4.2̅=3,
̅ 5.2̅=10 ̅ =5
̅̅̅̅ = 0̅ |2|
MCQ: order of 2̅ in ℤ8 w.r.t. addition is
.(a) 𝟐 (b) 𝟒 (c) 𝟖 (d) none
4(2̅) = 0̅
MCQ: order of 2̅ in ℤ8 w.r.t. multiplication is
.(a) 𝟐 (b) 𝟒 (c) 𝟖 (d) none
→ order of 𝑎̅ ∈ ℤ𝑛 w.r.t. multiplication exist if 𝑎̅ ∈ 𝑈(𝑛)

MCQ: how many element in ℤ8 which have order w.r.t. multiplication are
.(a) 𝟐 (b) 𝟒 (c) 𝟖 (d) none
→ if p is prime the |𝑈 (𝑝)| = 𝑝 − 1
→ if p is prime then ℤ𝑝 \{0} is group w.r.t multiplication
MCQ: how many element in ℤ13 which have order w.r.t. multiplication are
.(a) 𝟎 (b) 𝟏𝟑 (c) 𝟏𝟐 (d) none
MCQ: how many element in ℤ which have order w.r.t. multiplication are
.(a) 𝟎 (b) 𝟐 (c) ℤ\{𝟎} (d) none
MCQ: how many element in ℤ which have inverse w.r.t. multiplication are
.(a) 𝟎 (b) 𝟐 (c) ℤ\{𝟎} (d) none
SUBGROUP
Let 𝐻 be a non-empty subset of a group 𝐺 is said to be subgroup if𝐻 is itself a

group with same binary operation as 𝐺.
ℤ = {0, ±1, ±2, … . } is subset of set of rational number ℚ
(ℤ, +) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (ℚ, +) are groups
ℤis subgroup of ℚ
ℚ is subgroup of ℝ (set of real number )
ℝis subgroup of ℂset of complex number
(ℚ \{0},×) is subgroup of (ℝ\{0},×)
(ℝ\{0},×) is subgroup of (ℂ\{0},×)
(ℚ \{0},×) is subgroup of (ℂ\{0},×)
(𝐺 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} , X) is subgroup of (ℂ\{0},×)
NOTE: Let G be any group and the subgroup {𝑒} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐺 𝑖𝑡𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟
subgroups / trivial subgroup. Any other subgroups are proper/ non-trivial subgroup
MCQ: The minimum numbers of subgroups of any group G are
.(a) 𝟎 (b) 𝟐 (c) |𝐺| (d) none
MCQ: if a group has total n subgroups then the number of proper subgroups of G are

.(a) 𝟐 (b) 𝒏 (c) 𝑛 − 2 (d) none
MCQ: if a group has total n subgroups then the number of improper subgroups of G are
.(a) 𝟐 (b) 𝒏 (c) 𝑛 − 2 (d) none
SUBGROUP CRITERIA
A non-empty subset H of a group G is subgroup of G iff for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈

𝐻 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻
Proof
Suppose that H is subgroup of G
So H is itself a group
For 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 H is group.
⟹ 𝑎, 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻
Since H is closed
𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻
Required.
Conversely, suppose that
For all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻(i) hold
We have to show that H is subgroup( H is itself Group)
1) Identity Element
For 𝑎, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 by using (i)
⟹𝑎𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻
⟹𝑒 ∈ 𝐻
⟹ Identity element exist
2) Inverse Element
𝑒, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻By using (i)
𝑒𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻
⟹𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻
⟹ Inverse element exist
3) Associative Law ( inherited Property)
H is associative because 𝐻 is subset of G and G is associative
4) Closure Law
For all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 so

𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 inverse element exist
𝑎, 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻 using (i)
𝑎(𝑏−1 )−1 ∈ 𝐻
𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻
All the properties of group are hold in H
𝐻 is group itself
So H is Subgroup of G.
NOTE: To prove subgroup of a subset of Group G
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎 + (−𝑏) = 𝑎 − 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
MCQ: H is a non-empty subset of a group (𝐺, +). H is said to be subgroup if
i- ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 𝑎 − 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
ii- ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 𝑎 − 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻
iii- ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻
iv- ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 𝑎 − 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
Show that 𝐻 = {𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 ∶ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 ∧ 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 1} is subgroup of complex number.
SOL. Given that
𝐻 = {𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 ∶ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 ∧ 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 1}
𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻 Where
𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 ∧ 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 1 … … … … … … … … … (𝑖)
𝑦 = 𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 ∧ 𝑐 2 + 𝑑 2 = 1
Now
𝑥𝑦 −1 = (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏)(𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑)−1
𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏
=
𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑
𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 𝑐 − 𝑖𝑑
= ×
𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 𝑐 − 𝑖𝑑

𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑 + 𝑖(𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑)
=
𝑐 2 + 𝑑2
𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑 2
= 2 2
+𝑖 2 𝑐 + 𝑑 2 = 1 𝑏𝑦 (𝑖)
𝑐 +𝑑 𝑐 + 𝑑2
𝑥𝑦 −1 = (𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑) + 𝑖(𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑)
Now (𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑)2 + (𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑)2 =(𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )( 𝑐 2 + 𝑑 2 ) = (1)(1) =1
⇒𝑥𝑦 −1 ∈ 𝐻
H is subgroup of set of Complex Number ℂ
HOMEWORK
1) Show that H={𝒂 + 𝒃√𝟐 ∶ 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑸} is subgroup of Real Number

𝒂 𝒃]
2) Show That H={[ : 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒅 ∈ ℝ ∧ 𝒂𝒅 ≠ 𝟎} is subgroup of 𝑮𝑳(𝟐, ℝ) general
𝟎 𝒅
Linear group of order 2 over R
3) Let G be a Group and H be a subgroup of G. For any element 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮 show
that
𝒂𝑯𝒂−𝟏 = {𝒂𝒉𝒂−𝟏 ∶ 𝒉 ∈ 𝑯} is subgroup Of G
Klien 4-Group
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
𝒆 𝒂
𝟑 𝟒 𝟏 𝟐
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑏

𝟐 𝟏 𝟒 𝟑
𝒃 .𝒃𝒂 = 𝒂𝒃
𝟒 𝟑 𝟐 𝟏
𝑽𝟒 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒂𝒃}
. 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒆, 𝒃𝟐 = 𝒆, 𝒂𝒃 = 𝒃𝒂, (𝒂𝒃)𝟐 = 𝒆

The smallest non-cyclic group is 𝑽𝟒
× 𝒆 𝒂 𝒃 𝒂𝒃 × e a b ab
𝒆 e.e e.a e.b e.ab e e a b ab
𝒂 a.e a.a a.b a.ab a a e ab b
𝒃 b.e b.a b.b b.ab b b ab e a
𝒂𝒃 ab.e ab.a ab.b ab.ab ab ab b a e
(𝑽𝟒 ,×) 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑
MCQ: the smallest non-cyclic group of order____
.(a) 𝟐 (b) 𝟑 (c) 𝟒 (d) none
MCQ: the order of every non-identity element of smallest non-cyclic group are
.(a) 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 (b) 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (c) 𝒎𝒂𝒚 𝒃𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (d) none
Group generated by regular Geometrical Shape. (Regular shape means every

side have equal length)
𝑫𝒊𝒉𝒆𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 𝑫𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝟐𝒏 𝒏 ≥ 𝟑

𝒏 = 𝟑, 𝑫𝟑
𝟑
𝟏 𝟐
𝒂𝟐
𝒆 𝒂 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝒂
𝟐 𝟑 𝟑
𝒃
𝟑
𝟏 𝟐
𝒂𝟐 𝒃
𝒃 𝒂𝒃 𝟐
1
𝟐 3
𝟑 𝟏

× e 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝒃 𝒂𝒃 𝒂𝟐 𝒃
𝑺𝟑 ≈ 𝑫𝟑 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒃, 𝒂𝒃, 𝒂𝟐 𝒃}
𝒆 e a 𝒂𝟐 𝒃 𝒂𝒃 𝒂𝟐 𝒃
𝒂𝟑 = 𝒆, 𝒃𝟐 = 𝒆, (𝒂𝒃)𝟐 = 𝒆
𝒂 a 𝒂𝟐 𝒆 𝒂𝒃 𝒂𝟐 𝒃 𝒃
𝒃 b 𝒂𝟐 𝒃 𝒂𝟏 𝒃 e 𝒂𝟐 𝒂
𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟐 𝒆 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝒃 𝒃 𝒂𝒃
𝒂𝒃 𝒂𝒃 𝒃 𝒂𝟐 𝒃 𝒂 𝒆 𝒂𝟐
𝒂𝟐 𝒃 𝒂𝟐 𝒃 𝒂𝒃 𝒃 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 𝒆
General formula 𝒃𝒂𝒊 = 𝒂𝒏−𝒊 𝒃 ⇒ 𝒃𝒂𝟐 = 𝒂𝟑−𝟐 𝒃 ⇒ 𝒃𝒂𝟐 = 𝒂𝟏 𝒃
𝒃. 𝒂 = 𝒂𝟑−𝟏 𝒃 = 𝒂𝟐 𝒃 , 𝒃. 𝒂𝒃 = (𝒃. 𝒂)𝒃 , 𝒃. 𝒂𝒃 = (𝒂𝟐 𝒃)𝒃 , 𝒃. 𝒂𝒃 = 𝒂𝟐 𝒆 = 𝒂𝟐
𝒃. 𝒂𝟐 𝒃 = (𝒃. 𝒂𝟐 )𝒃 = (𝒂𝒃)𝒃 = 𝒂,
𝒂𝒃. 𝒂 = 𝒂(𝒃𝒂) =a(𝒂𝟐 𝒃) = 𝒃
𝒂𝒃. 𝒂𝟐 = (𝐛)𝒂 = 𝒂𝟐 𝒃
𝒂𝒃. 𝒂𝟐 𝒃 = 𝒂𝟐 𝒃. 𝒃 = 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟐
𝑏𝑎 ≠ 𝑎𝑏
(𝑫𝟑 ×) 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑
MCQ: the smallest non-abelian group of order____
.(a) 𝟐 (b) 𝟒 (c) 𝟔 (d) none
𝑫𝟒 𝑫𝒆𝒉𝒊𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 𝑶𝒇 𝑶𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝟖
𝟏 𝟐 𝟒 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒 𝟐 𝟑
𝒆 𝒂 𝒂 𝟐
𝒂𝟑
𝟒 𝟑
𝟑 2 𝟐 1
𝟏 4
𝟑 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟒
𝟒 𝟑
𝑏 𝒂𝒃 𝟐
𝒂 𝒃 𝒂𝟑 𝒃
𝟒 1 𝟑
MUHAMMAD USMAN +92-311-6545143
4 𝟐
b 3
𝟏
20 | P a g e
2
𝑫𝟒 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 , 𝒃, 𝒂𝒃, 𝒂𝟐 𝒃, 𝒂𝟑 𝒃} 𝒂𝟒 = 𝒆, 𝒃𝟐 = 𝒆, (𝒂𝒃)𝟐 = 𝒆
× 𝒆 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑 𝒃 𝒂𝒃 𝒂𝟐 𝒃 𝒂𝟑 𝒃
𝒆 𝒆 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑 𝒃 𝒂𝒃 𝒂𝟐 𝒃 𝒂𝟑 𝒃
𝒂 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑 e 𝒂𝒃 𝒂𝟐 𝒃 𝒂𝟑 𝒃 𝒃
𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑 E 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝒃 𝒂𝟑 𝒃 b 𝒂𝒃
𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝟑 e 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑 𝒃 𝒃 𝒂𝒃 𝒂𝟐 𝒃
𝒃 b 𝒂𝟑 𝒃 𝒂𝟐 𝒃 𝒂𝒃 𝒆 𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝟐 𝒂
𝒂𝒃 𝒂𝒃 b 𝒂𝟑 𝒃 𝒂𝟐 𝒃 𝒂
𝒂𝟐 𝒃
𝒂𝟑 𝒃
𝒃𝒂𝒊 = 𝒂𝒏−𝒊 𝒃
𝒂𝟔 = 𝒂𝟒 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒆𝒂𝟐 | 𝒂𝟑 (𝒂𝟐 𝒃) = 𝒂𝟓 𝒃 = 𝒂𝟒 𝒂𝒃
𝒂𝟒 𝒃 = 𝒆. 𝒃 = 𝒃 | 𝒃𝒂 = 𝒂𝟒−𝟏 𝒃=𝒂𝟑 𝒃
𝒂𝟓 𝒃 = 𝒂𝟒 𝒂𝒃=eab,|𝒃𝒂𝟐 = 𝒂𝟒−𝟐 𝒃 = 𝒂𝟐 𝒃
𝑏𝑎𝑏 = (𝒂𝟑 𝒃)𝑏 = 𝒂𝟑
𝒃𝒂𝟑 𝒃 = 𝒂𝟒−𝟑 𝒃𝒃 = 𝒂
𝒂𝒃𝒂 = 𝒂(𝒃𝒂) = 𝒂(𝒂𝟑 𝒃) = 𝒂𝟒 𝒃 = 𝒃
𝑎𝑏𝒂𝟐 = (𝒂𝒃𝒂)𝒂 = 𝒃𝒂 = 𝒂𝟑 𝒃
𝑎𝑏𝒂𝟑 = (𝑎𝑏𝒂𝟐 )𝒂 = (𝒂𝟑 𝒃)𝒂 = 𝒂𝟑 (𝒃𝒂) = 𝒂𝟑 (𝒂𝟑 𝒃) = 𝒂𝟔 𝒃 = 𝒂𝟐 𝒃
(𝒂𝒃)𝒃 = 𝒂
𝑫𝒊𝒉𝒆𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 𝑶𝒇 𝑶𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝟏𝟎 (𝑫𝟓 )

𝐷5 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑎3 𝑏, 𝑎4 𝑏}𝑎5 = 𝑒, 𝑏2 = 𝑒, (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑒
𝑏𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎𝑛−𝑖 𝑏 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 5 𝑏𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎5−𝑖 𝑏
× e 𝑎 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎4 𝑏 𝑎𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏 𝑎4 𝑏
𝑒 𝑒 𝑎 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎 4 𝑏 𝑎𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏 𝑎4 𝑏
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎4 𝑒 𝑎𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏 𝑎4 𝑏 𝑏
𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎4 𝑒 𝑎 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏 𝑎4 𝑏 𝑏 𝑎𝑏
𝑎3 𝑎3 𝑎 4 𝑒 𝑎 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑏 𝑎4 𝑏 𝑏 𝑎𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏
𝑎4 𝑎4 𝑒 𝑎 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎4 𝑏 𝑏 𝑎𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏
𝑏 𝑏 𝑎4 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎𝑏 𝑒 𝑎4 𝑎3 𝑎2 𝑎
𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏

𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏
𝑏𝑎 = 𝑎5−1 𝑏 = 𝑎4 𝑏 ,𝑏𝑎2 = 𝑎5−2 𝑏 = 𝑎3 𝑏, 𝑏𝑎3 = 𝑎5−3 𝑏 = 𝑎2 𝑏 , 𝑏𝑎4 = 𝑎5−4 𝑏 = 𝑎1 𝑏
𝑏𝑎𝑏 =(𝑏𝑎)𝑏 = (𝑎4 𝑏)𝑏 = 𝑎4 , 𝑏𝑎2 𝑏 =(𝑏𝑎2 )𝑏 = (𝑎3 𝑏)𝑏 = 𝑎3 ,
𝑏𝑎3 𝑏 =(𝑏𝑎3 )𝑏 = (𝑎2 𝑏)𝑏 = 𝑎2
Dihedral Group Of Order 2n (𝑫𝒏 )
𝐷𝑛 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 , 𝑎5 , … , 𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑎3 𝑏, 𝑎4 𝑏, 𝑎5 𝑏, … , 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏}
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒, 𝑏2 = 𝑒, (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑒𝑏𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏
Inverse of 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎𝑛−𝑖
Inverse of 𝑎𝑖 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑖 𝑏
𝒏 𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒅𝒅
No of element of order 2 in 𝑫𝒏 = {
𝒏+𝟏 𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏
MCQ: the number element of order 2 in 𝐷10 are_____
.(a) 𝟏𝟎 (b) 𝟏𝟏 (c) 𝟏𝟐 (d) none
MCQ: the number element which order not equal to 2 in 𝐷15 are_____
.(a) 𝟏𝟒 (b) 𝟏𝟓 (c) 𝟏𝟔 (d) none
MCQ: In 𝐷15 the element 𝑏𝑎5 =_____
.(a) 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝒃 (b) 𝒂𝟏𝟎 𝒃 (c) 𝒂𝒃 (d) none
MCQ: In 𝐷25 the inverse element 𝑏𝑎5 =_____
.(a) 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝒃 (b) 𝒂𝟏𝟎 𝒃 (c) 𝒂𝒃 (d) none
MCQ: which of the group have 14 element of order 2_____
.(a) 𝑫𝟏𝟒 (b) 𝑫𝟏𝟓 (c) 𝑫𝟏𝟎 (d) none
MCQ: which of the group have 25 element of order 2_____
.(a) 𝑫𝟐𝟓 (b) 𝑫𝟐𝟒 (c) (𝒂)& (𝑏) (d) none

NOTE
Let G be a Group and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 be an element of order n such that𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒. Then
𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 all are distinct element. And the set
H={ 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 }= {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛−1 } is subgroup of G .
For example 𝑎5 = 𝑒 then H={𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 , 𝑎5 = 𝑒} ={𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 }
MCQ: in 𝐷10 dihedral group of order 20. If 𝑎 ∈ 𝐷10 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 |𝑎| = 10 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝑎2 | =__
.(a) 𝟐 (b) 𝟒 (c) 𝟓 (d) none
.(a) 𝟐 (b) 𝟒 (c) 𝟓 (d) none
𝟏𝟎
|𝒂𝟑 | = = 𝟏𝟎
𝒈𝒄𝒅(𝟏𝟎, 𝟑)
|𝒂| 𝒏
FORMULA |𝒂| = 𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒌 < 𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝒂𝒌 | = 𝒈𝒄𝒅(|𝒂|,𝒌) = 𝒈𝒄𝒅(𝒏,𝒌)
→ if |𝒂| = 𝒏 and 𝒈𝒄𝒅(𝒏, 𝒌) = 𝟏 then |𝒂𝒌 | = 𝒏
.(a) 𝟐 (b) 𝟒 (c) 𝟓 (d) none
NUMBER OF +VE DIVISOR AND SUM OF +VE DIVISOR OF ANY +VE NUMBER
𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒏 = 𝝉(𝒏)
𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒏 = 𝝈(𝒏)
𝒏=𝟖
Divisor of 8 are = 1,2,4,8
𝝉(𝟖) = 𝟒
𝝈(𝟖) = 𝟏 + 𝟐 + 𝟒 + 𝟖 = 𝟏𝟓
𝝉 ( 𝟖) = 𝝉 ( 𝟐𝟑 ) = ( 𝟑 + 𝟏) = 𝟒
𝝈(𝟖) = 𝝈(𝟐𝟑 ) = 𝟐𝟑 + 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟏 + 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟏𝟓
𝒏 = 𝟕𝟐
𝝉(𝟕𝟐) = 𝝉(𝟐𝟑 𝟑𝟐 ) = (𝟑 + 𝟏)(𝟐 + 𝟏) = 𝟏𝟐
𝝈(𝟕𝟐) = 𝝈(𝟐𝟑 𝟑𝟐 ) = (𝟐𝟑 + 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟏 + 𝟐𝟎 )(𝟑𝟐 + 𝟑𝟏 + 𝟑𝟎 ) = (𝟏𝟓)(𝟏𝟑) = 𝟏𝟗𝟓

Divisor of 72 are : 1,2,3,4,6,8,9,12,18,24,36,72
𝝈(𝟕𝟐) = 𝟏 + 𝟐 + 𝟑 + 𝟒 + 𝟔 + 𝟖 + 𝟗 + 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟏𝟖 + 𝟐𝟒 + 𝟑𝟔 + 𝟕𝟐 = 𝟏𝟗𝟓
𝑛 = 108 = 22 33
𝝉(𝟏𝟎𝟖) = 𝝉(𝟐𝟐 𝟑𝟑 ) = 𝝉(𝟐𝟐 )𝝉(𝟑𝟑 ) = (𝟐 + 𝟏)(𝟑 + 𝟏) = 𝟏𝟐
𝝈(𝟏𝟎𝟖) = 𝝈(𝟐𝟐 𝟑𝟑 ) = (𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟏 + 𝟐𝟎 )(𝟑𝟑 + 𝟑𝟐 + 𝟑 + 𝟑𝟎 ) = (𝟕)(𝟒𝟎) = 𝟐𝟖𝟎
No of subgroup of dihedral group of order 2n 𝑫𝒏 =𝝉(𝒏) + 𝝈(𝒏)
No of cyclic subgroup of dihedral group of order 2n 𝑫𝒏 =𝝉(𝒏) + 𝒏
No of non-cyclic subgroup of dihedral group of order 2n 𝑫𝒏 =𝝈(𝒏) − 𝒏
→ if a positive integer k divide n then 𝑫𝒏 have subgroup of type 𝑫𝒏

𝒌
No of subgroup of dihedral group of order 6 𝐷3 =𝜏(3) + 𝜎 (3) = (1 + 1) + (3 + 30 ) = 6
No of cyclic subgroup of dihedral group of order 6𝐷3 =𝜏(3) + 𝑛 = 2 + 3 = 5
Then non-cyclic subgroup =1 (𝐷3 𝑖𝑡𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓)
Note: 𝐷3 have all the cyclic-subgroup except itself.
No of subgroup of dihedral group of order 16 𝐷8 =𝜏(8) + 𝜎 (8) = (3 + 1) +

(23 + 22 + 2 + 20 ) = 19
No of cyclic subgroup of dihedral group of order 16𝐷8 =𝜏(8) + 8 = 4 + 8 = 12
Then non-cyclic subgroup =7
Since 2 and 4 divide 8 ,𝐷8 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐷8 = 𝐷4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷8 = 𝐷2 = 𝑉4

2 4
MCQ: The numbers of subgroup of dihedral group of order 8 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐷4 are
.(a) 4 (b) 7 (c) 11 (d) none
MCQ: The numbers of proper subgroup of dihedral group of order 8 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐷4 are
.(a) 4 (b) 7 (c) 9 (d) none
MCQ: The numbers of non-cyclic proper subgroup of dihedral group of order 10 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐷5 are
.(a) 0 (b) 𝟒 (c) 𝟖 (d) none

MCQ: which of the following have all the subgroup except itself are cyclic
.(a) 𝑫𝟑 (b) 𝑫𝟓 (c) 𝑫𝟏𝟏 (d) all

Question Let D3 is dihedral Group of Order 6
(i) List all the element of D3.

(ii) Find Order of all the element of D3.
(iii) Find all The Subgroup of D3.
SOL:
(i) 𝑫𝟑 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒃, 𝒂𝒃, 𝒂𝟐 𝒃} 𝒂𝟑 = 𝒆, 𝒃𝟐 = 𝒆, (𝒂𝒃)𝟐 = 𝒆

(ii) Since order of identity element is 1 ⟹ |𝒆|=1
Here 𝑎3 = 𝑒 ⟹ |𝒂|=3
(𝑎2 )2 = 𝑎4 = 𝑎3 𝑎 = 𝑒𝑎 = 𝑎 ,(𝑎2 )3 = 𝑎6 = 𝑎3 𝑎3 = 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒 ⟹ |𝒂𝟐 |=3
𝑏2 = 𝑒⟹|𝒃|=2, (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑒⟹ |𝒂𝒃|=2
(𝑎2 𝑏)2 = (𝑎2 𝑏)(𝑎2 𝑏) = 𝑎2 (𝑏𝑎2 )𝑏 = 𝑎2 (𝑎𝑏)𝑏 = 𝑎3 𝑏2 = 𝑒⟹ |𝒂𝟐 𝒃|=2,
(iii) Since |𝑒|=1 ⟹ H1={𝑒}
|𝑎|= 3 ⟹ H2={𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 = 𝑒} = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 }
|𝑎2 |= 1 ⟹ H2={𝑎2 , (𝑎2 )2 = 𝑎, (𝑎2 )3 = 𝑒} = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 }
|𝑏|= 2 ⟹ b H3={𝑏, 𝑏2 = 𝑒} = {𝑒, 𝑏}
|𝑎𝑏|= 2 ⟹ H4={𝑎𝑏, (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑒} = {𝑒, 𝑎𝑏}
|𝑎2 𝑏|= 2 ⟹ H5={𝑎2 𝑏, (𝑎2 𝑏)2 = 𝑒} = {𝑒, 𝑎2 𝑏}
So the subgroups are H1={𝑒}, H2= {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 }, H3= {𝑒, 𝑏}, H4= {𝑒, 𝑎𝑏}, H5= {𝑒, 𝑎2 𝑏}
And D3 itself.
HOME WORK
Question1 Let D4 is dihedral Group of Order 8


Question3 Let v4 is Klein 4-Group of Order 4
(i) List all the element of V4.

(ii) Find Order of all the element of V4.
(iii) Find all The Subgroup of V4.

Group of Quaternion of Order 8
𝑸𝟖 = {±𝟏, ±𝒊, ±𝒋, ±𝒌}𝒊𝟐 = 𝒋𝟐 = 𝒌𝟐 = −𝟏

𝒊𝒋 = 𝒌, 𝒋𝒌 = 𝒊, 𝒌𝒊 = 𝒋
𝒋𝒊 = −𝒌, 𝒌𝒋 = −𝒊, 𝒊𝒌 = −𝒋
× 1 −1 𝑖 −𝑖 𝑗 −𝑗 𝑘 −𝑘
1 1 −1 𝑖 −𝑖 𝑗 −𝑗 𝑘 −𝑘
−1 −1 1 −𝑖 𝑖 −𝑗 𝑗 −𝑘 𝑘
𝑖 𝑖 −𝑖 −1 1 𝑘 −𝑘 −𝑗 𝑗
−𝑖 −𝑖 𝑖 1 −1 −𝑘 𝑘 𝑗 −𝑗
𝑗 𝑗 −𝑗 −𝑘 𝑘 −1 1 𝑖 −𝑖
−𝑗 −𝑗 𝑗 𝑘 −𝑘 1 −1 −𝑖 𝑖
𝑘 𝑘 −𝑘 𝑗 −𝑗 −𝑖 𝑖 −1 1
−𝑘 −𝑘 𝑘 -𝑗 𝑗 𝑖 −𝑖 1 −1
𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑖𝑠 1
𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑖𝑠 − 1
𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖 𝑖𝑠 – 𝑖
𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑗 𝑖𝑠 − 𝑗
𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 – 𝑘
𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑖𝑠 1
Question Group of Quaternion of Order 8
(i) List all the element of Q8

(ii) Find Order of all the element of Q8.
(iii) Find all The Subgroup of Q 8.
SOL.
(i) Q8={±1, ±𝑖, ±𝑗, ±𝑘}𝑖 2 = 𝑗 2 = 𝑘 2 = −1
𝑖𝑗 = 𝑘, 𝑗𝑘 = 𝑖, 𝑘𝑖 = 𝑗
𝑗𝑖 = −𝑘, 𝑘𝑗 = −𝑖, 𝑖𝑘 = −𝑗
(ii) since order of identity element is 1 |1|=1
(−1)2 = 1 |-1|=2

𝑖 2 = −1 so 𝑖 4 = 1|𝑖| = 4
(−𝑖 )2 = −1 𝑠𝑜(−𝑖 )4 = 1 |−𝑖 | = 4
𝑗 2 = −1 so 𝑗 4 = 1|𝑗| = 4
(−𝑗)2 = −1 𝑠𝑜(−𝑗)4 = 1 |−𝑗| = 4
𝑘 = −1 so 𝑘 4 = 1|𝑘| = 4
(−𝑘)2 = −1 𝑠𝑜(−𝑘)4 = 1 |−𝑘| = 4
(iii) H1={1}
|-1|=2 ⟹ H2={−1. (−1)2 = 1} = {1, −1}
|𝑖 | = 4⟹ H 3 = {𝑖, 𝑖 2 = −1, 𝑖 3 = −𝑖, 𝑖 4 = 1} = {1. −1, 𝑖, −𝑖}
|𝑗| = 4⟹ H 4 = {𝑗, 𝑗 2 = −1, 𝑗 3 = −𝑗, 𝑗 4 = 1} = {1. −1, 𝑗, −𝑗}
|𝑘| = 4⟹ H 5 = {𝑘, 𝑘 2 = −1, 𝑘 3 = −𝑘, 𝑘 4 = 1} = {1. −1, 𝑘, −𝑘}
Hence all subgroups are
𝐻1 = {1}
𝐻2 = {1, −1}, 𝐻3 = {1. −1, 𝑖, −𝑖}, 𝐻4 = {1. −1, 𝑗, −𝑗}, 𝐻5 = {1. −1, 𝑘, −𝑘}
𝐴𝑛𝑑 𝑄8 𝑖𝑡𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓.
H1 & Q8 itself are improper / trivial subgroups
And all others are proper/non-trivial subgroups.
Note: every subgroup of 𝑄8 is cyclic except itself.
THEOREM
A non-empty subset H of a group G is subgroup of G iff for any pair

𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 implies that 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 and for each 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺.
PROOF: Suppose that H is Subgroup of G then H is itself Group

So for every pair 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 implies that 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 (by closure Property)
Also for each 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺. ( By Inverse element)
Conversely, suppose that both condition

For any pair 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 implies that 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 and for each 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎 −1 ∈
𝐺 hold.
We have to show that H is subgroup of G for this we show H is itself Group.
(i) Closure Law

By given condition
For any pair 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 implies that 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
⟹ H is Closed
(ii) Associative Law
Since 𝐻 is subset of G and 𝐺(group) is associative so H is also Associative
(iii) Identity element
By using given condition
𝑎, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺 ⟹ 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺
So identity element exist
(iv) Inverse element
By given condition
For each 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎 −1 ∈ 𝐺
Inverse element Exist.
All the axiom of Group are satisfied in H so 𝐻 is Group
Hence 𝐻 is subgroup of G.
THEOREM
The intersection of any collection of subgroup of G is subgroup of G.
PROOF:Let {𝐻𝛼 : 𝛼 ∈ 𝐼} be any collection of Subgroup of of a group G.

⋂
We have to show that 𝐻 = 𝛼∈𝐼 𝐻𝛼 is Subgroup of G.For this
Let
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 = ⋂ 𝐻𝛼
𝛼∈𝐼
⇒ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻𝛼 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝛼 ∈ 𝐼
Since 𝐻𝛼 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 for each 𝛼 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻𝛼 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝛼 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 = ⋂ 𝐻𝛼
𝛼∈𝐼
⇒ 𝐻 = ⋂ 𝐻𝛼 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
𝛼∈𝐼

Hence Proved.
EXAMPLE: Let the Group
𝐷3 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏} 𝑎3 = 𝑒, 𝑏2 = 𝑒, (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑒
And its subgroup
H1={𝑒}, H2= {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 }, H3= {𝑒, 𝑏}, H4= {𝑒, 𝑎𝑏}, H5= {𝑒, 𝑎2 𝑏}
Now
H2⋂ H3⋂ H4= {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 }⋂ {𝑒, 𝑏}⋂{𝑒, 𝑎𝑏} = {𝑒} = H1
H1 is also subgroup.
THEOREM
Let H be a subset of finite group G. H is subgroup iff H is closed.
PROOF: Let H be a subgroup of finite group G. then H is itself group so it is closed.
Conversely, Suppose that H is Closed. We have to show that H is Subgroup of G.
𝑎∈𝐺
⇒ 𝑎2 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ 𝑎3 ∈ 𝐺.
……………
……………..
⇒ 𝑎𝑚 ∈ 𝐺
Since H is finite then there exist some positive integer 𝑠 ≠ 𝑟 such that
𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎 𝑠
⇒ 𝑎𝑟−𝑠 = 𝑒
Where 𝑒is identity in G.
Assume

𝑎𝑟−𝑠−1 ∈ ℎ
⇒ 𝑎𝑟−𝑠 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻
⇒ 𝑒𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻
⇒ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻 So inverse element exist so H is subgroup of G.
THEOREM
Let H1 and H2 are subgroups of a group G.H1⋃H2 subgroup of G iff H1⊆H2 or H2⊆H1 .
PROOF: Suppose that H1⋃H2 is subgroup of G
We have to show that H1⊆H2 or H2⊆H1 .
Suppose on Contrary
𝐻1 ≰ 𝐻2 𝑜𝑟 𝐻2 ≰ 𝐻1 .
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻1 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎 ∉ 𝐻2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻2 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑏 ∉ 𝐻1
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1⋃𝐻2 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐻1⋃𝐻2 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1⋃𝐻2
⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻2
𝐼𝑓 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐻1 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻1
ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎−1 , 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 ⇒ 𝑎−1 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 ⇒ 𝑒𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1
⇒ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐵𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑏 ∉ 𝐻1
𝐼𝑓 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐻2 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻1
ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑏 , 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻2 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻2 ⇒ 𝑎𝑒 ∈ 𝐻2
⇒ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻2 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐵𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎 ∉ 𝐻2

𝑆𝑜 𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑔
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐻1 ⊆ 𝐻2 𝑜𝑟 𝐻2 ⊆ 𝐻1 .
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒍𝒚, 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐻1 ⊆ 𝐻2 𝑜𝑟 𝐻2 ⊆ 𝐻1 .
𝑰𝒇 𝑯𝟏 ⊆ 𝑯𝟐 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏
𝐻1⋃𝐻2 = 𝐻2 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐻2 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑠𝑜
𝐻1⋃𝐻2 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
𝑰𝒇 𝑯𝟐 ⊆ 𝑯𝟏 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏
𝐻1⋃𝐻2 = 𝐻1 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐻1 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑠𝑜
𝐻1⋃𝐻2 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
MCQ: let H and K are subgroup of a group G then which one is also subgroup
.(a) H∪K (b) H∩K (c) (a) & (b) (d) none
MCQ: let H is a subset of a finite group G then H is subgroup if for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻
.(a) 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 (b) 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 (c) (a) & (b) (d) none
CARTESIAN PRODUCT
Let A and B two sets then the Cartesian product of A and B denoted and defined as
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∶ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵} . Every element (𝑎, 𝑏)of 𝐴 × 𝐵 is called ordered

pair.
Remark: (𝑎, 𝑏) ≠ (𝑏, 𝑎) So 𝐴 × 𝐵 ≠ 𝐵 × 𝐴
(1,2) ≠ (2,1)
EXAMPLE:
Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3}𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} |A|=3 ,B=|3|
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(1, 𝑎), (1, 𝑏), (1, 𝑐 ), (2, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (2, 𝑐 ), (3, 𝑎), (3, 𝑏), (3, 𝑐 )}
|𝐴 × 𝐵| = 9 = |𝐴||𝐵|
No of subset of any set A=2|𝐴|

No of relation from A to B=𝟐|𝑨||𝑩| − 𝟏=29 -1
RELATION
Any subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵 is called relation from set A to set B.
𝑅1 = {(1, 𝑐 ), (2, 𝑎), (3, 𝑐 )}

𝑹𝟏
𝑅2 = {(2, 𝑐 ), (2, 𝑎), (3, 𝑐 )} 𝑨 B
𝑅3 = {(1, 𝑐 ), (3, 𝑐 )}
1 a
𝑅4 = {(3, 𝑐 )} b
2
𝑅5 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (3, 𝑐 )} 3 c
𝑅6 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑎), (3, 𝑎)}
𝑅7 = {(1, 𝑐 ), (2, 𝑎), (2, 𝑐 )}
𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝟐 𝑨 𝑩
𝑨 𝑩
𝟏 𝒂
𝟏 𝒂
𝟐 𝒃
𝟐 𝒃
𝟑 𝒄
𝟑 𝒄
DOMAIN OF RELATION
Let R be any relation from set A to B then domain of R denoted by 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑅 and
defined as set of 1st element of all ordered pair of R
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑅 = {𝑎 ∶ (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅}
RANGE OF RELATION
Let R be any relation from set A to B then Range of R denoted by Ran𝑅 and defined
as set of 2ND element of all ordered pair of R
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑅 = {𝑏 ∶ (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅}

EXAMPLE: 𝑹𝟏
𝑨 𝑩
R1 is a function 𝑅1 = {(1, 𝑐 ), (2, 𝑎), (3, 𝑐 )}
Into function 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑅1 = {1,2,3} = 𝐴 1 𝒂
Not one one function. Not bijective
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑅 = {𝑎, 𝑐} 2 𝒃
3 𝒄
𝑹𝟐
𝑨 𝑩
R2 is not a function
𝟏 𝒂
𝑅2 = {(2, 𝑐), (2, 𝑎), (3, 𝑐)}
𝟐 𝒃
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑅1 = {2,3}≠A
𝟑 𝒄
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑅 = {𝑎, 𝑐}
𝑹𝟑
𝑨 B
𝟏 𝒂
R3 is not a function. 𝑅3 = {(1, 𝑐 ), (3, 𝑐 )}
𝟐 𝒃
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑅3 = {1,3}≠A
𝟑 𝒄
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑅3 = {𝑐}
FUNCTION
A relation 𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐵 𝑓: 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐵 is said to be function if
(i) 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑓 = 𝐴(1𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑡)

(ii) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 1𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑓
(there is no repetition in domain element)
EXAMPLE
𝑅5 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (3, 𝑐)}

𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑅5 = {1,2,3}
R5
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑅5 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} =B A B
R5 is a function. 1 𝒂
Onto function and one-one 2 𝒃

function so bijective
function 3 𝒄
TYPES OF FUNCTIONS
𝑹𝑬𝑴𝑨𝑹𝑲
INTO FUNCTION
1- 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓
Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 be a function. 𝑓 is into 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒 − 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐼𝑓 𝑓(1) = 𝑎 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒂 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝟏 & 𝟏 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝒂.

If 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑓 = 𝑅𝑓 ≠ 𝐵 (co-domain)
2- 𝐼𝑓 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
ONTO/SURJECTIVE FUNCTION 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑓 = 𝑓(𝐴) = 𝐼𝑚𝑓

Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 be a function. 𝑓 is onto
If 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑓 = 𝑅𝑓 = 𝐵 (co-domain)
𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚
∀ 𝒃 ∈ 𝑩 ∃ 𝒂 ∈ 𝑨 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒇(𝒂) = 𝒃
ONE-ONE FUNCTION
Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 be a function. 𝑓 is one-one if
There is no repetition in 2nd element of all ordered pair of 𝑓 (There is no repetition

of range element)
𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒚) ⟹ 𝒙 = 𝒚
BIJECTIVE/ONE-ONE CORRESPODENCE FUNCTION
Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 be a function. 𝑓 is bijective if
1- Onto
2- One-one

EXAMPLE:
𝒇 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
𝑨 𝑩
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑓 = {1,2,3,4} = 𝐴
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡.

𝟏 𝒂
𝟐 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝒃
𝟑 𝐼𝑚𝑓 = 𝑓(𝐴) = 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑓 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} = 𝐵
𝒄
𝟒 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑜 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑒.
𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑖𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝒇𝟏 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑓 = {1,2,3} = 𝐴
𝑨 𝑩 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡.
𝑓1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝟏 𝒂
𝑟𝑎𝑛 𝑓 = 𝑓1 (𝐴) = 𝐼𝑚𝑓1 = {𝑎, 𝑐, 𝑑} ≠ 𝐵
𝒃
𝟐
𝑓1 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝒄
𝟑
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑜 𝑓1 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝒅
𝑓1 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑖𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒.
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑓3 = {1,2,3} = 𝐴
𝒇𝟑
𝑨 𝑩 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑓3 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝒇𝟏
𝟏 𝒂 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑓3 = {𝑎}
𝟐 𝒃 𝑓3 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝒄 𝐴𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝟑
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

Remark: A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is bijective iff |𝐴| = |𝐵|
Its mean that if we need to prove that two set have same number of elements we
will prove there is bijection between these two sets.
MCQ:if |𝐴| = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝐵| = 4 then number of function from B to A are
.(a) 27 (b) 81 (c) 64 (d) none
MCQ:if |𝐴| = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝐵| = 4 then number of function from A to B are
.(a) 27 (b) 81 (c) 64 (d) none
MCQ:if |𝐴| = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝐵| = 4 then number of relation from A to B are
.(a) 10 (b) 12 (c) 14 (d) none
MCQ:if |𝐴| = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝐵| = 4 then number of one one from A to B are
.(a) 10 (b) 12 (c) 14 (d) none
MCQ:if |𝐴| = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝐵| = 4 then function equal to ______
.(a) one one function (b) onto function (c) into function (d) none
COUNTING FUNCTION
Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 be any relation
No of total relation from A to B =2|𝐴||𝐵| − 1
No of total function from A to B = |𝐵||𝐴|
IF |𝑨| < |𝑩|
No. of one-one function from A to B =𝑃(|𝐵|, |𝐴|) (permutation)
No. of many-one function from A to B = |𝐵||𝐴| − 𝑃(|𝐵|, |𝐴|)
No. of onto function from A to B =0
No. of into function from A to B = |𝐵||𝐴|
No. of bijective function from A to B =0
IF |𝑩| < |𝑨|
No. of one-one function from A to B =0
No. of many-one function from A to B = |𝐵||𝐴|

No. of onto function from A to B = |𝐵||𝐴| − (|𝐵|
1
)(|𝐵| − 1)|𝐴| + (|𝐵|
2
)(|𝐵| − 2)|𝐴| −
|𝐵|
⋯ . + (|𝐵|−1 ) (1)|𝐴|
No. of into function from A to B =(|𝐵|

1
)(|𝐵| − 1)|𝐴| − (|𝐵|
2
)(|𝐵| − 2)|𝐴| +
|𝐵|
⋯ . + (|𝐵|−1 ) (1)|𝐴|
No. of bijective function from A to B =0
IF |𝑩| = |𝑨|
No. of one-one function from A to B =|𝐴|!
No. of many-one function from A to B = |𝐵||𝐴| − |𝐴|!
No. of onto function from A to B =|𝐴|!
No. of into function from A to B = |𝐵||𝐴| − |𝐴|!
No. of bijective function from A to B =|𝐴|!
COSETS
Let H be a subgroup of a group G and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 then the coset
Left coset
𝑎𝐻 = {𝑎ℎ ∶ ℎ ∈ 𝐻}𝑖𝑓 (𝐺 ×) 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
𝑎 + 𝐻 = {𝑎 + ℎ ∶ ℎ ∈ 𝐻}𝑖𝑓 (𝐺 +) 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
Right cosets
𝐻𝑎 = {ℎ𝑎 ∶ ℎ ∈ 𝐻}𝑖𝑓 (𝐺 ×) 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
𝐻 + 𝑎 = {ℎ + 𝑎 ∶ ℎ ∈ 𝐻}𝑖𝑓 (𝐺 +) 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
Example:
𝐶4 = 𝐺 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} |G|=4
𝐻 = {1, −1}|𝐻| = 2 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 𝒐𝒇 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑.
1. H = {1.1,1. (−1)} = {1, −1} 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑯 𝒊𝒏 𝑮 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅
𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙. 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 |𝑮: 𝑯| 𝒐𝒓 (𝑮: 𝑯)

−1. H = {(−1). 1, (−1). (−1)} = {−1,1}
𝑖. H = {𝑖. 1, 𝑖. (−1)} = {𝑖, −𝑖}
−𝑖. 𝐻 = {𝑖, −𝑖}

Order of every coset is 2.
→ order of subgroup divide the order of group
→𝑎𝐻 = 𝐻 ⇔ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 or 𝑎𝐻 ≠ 𝐻 ⇔ 𝑎 ∉ 𝐻
→order of subgroup and any left (right) coset are equal
→order of any two cosets of subgroup h of a group G are equal.
Distinct cosets are
1. 𝐻 = {1, −1} = (−1). 𝐻
𝑖. H = −𝑖𝐻 = {𝑖, −𝑖}
Index of H in G =|G:H|=2
PARTITION OF A SET
Let A be any set then
𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 , 𝐴4 , 𝐴5 … 𝐴𝑛 make partition of A if A1 A2 A3 A4
i) 𝐴 = 𝑨𝟏 ⋃𝑨𝟐 ⋃𝑨𝟑 ⋃𝑨𝟒 ⋃𝑨𝟓 ⋃𝑨𝟔 ⋃𝑨𝟕 … , ⋃𝐴𝑛

ii) 𝐴𝑖⋂𝐴𝑗 = {} 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 A5 𝑨𝟕 A6
→distinct cosets define partition of G
1. H = {1, −1} A
𝑖. 𝐻 = {𝑖, −𝑖}
1. H⋃𝑖. 𝐻 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} =G 𝑨 = 𝑨𝟏 ⋃𝑨𝟐 ⋃𝑨𝟑 ⋃𝑨𝟒 ⋃𝑨𝟓 ⋃𝑨𝟔 ⋃𝑨𝟕
1. H⋂𝑖. 𝐻 = { } 𝑨𝒊⋂𝑨𝒋 = {} 𝒊 ≠ 𝒋
⟶Two cosets of subgroup H of a group G either equal or disjoint.
⟶order of subgroup divide the order of group
⟶index of subgroup in a group G divide order of group
⟶the product of order of subgroup H and its index is equal to the order of group
|𝐺| = 4, |𝐻| = 2, |𝐺: 𝐻| = 2 2|4( 2 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 4) 𝑎𝑛𝑑
|𝐺: 𝐻||𝐻| = |𝐺|
(2)(2)=4
MCQ: Let G be a group of order n and H be a subgroup of order 10 then index of H is

n
.(a) 10 (b) n (c) (d) none
10
MCQ: Let G be a finite group and H be a subgroup of order half of order of G then index
of H is equal to order of ______
.(a) H (b) G (c) half the order of H (d) none

𝑛
|𝐺 | = 𝑛 |𝐻 | =
2
Example.
̅ , 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅} andH = {0̅, 2̅, 4̅}|ℤ6| = 6 |H| = 3
ℤ6={0
Left (right) cosets are
0̅ + 𝐻 = {0̅, 2̅, 4̅}
1̅ + 𝐻 = {1̅, 3̅, 5̅}
2̅ + 𝐻 = {2̅, 4̅, 0̅}
3̅ + 𝐻
4̅ + 𝐻 =
5̅ + 𝐻
D4= {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑎3 𝑏}𝑎4 = 𝑒, 𝑏2 = 𝑒, (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑒
𝐻 = {𝑒, 𝑎𝑏}
|𝐷4 | = 8 , |𝐻| = 2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝐷4 : 𝐻| = 4
Find left cosets and right cosets
Index ?
𝑄8 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖, 𝑗, −𝑗, 𝑘, −𝑘}𝑖 2 = 𝑗 2 = 𝑘 2 = −1
𝑖𝑗 = 𝑘, 𝑗𝑘 = 𝑖, 𝑘𝑖 = 𝑗,
𝑗𝑖 = −𝑘, 𝑘𝑗 = −𝑖, 𝑖𝑘 = −𝑗
Subgroup is 𝐻 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖}
Left cosets are
1. 𝐻 = {1,−1,𝑖,−𝑖}
−1. 𝐻 = {−1,1, −𝑖, 𝑖}

𝑖. 𝐻 = {𝑖, −𝑖, 𝑖 2 = −1, −𝑖 2 = 1} ={𝑖,−𝑖,−1,1}
−𝑖. 𝐻 == {𝑖, −𝑖, −1,1}
𝑗. 𝐻 = {𝑗, −𝑗, 𝑗𝑖 = −𝑘, −𝑗𝑖 = 𝑘}={𝑗,−𝑗,𝑘,−𝑘}
−𝑗. 𝐻 = {j, −j, k, −k}
𝑘. 𝐻 = {𝑘, −𝑘, 𝑘𝑖 = 𝑗, −𝑗} ={𝑘,−𝑘,𝑗,−𝑗}
−𝑘. 𝐻 = {𝑘, −𝑘, 𝑗, −𝑗}
Distinct cosets are
1. 𝐻 = {1,−1,𝑖,−𝑖}
𝑗. 𝐻 =={𝑗,−𝑗,𝑘,−𝑘}
1. 𝐻⋃ 𝑗. 𝐻 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖, 𝑗, −𝑗, 𝑘, −𝑘} = 𝑄8
1. 𝐻⋂ 𝑗. 𝐻 = ∅
QUESTION:
There is one-one correspondence between any two cosets of a subgroup H of a group G
OR
There is bijection between any two 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 (𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)cosets of a subgroup H of a group G
OR
Prove that two 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 (𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡) cosets of subgroup H of a group G have same number of
element.
PROOF
Let 𝑎𝐻 & 𝑏𝐻 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 (𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝐻 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝐺.
Define a mapping
𝛷: 𝑎𝐻 → 𝑏𝐻 𝑏𝑦 𝛷(𝑎ℎ) = 𝑏ℎ
1) 𝜱 𝒊𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆
𝑎ℎ1 = 𝑎ℎ2
ℎ1 = ℎ2 (Left cancelation Law)
𝑃𝑟𝑒 − 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝑏 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑏ℎ1 = 𝑏ℎ2
Φ(𝑎ℎ1 ) = Φ(𝑎ℎ2 )

2) 𝜱 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒏𝒆
Φ(𝑎ℎ1 ) = Φ(𝑎ℎ2 )
𝑏ℎ1 = 𝑏ℎ2
ℎ1 = ℎ2 (Left cancelation Law)
𝑃𝑟𝑒 − 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑎ℎ1 = 𝑎ℎ2
3) 𝜱 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒐
For each 𝑏ℎ ∈ 𝑏𝐻 ∃ 𝑎ℎ ∈ 𝑎𝐻
Such that 𝛷(𝑎ℎ) = 𝑏ℎ
Hence Φ is bijective so |𝑎𝐻|=|𝑏𝐻|
QUESTION:
There is one-one correspondence between any left (right) coset of a subgroup H and
subgroup of a group G.
OR
There is bijection between any left (right) coset of a subgroup H and subgroup of a
group G
OR
Prove that 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 (𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡) coset of subgroup H and subgroup of a group G have same
number of element. i.d |H|=|aH|
PROOF
Let 𝑎𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 (𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝐻 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝐺.
Define a mapping
𝜱: 𝒂𝑯 → 𝑯 𝒃𝒚 𝜱(𝒂𝒉) = 𝒉
1) 𝜱 𝒊𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒍 − 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆
𝑎ℎ1 = 𝑎ℎ2
ℎ1 = ℎ2 (left cancelation Law)
Φ(𝑎ℎ1 ) = Φ(𝑎ℎ2 )
2) 𝜱 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒏𝒆
Φ(𝑎ℎ1 ) = Φ(𝑎ℎ2 )
ℎ1 = ℎ2 (left cancelation Law)
𝑃𝑟𝑒 − 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑎ℎ1 = 𝑎ℎ2

3) 𝜱 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒐
For each ℎ ∈ 𝐻 ∃ 𝑎ℎ ∈ 𝑎𝐻
Such that 𝛷(𝑎ℎ) = ℎ
Hence Φ is bijective so |𝑎𝐻|=|𝐻|
Note If we want to show that A=B 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 And 𝐵 ⊆ A
THEOREM:
The collection of distinct left (or Right) coset of a subgroup of a group

G define partition of G.
PROOF: Let H be a subgroup of G. and Let {𝑎𝐻 ∶ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺} be the collection of left

cosets of H in G.
We have to show that this collection define partition of G. for this
𝑖) ⋃ 𝑎𝐻 = 𝐺
𝑎∈𝐺
𝑖𝑖) 𝑎𝐻⋂𝑏𝐻 = ∅ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝐻 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑡
Since each 𝑎𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 then
⋃ 𝑎𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺 − − − − − −(𝑎)
𝑎∈𝐺
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 and H be a subgroup so 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻
𝑎𝑒 ∈ 𝑎𝐻
⇒ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑎𝐻
⇒ 𝑎 ∈ ⋃ 𝑎𝐻
𝑎∈𝐺
⇒ 𝐺 ⊆ ⋃ 𝑎𝐻 − − − − − −(𝑏)
𝑎∈𝐺
From (a) and (b)

⋃ 𝑎𝐻 = 𝐺
𝑎∈𝐺
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝐻⋂𝑏𝐻 = ∅ for aH and bH are dictinct
𝑂𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝐻⋂𝑏𝐻 ≠ ∅
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ∈ 𝑎𝐻⋂𝑏𝐻
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑎𝐻 &𝑥 ∈ 𝑏𝐻
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑎ℎ1 And 𝑥 = 𝑏ℎ2
⇒ 𝑎ℎ1 = 𝑏ℎ2
⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑏ℎ2 ℎ1−1
Suppose 𝑦 ∈ 𝑎𝐻
𝑦 = 𝑎ℎ
𝑦 = 𝑏ℎ2 ℎ1−1 ℎℎ2 ℎ1−1 ℎ = ℎ′
𝑦 = 𝑏ℎ′ ∈ 𝑏𝐻
⇒ 𝑎𝐻 ⊆ 𝑏𝐻 − − − − − −(𝑐)
Now from
𝑎ℎ1 = 𝑏ℎ2
𝑎ℎ1 ℎ2−1 = 𝑏
𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑡 𝑧 ∈ 𝑏𝐻
𝑧 = 𝑏ℎ3
𝑧 = 𝑎ℎ1 ℎ2−1 ℎ3 Take ℎ1 ℎ2−1 ℎ3 = ℎ′′
𝑧 = 𝑎ℎ′′ ∈ 𝑎𝐻
𝑏𝐻 ⊆ 𝑎𝐻 − − − − − − − (𝑑)
From (𝑐) and (𝑑)
𝑎𝐻 = 𝑏𝐻
Which is contradiction to fact that 𝑎𝐻 and 𝑏𝐻 are distinct
Our supposition is wrong so
𝑎𝐻⋂𝑏𝐻 = ∅
Hence 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑡 coset defines partition of G.

MCQ: the LaGrange theorem is applicable for _____ groups
.(a) finite (b) infinite (c) (a) & (b) (d) none
Lagrange Theorem
Statement: Both index and order of subgroup of a finite group divides

the order of group.
PROOF: Let H be a subgroup of finite group G
Suppose |𝐺 | = 𝑛 |𝐻| = 𝑚 &|𝐺: 𝐻| = 𝑘
Then {𝑎1 𝐻, 𝑎2 𝐻, 𝑎3 𝐻, … , 𝑎𝑘 𝐻} 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑘 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻 𝑖𝑛 𝐺
Since distinct cosets define partition of G. so
1- 𝑎1 𝐻 ∪ 𝑎2 𝐻 ∪ 𝑎3 𝐻 ∪ … ∪ 𝑎𝑘 𝐻 = 𝐺 A={1,2,3,4} B+={4,5,6,7,8,9}
2- 𝑎𝑖 𝐻 ∩ 𝑎𝑗 𝐻 = ∅∀𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}
From 1- |𝑎1 𝐻 ∪ 𝑎2 𝐻 ∪ 𝑎3 𝐻 ∪ … ∪ 𝑎𝑘 𝐻| = |𝐺|
|𝐴 ∪ 𝐵| =9=4+5≠|A|+|B|
⇒ |𝐺 | = |𝑎1 𝐻| + |𝑎2 𝐻| + |𝑎3 𝐻| + ⋯ + |𝑎𝑘 𝐻| Using (2)
2+2+2+2=4(2) 6=2x3
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 |𝑎𝑖 𝐻| = |𝐻| = 𝑚 ∀𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛
⇒ 𝑛 = 𝑚 + 𝑚 + 𝑚 + ⋯ + 𝑚(𝑘 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)
⇒ 𝑛 = 𝑚𝑘
⇒ 𝑘|𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚|𝑛
⇒ 𝑘 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑛 & 𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑛
⇒ |𝐺: 𝐻|𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 |𝐺 |& |𝐻| 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 |𝐺|
Proof is complete.
MCQ: let G be a group of order 10 and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 then |𝑎| = _____
.(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) none
COROLLARY
The order of element of finite group divides the order of group.

𝑖4 = 1
PROOF: Let G be a finite group of Order n 𝑖. 𝑒 |𝐺 | = 𝑛 and
𝑖, 𝑖 2 , 𝑖 3 , 𝑖 4 all are distinct
Suppose that 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 |𝒂| = 𝒌
element
MUHAMMAD USMAN +92-311-6545143 𝐺 44

= {|
𝑖, 𝑖P
2 a3 g 4e
,𝑖 ,𝑖 }
⇒ 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝐺.
Then 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡.
And 𝐻 = {𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑒 } 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺
With |𝐻| = 𝑘
By Lagrange theorem order of subgroup divide the order of group.
⇒ 𝑘 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑛
⇒ |𝑎| 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 |𝐺 |
MCQ: the element of order 2 in a group G is called_____
.(a) idempotent (2) nilpotent (3) involution (4) none
MCQ: the element 𝑎 of a group G such that 𝑎2 = 𝑎 is called_____
.(a) idempotent (2) nilpotent (3) involution (4) none
MCQ: No. of involution in dihedral group of order 10 𝐷5 are _____
.(a) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) none
INVOLUTION
An element of order 2 in a group is called involution.
Example.
1- 𝑉4 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏} Every non-identity element of 𝑉4 have order 2 so every non-

identity elements are involution.
2- 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐷3 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏} 𝑎3 = 3 𝑏2 = 𝑒 |𝑏| = 2 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛
𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐷3 Also |𝑎𝑏| = |𝑎2 𝑏| = 2 𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
3- 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐷4 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑎3 𝑏}
(𝑎2 )2 = 𝑒 , 𝑎2 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑎3 𝑏 𝑎𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 2 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑙 are 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑜𝑓 𝐷4
4- 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑄8 = {±1, ±𝑖, ±𝑗, ±𝑘 }-1 Is only involution of 𝑄8 .
Note:
(1) if 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 is involution. 𝑖.𝑒 𝑎2 = 𝑒 ⟺ 𝑎. 𝑎 = 𝑒 ⟺ 𝑎 = 𝑎−1
(2) Inverse element of every element is unique in a group G.

(3) Order of identity element is 1. And order of non-identity element al least 2.
Theorem:
A group of even order contains at least one involution.
PROOF: Let G be a group of even order. Then non-identity element will be odd in
numbers. If we separate all the element with pair which are not inverse of itself say 𝑦∈𝐺
𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑦 ≠ 𝑦 −1 Then we left at least one element say 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 which is inverse of itself.
This mean𝑥 = 𝑥 −1
Multiply both side by 𝑥
⟹ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 −1
⟹ 𝑥2 = 𝑒
⟹ |𝑥| = 2
𝑠𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
MCQ: a group of order 15 contain ____ no. of involution
.(a) 0 (2) 1 (3) 2 (4) none
MCQ: A group of order 16 contain at least ____ no. of involution
.(a) 0 (2) 1 (3) 2 (4) none
Relation on a set A
Any subset of 𝐴 × 𝐴 is called relation on set A.
𝐴 = {1,2,3,4}
𝐴 × 𝐴 = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4)}
𝑅1 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑎 < 𝑏} = {(1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4), (3,4)}
𝑅2 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑎 > 𝑏} = {(2,1), (3,1), (3,2), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3)}
𝑅3 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑎 = 𝑏} = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4)}
𝑅4 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏} = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (3,3)(3,4), (4,4)}
𝑅5 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑎 ≥ 𝑏}
𝑅6 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑏} = {(1,1) , (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (2,2), (2,4), (3,3), (4,4)}
𝑅7 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑏𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎}

Types of Relation
1- Reflexive A relation R on a set A is reflexive if 𝑎𝑅𝑎 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 𝑖. 𝑒. (𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅

2- Symmetric A relation R on a set A is symmetric if 𝑎𝑅𝑏 ⟹ 𝑏𝑅𝑎 𝑖. 𝑒.
(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈𝑅
3- Transitive A relation R on a set A is transitive if 𝑎𝑅𝑏 & 𝑏𝑅𝑐 ⟹ 𝑎𝑅𝑐
𝑖. 𝑒. (𝑎, 𝑏), (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅 then (𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅
4- Equivalence relation A relation R on a set A is said to be equivalence relation
If it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Def(congruence Relation)
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ we say that 𝒂is congruence to𝒃 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝒏 𝑖𝑓 𝒏 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝒃 − 𝒂
Mathematically denoted by
𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)⟹ 𝑛|𝑏 − 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑛|𝑎 − 𝑏
3 ≡ 23 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)⟹ 5|23-3⟹ 5|20
7 ≡ 21 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 2)⟹ 2|21-7⟹2|14
QUESTION
Prove that the relation of congruence is an equivalence relation on set of

integers.
SOLUTON: assume that R is is a congruence relation
For 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ 𝑎𝑅𝑏 ⟺ 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)⟹n|b-a
1- Reflexive
Since n|o ⟹ n|a-a ⟹ 𝑎 ≡ 𝑎 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛) ⟹ aRa ∀ a ∈ ℤ
2- Symmetric
Let 𝑎𝑅𝑏 ⟹ 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)
⟹n|b-a 2|20 ∃ 10 such that 20=2(10)
⟹n|-(a-b)
⟹n|a-b 5|15 ∃ 3 s.t 15=5(3)
⟹ 𝑏 ≡ 𝑎 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)
⟹bRa 𝐼𝑓 𝑎|𝑏 ∃ 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑘
3- Transitive

Let 𝑎𝑅𝑏 & 𝑏𝑅𝑐
⟹ 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)& 𝑏 ≡ 𝑐 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)
⟹ 𝑛|𝑏 − 𝑎 & 𝑛|𝑐 − 𝑏
∃ 𝑘, 𝑚 ∈ 𝑍 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝑏 − 𝑎 = 𝑛𝑘 − − − − − (𝑖 ) & 𝑐 − 𝑏 = 𝑛𝑚 − − − (𝑖𝑖)
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑖) 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑛𝑘 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 (𝑖𝑖)
𝑐 − (𝑎 + 𝑛𝑘) = 𝑛𝑚
⟹ 𝑐 − 𝑎 = 𝑛𝑚 + 𝑛𝑘
⟹ 𝑐 − 𝑎 = 𝑛(𝑚 + 𝑘) take m+k=s
⟹ 𝑐 − 𝑎 = 𝑛𝑠
⟹ 𝑛|𝑐 − 𝑎
𝑐 ≡ 𝑎 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)
𝑐𝑅𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑅𝑐
⟹ 𝑅: ≡ is an equivalence relation
Remark:
⟶equivalence relation makes partition of sets into disjoint classes.
SOME INPORTANT RELATION IN GROUP
1) 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 𝑯𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒎
Let (G ∗) and (G′ ∗ ′) are two groups then a mapping φ:G⟶G’ is said to be group
homomorphism if
𝜑(𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) = φ(x) ∗′ φ(y) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺
2) 𝑬𝒑𝒊𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒎
Let 𝜑: 𝐺 ⟶ 𝐺’ be a group homomorphism. If 𝜑 is onto then it is said to be

epimorphism
3) 𝑴𝒐𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒎
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝜑: 𝐺 ⟶ 𝐺’ 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚. 𝐼𝑓 𝝋 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒏𝒆 − 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒
𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚
4) 𝑰𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒎
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝜑: 𝐺 ⟶ 𝐺’ 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚. 𝐼𝑓 𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑒 − 𝑜𝑛𝑒 & 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠
𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚 OR
𝐴𝑛 𝑏𝑖𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚.

𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 (𝟏) − Let (R+ ,×) set of positive real number is group under
multiplication and (R,+) set of all real number is group under addition
Define φ:ℝ+ ⟶ℝ by φ(x) = 𝐥𝐧(x)
φ(x. y)=𝐥𝐧(x. y) = 𝐥𝐧(x) + 𝐥𝐧(y) = φ(x) + φ(y)
φ(x. y)= φ(x) + φ(y) ⟹ φ is homomorphism
(2)- 𝒇: (ℝ,+ )⟶ (ℝ\{0},×) by 𝑓 (x) = 𝐞𝐱
𝑓(x + y) = 𝐞𝐱+𝐲 = 𝐞𝐱 𝐞𝐲 = 𝑓(x)𝑓(y)

𝟏
𝑓 (0) = 𝐞𝟎 = 𝟏,𝑓(−a) = 𝐞−𝐚 = 𝐞𝐚
𝟏
𝟎 < 𝐞𝐚 <1
𝑓 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 − 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜
(3) Define 𝛙:ℤ⟶ℤ6 by
𝛙 (n)=n̅
ℤ𝟔
ℤ
𝝍 is Homomorphism
̅
𝟎
𝜓(𝑛 + 𝑚) = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑛+𝑚 -ve
̅
𝟏
(𝑛 + 𝑚) = 𝑛̅ + 𝑚
̅ 0
1 ̅
𝟐
𝜓 (𝑛 + 𝑚) = 𝜓 (𝑛) + 𝜓(𝑚)
2 ̅
𝟑
𝜓 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜
3 ̅
𝟒
∀ 𝑛̅ ∈ ℤ6 ∃ 𝑛 ∈ ℤ 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 (𝑛) = 𝑛̅
4 ̅
𝟓
𝝍 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒏𝒆 − 𝒐𝒏𝒆
5
(𝑛) = (𝑚)
6
𝑛̅ = 𝑚
̅
7
⇏𝑛=𝑚
8
𝝍 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒏𝒆
9
Kernel of homomorphism
0
Let 𝜑: 𝐺 ⟶ 𝐺’ be a group homomorphism. Then
kerφ = {g ∈ G ∶ φ(g) = e′ } where e’ is identity of G’
Example
𝜓: ℤ ⟶ ℤ6 by
𝜓(𝑛) = 𝑛̅
kerψ = {𝑛 ∈ ℤ ∶ 𝜓(𝑛) = 0̅}
kerψ = {𝑛 ∈ ℤ : n̅=0̅}
= {0, ±6 ± 12, … }
=6{0, ±1, ±2, … } = 6ℤ
Image of Homomorphism
Let 𝜑: 𝐺 ⟶ 𝐺’ be a group homomorphism. Then
𝑰𝒎φ = {𝒈′ ∈ 𝑮′ , ∃ 𝒈 ∈ 𝑮 ∋ φ(g) = g ′ } = Ran𝜑 = 𝜑(𝐺 )
Example: 𝜓: ℤ ⟶ ℤ6 by 𝜓(𝑛) = 3𝑛̅
𝜓(0) = 30̅ = 0̅
𝜓(1) = 31̅ = 3̅
𝜓(2) = 32̅ = 0̅
𝜓(3) = 33̅ = 3̅
𝑰𝒎𝜓 = {𝑛̅ ∈ ℤ6 , ∃ 𝒏 ∈ ℤ ∋ 𝜓(n) = 3𝑛̅} = {0̅, 3̅} = 𝜓(ℤ)
Theorem:
Let φ:G⟶G’ be a group homomorphism. Then
i) Kernel of φ is subgroup of G
ii) Image of φ is subgroup of G’
PROOF

I) Kerφ = {g ∈ G ∶ φ(g) = e′ } where e′ is identity in G′
Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ Kerφ
⇒ φ(x) = e′ &φ(y) = e′
we need to show 𝑥𝑦 −1 ∈ Kerφ for this we have to showφ(xy −1 ) = e′
φ(xy −1 ) = φ(x) φ(y −1 )φ is homomorphism
= φ(x)φ(y)−1
= e′(e′)−1
= e′
Hence Kerφ is subgroup of G.
II) 𝐼𝑚φ = {𝑔′ ∈ 𝐺 ′ , ∃ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 ∋ φ(g) = g ′ }

𝑥 ′ , 𝑦′ ∈ 𝐼𝑚φ
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
′ ′
φ(x) = x &φ(y) = y
now
𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′−1 = φ(x) φ(y)−1
= φ(x) φ(y −1 )
= φ(xy −1 )φ is homomorphism
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 xy −1 ∈ G
so φ(xy −1 ) ∈ 𝐼𝑚φ
⟹ 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′−1 ∈ 𝐼𝑚φ
Hence 𝐼𝑚φ 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺′
𝑹𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒌: Let φ:G⟶G’ be a group homomorphism where G and G’ are

groups.
i) The image of identity element G is identity element of

𝜙(G)=𝐼𝑚𝜑 .
𝑖. 𝑒 ∶ φ(e) = e′ where e &e′ are identity of G and G′
ii) The image of inverse element of G is inverse element of 𝜙
(G)=𝐼𝑚𝜑 .
𝑖. 𝑒 ∶ φ(g −1) = φ(g)−1 where g ∈ G
CYCLIC GROUP
A group is said to be cyclic is it is generated by a single element.

𝐺 =< 𝑎 ∶ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 > = {𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒} w.r.t multiplication
𝐺 =< 𝑎 ∶ 𝑛𝑎 = 𝑒 > = {𝑎, 2𝑎, 3𝑎, … , 𝑛𝑎 = 𝑒} w.r.t addition
Example 1- 𝐶4 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖 } 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑖
Since 𝑖 4 = 1 ⇒ |𝑖 | = 4𝐺 =< 𝑖 ∶ 𝑖 4 = 𝑒 >= {𝑖, 𝑖 2 , 𝑖 3 , 𝑖 4 = 1}
Inverse of 𝑖 = −𝑖 G=< −𝑖 ; (−𝑖 )4 = 1 >= {−𝑖, (−𝑖 )2 , (−𝑖 )3 , (−𝑖 )4 = 1}
MCQ: the number of generator of 𝐶4
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) none
2- ℤ6={0̅,1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅} is cyclic group generated by 1̅
ℤ6=< 1̅ ∶ 6(1̅) = 0̅ >= {1(1̅), 2(1̅), 3(1̅), 4(1̅), 5(1̅), 6(1̅) = 0̅}
ℤ6=< 5̅ ∶ 6(5̅) = 0̅ >= {1(5 ), 2(5̅), 3(5̅), 4(5̅), 5(5̅), 6(5̅) = 0̅}
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒏 = 𝝓(𝒏)

No. of generator of cyclic group of order 6=𝜙(6) = 𝜙(2.3) = 𝜙(2)𝜙(3) = 1. (2) = 2
MCQ: number of generator of cyclic group of order 15
(a) 2 (b) 6 (c) 7 (d) none
𝜙(15) = 𝜙(5.3) = 𝜙(5)𝜙(3) = 4. (2) = 8
(a) 1 (b) 17 (c) 16 (d) none
𝜙(17) = 16
(a) 22 (b) 23 (c) 24 (d) none
Generally ℤn is cyclic group generated by 1̅
3- ℤ is cyclic group generated by 1
Note:
1- If 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 is a generator of cyclic group G then 𝑎−1 is also generator of G.

2- Order of cyclic group and its generator are equal.
3- Every cyclic group has at least 2 generators namely 𝑎 &𝑎−1
4- The group {e} is trivially cyclic

5- If order of cyclic group is prime (say) p then no of its generator are p-1
Theorem:
Every cyclic group is abelian.
PROOF: Let G be a cyclic group generated by 𝑎.
Then every element of a can be written as power of 𝑎.
Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟 & 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠
Now 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑎 𝑠 = 𝑎𝑟+𝑠 = 𝑎 𝑠+𝑟 = 𝑎 𝑠 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑦𝑥
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦𝑥
Hence G is abelian
𝑹𝑬𝑴𝑨𝑹𝑲
Every cyclic group is abelian but converse may not be true.
Its mean every Abelian group is not cyclic.
𝑉4 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏} Klein 4-group is abelian but not cyclic.
Theorem.
Every subgroup of cyclic group is cyclic.
PROOF:
Let G be a cyclic group generated by 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
Suppose that H is a subgroup of G.
𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑚 ∈ 𝐻
Take 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑚 now we have to show that every element of H generated by 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑚
Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻 where 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑘 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
So 𝑚 ≤ 𝑘 then by division algorithm
𝑘 = 𝑚𝑞 + 𝑟 − − − (1) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑚 q
𝑘 − 𝑚𝑞 = 𝑟 m k
√
Now 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎𝑘−𝑚𝑞
mq
r
= 𝑎𝑘 𝑎−𝑚𝑞 ∴𝑎𝑘 ∈ 𝐻 &𝑎𝑚 ∈ 𝐻 𝑠𝑜 𝑎−𝑚𝑞 ∈ 𝐻
𝐵𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺
So 𝑎𝑘 𝑎−𝑚𝑞 ∈ 𝐻
⇒ 𝑎𝑟 ∈ 𝐻 since m is least positive integer and r<m
It in only possible when r=0
So (1) ⇒ 𝑘 = 𝑚𝑞
Now 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑎𝑚𝑞 = (𝑎𝑚 )𝑞 = 𝑏𝑞
⇒ 𝑎𝑘 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏 .
So every element of H can be written as power of 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑚
Hence H is cyclic.
Note: If 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ are relatively prime then there exist 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ such that
ax + by = 1
|𝑖|=4 𝑖 4 = 1
𝐺 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖}
𝐺 = {𝑖, 𝑖 2 , 𝑖 3 , 𝑖 4 }
G={(𝑖 3 ), (𝑖 3 )2 , (𝑖 3 )3 , (𝑖 3 )4 } = {−𝑖, −1, 𝑖, 1}
𝑖 3 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐺
(𝑖 2 ) = −1, (𝑖 2 )2 = 1
𝑖 8 = 1,𝑖 12 = 𝑖 16 = 1
Relatively prime number
16 divisor of 16 are : 1,2,4,8,16
9 divisor of 9 are: 1,3,9
(16,9)=1
16 and 9 are relatively prime
16x+9y=1
14 divisor of 14 are: 1,2,7,14
21 divisor of 21 are: 1,3,7,21

(14,21)=7
14 and 21 are not relatively prime
𝐺 = {𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … 𝑎16 = 𝑒}
THEOREM:
Let 𝐺 =< 𝑎 ∶ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 > 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑘 also generator of G iff (k,n)=1
OR
Let G be a cyclic group generated by a of order n then an element 𝑎𝑘

in G is also generator of G iff k and n are relatively prime
PROOF:
Let 𝐺 =< 𝑎 ∶ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 >
Suppose that 𝑎𝑘 ∈ 𝐺 generator of G so every element of G can be written as

power of 𝑎𝑘
Then for some integer p such that
(𝑎 𝑘 )𝑝 = 𝑎
⇒𝑎𝑘𝑝 𝑎−1 = 𝑒
5|50 there exist 10 suct that
⇒𝑎𝑘𝑝−1 = 𝑒∴|a|=n 5x10=50
⇒n divides kp-1 (n|kp-1)
Then ∃ r ∈ ℤ such that
⇒ 𝑛𝑟 = 𝑘𝑝 − 1
⇒ 𝑘𝑝 − 𝑛𝑟 = 1
⇒ 𝑘(𝑝) + (−𝑟)𝑛 = 1
⇒ (k,n)=1
Conversely, suppose that
(k,n)=1
Then ∃ 𝑝, 𝑟 ∈ ℤ such that

⇒ 𝑘𝑝 − 𝑛𝑟 = 1
For 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ 𝑎1 = 𝑎𝑘𝑝−𝑛𝑟
⇒ 𝑎1 = 𝑎𝑘𝑝 𝑎−𝑛𝑟
⇒ 𝑎1 = (𝑎𝑘 )𝑝 (𝑎𝑛 )−𝑟
⇒ 𝑎1 = (𝑎𝑘 )𝑝 (𝑒 )−𝑟
⇒ 𝑎 = (𝑎 𝑘 )𝑝
⇒ 𝑎𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐺 .
MCQ: a group of order 13 is
(a)cyclic (b) abelian (c) non-abelian (d) none
𝑻𝑯𝑬𝑶𝑹𝑬𝑴:
𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑛
PROOF: Let G be a group of prime order p. i.e |G|=p

And let e≠𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 |𝑎| = 𝑛 𝑛 ≤ 𝑝
Its mean 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝐺
Then 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 … . , 𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 all are distinct element
And 𝐻 = { 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 … . , 𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒} is cyclic subgroup of G generated by a.
Clearly |H|=n
By Lagrange theorem order of subgroup divides the order of group
⇒|H|divides |G|
⇒n divides p
Since p is prime
So n=1 or n=p
Since 𝑎 ≠ 𝑒 𝑠𝑜 𝑛 ≠ 1
⇒ n=p
⇒|H|= |G|

⟺ H=G
Since H is cyclic so G is cyclic.
Since every cyclic group is abelian
So G is abelian.
THEOREM
Let G and G’ are two groups and φ:G→G’ be a group homomorphism .if G is
cyclic then show that φ(G) is cyclic
OR
The homomorphic image of cyclic group is cyclic.
PROOF: Given 𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝐺’ be a group homomorphism

‘Let G is cyclic group generated by a.such that 𝜑(𝑎) = 𝑎’ 𝜑
G
G
where 𝑎′ ∈ 𝐺′ Now we have to show that
every element of 𝜑(𝐺) can be written as power of 𝑎′
Let 𝑏′ ∈ 𝜑(𝐺)∃𝑎𝑘 ∈ 𝐺 such that (G)

𝒂
𝜑(𝑎𝑘 ) = 𝑏′ 𝝋(𝒂)
𝒌 = 𝒂′
𝒂
⇒ 𝑏′ = 𝜑(𝑎. 𝑎. 𝑎 … . 𝑎(𝑘𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒))∴ 𝜑 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚
b
⇒ 𝑏 = 𝜑(𝑎)𝜑(𝑎)𝜑(𝑎) … 𝜑(𝑎) (k-time)
′
𝑘
⇒ 𝑏′ = ( 𝜑(𝑎))
⇒ 𝑏′ = ( 𝑎′)𝑘
⇒ 𝜑(𝐺 )𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑐
INFINITE CYCLIC GROUP
→ 𝑮 = {𝟐𝒏 ∶ 𝒏 ∈ ℤ} = {𝟐𝟎 , 𝟐±𝟏 , 𝟐±𝟐 , … . } is group under multiplication

i) Closure Law
𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺𝑥 = 2𝑛1 𝑦 = 2𝑛2

𝑥𝑦 = 2𝑛1 2𝑛2
𝑥𝑦 = 2𝑛1+𝑛2 take 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 = 𝑚 ∈ ℤ
𝑥𝑦 = 2𝑚 ∈ 𝐺
(G,.) is closed
ii) Associative Law
𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐺 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 = 2𝑛1 𝑦 = 2𝑛2 , 𝑧 = 2𝑛3 &𝑛1 , 𝑛2 , 𝑛3 ∈ ℤ
𝑥(𝑦𝑧) = 2𝑛1 (2𝑛2 2𝑛3 )
𝑥(𝑦𝑧) = 2𝑛1 (2𝑛2+𝑛3 )
𝑥(𝑦𝑧) = 2𝑛1+(𝑛2+𝑛3 )
𝑥(𝑦𝑧) = 2(𝑛1+𝑛2)+𝑛3
𝑥(𝑦𝑧) = 2𝑛1 +𝑛2 2𝑛3
𝑥(𝑦𝑧) = (2𝑛1 2𝑛2 )2𝑛3
𝑥 (𝑦𝑧) = (𝑥𝑦)𝑧
(G, .) is associative.
iii) Identity element
For all 𝑥 = 2𝑛 ∈ 𝐺 there is e= 20 ∈ 𝐺 such that
𝑥𝑒 = 2𝑛 20 = 2𝑛+0 = 2𝑛 = 𝑥 and
𝑒𝑥 = 20 2𝑛 = 20+𝑛 = 2𝑛 = 𝑥
⇒𝑒𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒 = 𝑥
⇒𝑒 = 20 is identity element of G
iv) Inverse element
For all 𝑥 = 2𝑛 ∈ 𝐺 there exist 𝑥 −1 = 2−𝑛 ∈ 𝐺 ∀ 𝑛 ∈ ℤ 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝑥𝑥 −1 = 2𝑛 2−𝑛 = 2𝑛−𝑛 = 20 = 𝑒 and
𝑥 −1 𝑥 = 2−𝑛 2𝑛 = 2−𝑛+𝑛 = 20 = 𝑒
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 −1 = 𝑥 −1 𝑥 = 𝑒
⇒ 𝑥 −1 = 2−𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑛 ∀ 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
(G, . ) is group .
v) Commutative Law
𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺𝑥 = 2𝑛1 𝑦 = 2𝑛2 ∀ 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 ∈ ℤ
𝑥𝑦 = 2𝑛1 2𝑛2
𝑥𝑦 = 2𝑛1+𝑛2
𝑥𝑦 = 2𝑛2+𝑛1
𝑥𝑦 = 2𝑛2 2𝑛1
𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦𝑥
⇒ (G, . ) is abelian group.
Note:
→If G is finite cyclic group generated by 𝑎 then |𝐺| = |𝑎|(=n) ⇒𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒

𝐺 =< 𝑎: 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 >= {𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒}
And every element of G can be written as positive integer power of 𝑎.

→ If G is infinite cyclic group generated by 𝑎 then |𝐺 | = |𝑎| = ∞ and 𝑎0 = 𝑒
And every element of G can be written as integer power of 𝑎.
MCQ: The numbers of generator of infinite cyclic group are
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) none
THEOREM
If G has infinite order of cyclic group generated by 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 then 𝑎 and

𝑎−1 are only generator of G.
OR
Any infinite cyclic group has exactly 2 generator
PROOF:Let G be an infinite cyclic group generated by 𝑎.

Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 so 𝑥 can be written as integer power of 𝑎
That is 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
Now 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 = (𝑎−1 )−𝑛 and – 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
So 𝑎−1 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐺.
Now we have to show that 𝑎 ≠ 𝑎−1
On contrary suppose that 𝑎 = 𝑎−1
⇒𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎 −1
⇒ 𝑎2 = 𝑒
⇒ |a|=2<∞
Which is contradiction to fact that 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒
So 𝑎 ≠ 𝑎−1
Now we have to show 𝑎 &𝑎−1 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐺
On contrary suppose that 𝑎𝑚 ∈ 𝐺 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐺
Then there exist an integer 𝑙 ∈ 𝑍 such that
(𝑎 𝑚 )𝑙 = 𝑎

⇒𝑎𝑚𝑙 = 𝑎
⇒𝑎𝑚𝑙−1 = 𝑒
⇒ |a|<∞ contradiction
Hence 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎−1 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐺.
THEOREM
Let G be a group and ∈ 𝐺 . Show that order of 𝑎 and 𝑎−1 are equal.
PROOF:Let |𝑎| = 𝑛 and |𝑎−1| = 𝑚

𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑎−1 )𝑚 = 𝑒 ---------(i)
Consider 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎. 𝑎. 𝑎 … . 𝑎 (𝑚 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒) 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑎−1 )−1 = 𝑎
⇒𝑎𝑚 = (𝑎−1 )−1 . (𝑎−1 )−1 . (𝑎−1 )−1 … . (𝑎−1 )−1 (𝑚 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)(𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1
⇒𝑎𝑚 = (𝑎−1 . 𝑎−1 𝑎 −1 … 𝑎−1 )−1 (𝑚 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)
⇒𝑎𝑚 = ((𝑎−1 )𝑚 )−1 Using (i)
⇒𝑎𝑚 = (e)−1
⇒𝑎𝑚 = 𝑒
𝑖4 = 1
𝑖8 = 1
Since order of 𝑎 is n
So 𝑛 ≤ 𝑚 --------- (a)
Now consider
(𝑎−1 )𝑛 = 𝑎−1 . 𝑎−1 . 𝑎−1 … . . 𝑎−1 (𝑛 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 )
(𝑎−1 )𝑛 = (𝑎. 𝑎. 𝑎 … 𝑎)−1 (𝑛 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)
(𝑎−1 )𝑛 = (𝑎𝑛 )−1
(𝑎−1 )𝑛 = (𝑒)−1 using (i)
(𝑎−1 )𝑛 = 𝑒
Since order of 𝑎−1 is m
𝑚 ≤ 𝑛 − − − −(𝑏)
From (a) & (b)

𝑚=𝑛
ℤ𝑛 ≅ 𝐶𝑛
THEOREM
Any two cyclic groups of same order are Isomorphic.
PROOF:
Case I: finite cyclic Group
Let 𝐺 =< 𝑎: 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 >= {𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒}𝑎𝑛𝑑
2𝜋𝑖 𝑘 2𝑘𝜋𝑖
𝐶𝑛 = {𝑧 ∈ ℂ ∶ 𝑧 = (𝑒 𝑛 ) =𝑒 𝑛 ∧ 𝑘 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑛} group of 𝑛𝑡ℎ root of unity
We have to show that G ≅ Cn
2𝜋𝑖 𝑘
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝜑:𝐺 → 𝐶𝑛 by 𝜑(𝑎𝑘 ) = (𝑒 𝑛 )
𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2
𝝋 𝒊𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒍 − 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆.
4
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑖2 = 𝑖6𝑖 =1
𝑎 = 𝑎 |𝑘1 − 𝑘2 | ≤ 𝑛
⇒𝑎𝑘1 𝑎−𝑘2 = 𝑒
⇒𝑎𝑘1 −𝑘2 = 𝑒
⇒|𝑘1 − 𝑘2 | ≤ 𝑛
Since |𝑎| = 𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
⇒𝑘1 − 𝑘2 = 0
⇒𝑘1 = 𝑘2
2𝜋𝑖 𝑘1 2𝜋𝑖 𝑘2
⇒ (𝑒 𝑛 ) = (𝑒 𝑛 )
⇒ 𝜑(𝑎𝒌𝟏 ) = 𝜑(𝑎𝒌𝟐 )
𝝋 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒏𝒆 − 𝒐𝒏𝒆
𝜑(𝑎𝒌𝟏 ) = 𝜑(𝑎𝒌𝟐 )
2𝜋𝑖 𝒌𝟏 2𝜋𝑖 𝒌𝟐
⇒ (𝑒 𝑛 ) = (𝑒 𝑛 )

⇒𝑘1 = 𝑘2
𝑎𝑘1 = 𝑎𝑘2
𝝋 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒐
2𝜋𝑖 𝑘 2𝜋𝑖 𝑘
∀ (𝑒 𝑛 ) ∈ 𝐶𝑛 ∃ 𝑎𝑘 ∈ 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝜑(𝑎𝑘 ) = (𝑒 𝑛 )
𝝋 𝒊𝒔 𝑯𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒎
𝜑(𝑎𝒌𝟏 𝑎𝒌𝟐 ) = 𝜑(𝑎𝒌𝟏 +𝒌𝟐 )
2𝜋𝑖 𝒌𝟏 +𝒌𝟐
=(𝑒 𝑛 )
2𝜋𝑖 𝒌𝟏 2𝜋𝑖 𝒌𝟐
=(𝑒 𝑛 ) (𝑒 𝑛 )
= 𝜑(𝑎𝒌𝟏 )𝜑(𝑎𝒌𝟐 )
⟹ 𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚
⟹ 𝐺 ≅ 𝐶𝑛
Case I: infinite cyclic Group
Let G is infinite cyclic group generated by a
𝐺 = {𝑎𝑛 ∶ 𝑛 ∈ ℤ} and ℤ = {0, ±1, ±2, … }𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
Define 𝜓: ℤ → 𝐺 By 𝜓(𝑛) = 𝑎𝑛
𝝍 𝒊𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒍 − 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆
n1 = n2
𝑎 n1 = 𝑎 n2
𝜓(n1 ) = 𝜓(n2 )
𝝍 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒏𝒆
𝜓(n1 ) = 𝜓(n2 )
𝑎 n1 = 𝑎 n2
⇒n1 = n2
𝝍 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒐
∀ 𝑎𝑛 ∈ 𝐺 ∃ 𝑛 ∈ ℤ 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡

𝜓 (𝑛 ) = 𝑎 𝑛
𝝍 𝒊𝒔 𝑯𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒎
𝜓(n1 + n2 ) = 𝑎 n1 +n2
= 𝑎 n1 𝑎 n2
= 𝜓(n1 )𝜓(n2 )
⟹ 𝝍 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒎
⟹ G≅ ℤ
QUESTION
Let 𝐺 =< 𝑥, 𝑦 ∶ 𝑥 3 = 𝑦 2 = 𝑥𝑦 = 1 > 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡G={1}.
𝑆𝑂𝐿𝑈𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁
Given 𝐺 =< 𝑥, 𝑦 ∶ 𝑥 3 = 𝑦 2 = 𝑥𝑦 = 1 >
Since 𝑥𝑦 = 1
Post multiply both sides by 𝑦 −1
𝑥𝑦𝑦 −1 = 1𝑦 −1 ∴𝑦𝑦 −1 = 1
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦 −1 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (𝑖)
Now 𝑦 2 = 𝑥𝑦
𝑦. 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦
By using right cancelation law
𝑦 = 𝑥 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (𝑖𝑖)
Now we take
𝑥 3 = 𝑦 2 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑖𝑖)
𝑥3 = 𝑥2
⇒𝑥 2 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 1
By using left cancelation law
⇒𝑥 = 1 then by (ii) 𝑦 = 1

Hence 𝐺 = {1}.
MCQ: the smallest non-abelian group of order_____
(a) 4 (b) 5 (c) 6 (d) none
MCQ: the smallest non-cyclic group of order_____
(a) 4 (b) 5 (c) 6 (d) none
𝑸𝑼𝑬𝑺𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 6 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡.
SOLUTION: Since a group of order 1 contains only identity element which is

trivially commutative group.
Since a group of prime order is commutative
So a group of order 2, 3 and 5 are commutative.
Since 4=2*2 and 2 is prime number

G={e}
⇒ Group of order 4 is commutative.
Ab=ba
Since we have a group of order 6 which is dihedral group
e.e=e.e
D3 which is non-commutative.
The proof is complete.
MCQ: let G be a cyclic group generated by a of order 60 then |𝑎22 | =___
(a) 20 (b)30 (c)40 (d) none
COMPLEX IN GROUP
An arbitrary subset of a group G is called complex in G.

Example𝐺 = {1, −1, 𝑖. −𝑖 }
All the complex of G are

{1}, {−1}, {𝑖 }, {−𝑖 }, {1, −1}, {1, 𝑖 }, {1, −𝑖 }, {−1, 𝑖 }, {−1, −𝑖 }, {𝑖, −𝑖 },
{1, −1, 𝑖 }, {1, −1, −𝑖 }, {1, 𝑖, −𝑖 }, {−1, 𝑖, −𝑖 }
Remark. Every subgroup is complex but every complex may not be

subgroup.

Definition
Two complexes X and Y of a group G is said to be permutable iff
XY=YX
EXAMPLE 1 − 𝐷3 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏} E a3=e, b2=e, (ab)2=e
1) 𝑋 = {𝑎, 𝑏} 𝑌 = {𝑎2 , 𝑎2 𝑏}
𝑋𝑌 = {𝑎, 𝑏}{𝑎2 , 𝑎2 𝑏} = {𝑎3 , 𝑎3 𝑏, 𝑏𝑎2 , 𝑏𝑎2 𝑏} = {𝑒, 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎}
𝑌𝑋 = {𝑎2 , 𝑎2 𝑏}{𝑎, 𝑏} = {𝑎3 , 𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏𝑎, 𝑎2 𝑏2 } = {𝑒, 𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑎, 𝑎2 }
⇒ 𝑋 & 𝑌 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
2) 𝑋 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 } 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑌 = {𝑒, 𝑏}
𝑋𝑌 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 }{𝑒, 𝑏} = {𝑒, 𝑏, 𝑎, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 , 𝑎2 𝑏}
𝑌𝑋 = {𝑒, 𝑏}{𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 } = {e, a, a2 , 𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏}
𝑋 & 𝑌 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
3) 𝑋 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑏 } 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑌 = {𝑎, 𝑏}

𝑋𝑌 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑏 }{𝑎, 𝑏} = {a, b, 𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑒}
2 − 𝐷4 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑎3 𝑏} a4=e, b2=e, (ab)2=e
Which of the following are permutable
1) 𝑋 = {𝑒, 𝑎} 𝑌 = {𝑎2 , 𝑎3 }
2) 𝑋 = {𝑎, 𝑏} 𝑌 = {𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏}
3) 𝑋 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 } 𝑌 = {𝑒, 𝑎𝑏}

4) 𝑋 = {𝑒, 𝑎2 } 𝑌 = {𝑒, 𝑎2𝑏}
Remark.
1)if G is abelian then any two complexes are permutable
2) If G is not abelian then two complexes may or may not be permutable .
3) if X and Y are two permutable complexes of a group G.
XY=YX then for 𝑥𝑦 ∈ 𝑋𝑌 ∃ 𝑥 ′ ∈ 𝑋&𝑦 ′ ∈ 𝑌𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦′𝑥′
THEOREM

A non-empty subset H of a group G is subgroup iff 𝐻𝐻 −1 ⊆ 𝐻
PROOF: Let H is a subgroup of G
Let 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻𝐻 −1
Since H is a subgroup of G then for any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻
So 𝐻𝐻 −1 ⊆ 𝐻
Conversely Suppose that 𝐻𝐻 −1 ⊆ 𝐻
We want to show that H is subgroup of G
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻
Since 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻 −1
𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻𝐻−1
And 𝐻𝐻−1 ⊆ 𝐻
⇒ 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻
Hence H is subgroup of G.
MCQ: the product of two subgroup H and K of a group G is subgroup if ______
(a)𝐻𝐾 ≠ 𝐾𝐻 (b) HK=KH (c) not subgroup (d) none
THEOREM
Let H and K be two subgroup of a group G then HK is also subgroup of G iff

H & K are permutable.( HK=KH)
PROOF: Suppose that HK is a subgroup of G

We have to show HK=KH
𝑥 ∈ 𝐻𝐾 ⇒ 𝑥 = ℎ𝑘 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ ∈ 𝐻 & 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾
Since HK is Subgroup of G so 𝑥 −1 ∈ 𝐻𝐾
Now 𝑥 −1 = (ℎ𝑘)−1 = 𝑘 −1 ℎ−1 ∈ 𝐾𝐻
⇒ 𝐻𝐾 ⊆ 𝐾𝐻 ----(i)
𝑦 ∈ 𝐾𝐻 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑘′ℎ′ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ′ ∈ 𝐻 & 𝑘′ ∈ 𝐾
𝑦 = 𝑘 ′ ℎ′ = (𝑘 ′−1 )−1 (ℎ′−1 )−1 = (ℎ′−1 𝑘 ′−1 )−1

Since 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺
ℎ′ ∈ 𝐻𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 ′ ∈ 𝐾 ⇒ ℎ′−1 ∈ 𝐻𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 ′−1 ∈ 𝐾
⇒ ℎ′−1 𝑘 ′−1 ∈ 𝐻𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 n
⇒ (ℎ′−1 𝑘 ′−1 )−1 ∈ 𝐻𝐾
⇒ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻𝐾
⇒ 𝐾𝐻 ⊆ 𝐻𝐾 ----(ii)
From (i) & (ii)
⇒ 𝐻𝐾 = 𝐾𝐻
Hence H & K are permutable
Conversely, Suppose that H and K are permutable so
HK=KH
We have to show HK is subgroup of G
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻𝐾
𝑥 = ℎ1 𝑘1 & 𝑦 = ℎ2 𝑘2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ1 , ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 ∈ 𝐾
Now
𝑥𝑦 −1 = (ℎ1 𝑘1 )(ℎ2 𝑘2 )−1
𝑥𝑦 −1 = (ℎ1 𝑘1 )(𝑘2−1 ℎ2−1 )
𝑥𝑦 −1 = ℎ1 𝑘1 𝑘2−1 ℎ2−1 Sellect 𝑘1 𝑘2−1 = 𝑘3 ∈ 𝐾
𝑥𝑦 −1 = ℎ1 𝑘3 ℎ2−1 Since HK=KH
For 𝑘3 ℎ2−1 there exist k”∈K and h”∈H
Such that 𝑘3 ℎ2−1 = h” k”
𝑥𝑦 −1 = ℎ1 𝑘3 ℎ2−1 = ℎ1 h” k”∈HK
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 −1 ∈HK
Hence HK is subgroup of G.
NORMALIZER
Let X be an arbitrary complex of a group G. the set of those element of G which

permute with X is called normalize of X in G and denotes as NG (X)

𝑖. 𝑒 NG (X) = {g ∈ G ∶ gX = Xg}
Note: NG (X)is always non empty because eX = Xe so e ∈ NG (X)
EXAMPL 𝟏 − 𝑆3 = 𝐷3 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏} a3=e, b2=e, (ab)2=e
(i) 𝑿 = {𝒂, 𝒃}
𝑒 ∈ 𝐷3
𝑒𝑋 = {𝑎, 𝑏} 𝑋𝑒 = {𝑎, 𝑏} 𝑒𝑋 = 𝑋𝑒
𝑎 ∈ 𝐷3
𝑎𝑋 = 𝑎{𝑎, 𝑏} = {𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑏} 𝑋𝑎 = {𝑎, 𝑏}𝑎 = {𝑎2 , 𝑏𝑎} = {𝑎2 , 𝑎2 𝑏} 𝑎𝑋 ≠ 𝑋𝑎

𝑎2 ∈ 𝐷3
𝑎2 𝑋 = 𝑎2 {𝑎, 𝑏} = {𝑒, 𝑎2 𝑏 } 𝑋𝑎2 = {𝑎, 𝑏}𝑎2 = {𝑒, 𝑎𝑏} 𝑎2 𝑋 ≠ 𝑋𝑎2

𝑏 ∈ 𝐷3
𝑏𝑋 = 𝑏{𝑎, 𝑏} = {𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑒} 𝑋𝑏 = {𝑎, 𝑏}𝑏 = {𝑎𝑏, 𝑒} 𝑏𝑋 ≠ 𝑋𝑏

𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐷3
𝑎𝑏𝑋 = 𝑎𝑏{𝑎, 𝑏} = {𝑎𝑏𝑎, 𝑎𝑏2 } 𝑋𝑎𝑏 = {𝑎, 𝑏}𝑎𝑏 = {𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑏𝑎𝑏} = {𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑎2 } 𝑎𝑏𝑋
= {𝑏, 𝑎} ≠ 𝑋𝑎𝑏
𝑎2 𝑏 ∈ 𝐷3
𝑎2 𝑏𝑋 = 𝑋𝑎2 𝑏 =
N𝐷3 (X) = {𝑒}
(ii) 𝑯 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 }
𝑒 ∈ 𝐷3
𝑒𝐻 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 } 𝐻𝑒 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 } 𝑒𝐻 = 𝐻𝑒
𝑎 ∈ 𝐷3
𝑎𝐻 = 𝑎{𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 } = {𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒆} 𝐻𝑎 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 }𝒂 𝑎𝐻 = 𝐻𝑎

= {𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒆}
𝑎2 ∈ 𝐷3
𝑎2 𝐻 = 𝑎 𝐻𝑎2 = 𝑎2 𝐻 = 𝐻𝑎2
𝑏 ∈ 𝐷3
𝑏𝐻 = 𝑏{𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 } = {𝑏, 𝑏𝑎, 𝑏𝑎2 } 𝐻𝑏 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 }𝑏 𝑏𝐻 = 𝐻𝑏

= {𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏} = {𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏}
𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐷3
𝑎𝑏𝐻 = 𝐻𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏𝐻 = 𝐻𝑎𝑏

𝑎2 𝑏 ∈ 𝐷3
𝑎2 𝑏𝐻 = 𝐻𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑎2 𝑏𝐻 = 𝐻𝑎2 𝑏

N𝐷3 (H) = 𝐷3
MCQ: the subset H={𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 } of dihedral group of order 6 𝑫𝟑 . Then 𝑵𝑫𝟑 (𝑯) =___
(a). H (b) 𝑫𝟑 (c) {𝒆, 𝒃} (d) none
MCQ: the subset H={𝒆, 𝒃} of dihedral group of order 6 𝑫𝟑 . Then 𝑵𝑫𝟑 (𝑯) =___
(a). H (b) 𝑫𝟑 (c) {𝒆, 𝒂𝒃} (d) none
THEOREM
Let X be arbitrary complex of a group G then Show that𝑁𝐺 (𝑋) is

subgroup of G.
PROOF: We Know that

𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺
N𝐺 (X) = {g ∈ G ∶ gX = Xg}
𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻 we show that 𝑥𝑦 −1 ∈
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ N𝐺 (X) 𝐻
Then 𝑎𝑋 = 𝑋𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑋 = 𝑋𝑏
Then 𝑋𝑏 −1 = 𝑏 −1 𝑋
We have to show 𝑎𝑏−1 𝑋 = 𝑋𝑎𝑏−1
Consider 𝑎𝑏 −1 𝑋 = 𝑎(𝑏−1 𝑋) = 𝑎𝑋𝑏 −1 = 𝑋𝑎𝑏 −1
So 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ N𝐺 (X)
⇒N𝐺 (X) is subgroup of G.
Home Work
1) Find The Normalizer of 𝑋 = {𝑒, 𝑏} 𝑖𝑛 𝐷3

2) Find The Normalizer of 𝑋 = {𝑒, 𝑏} 𝑖𝑛 𝐷4
3) Find The Normalizer of 𝑋 = {𝑎, 𝑏} 𝑖𝑛 𝐷4
4) Find The Normalizer of 𝑋 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 } 𝑖𝑛 𝐷4
5) Find The Normalizer of 𝑋 = {𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑏} 𝑖𝑛 𝐷4
6) Find The Normalizer of 𝑋 = {1, 𝑖 } 𝑖𝑛 𝑄8
7) Find The Normalizer of 𝑋 = {−𝑖, 𝑖 } 𝑖𝑛 𝑄8

8) Find The Normalizer of 𝑋 = {1, −1, −𝑗, −𝑗} 𝑖𝑛 𝑄8
CENTRALIZER
Let X be an arbitrary complex of a group G. the set of those element of G which

permute/commute with each element of X is called Centralizer of X in G and
denotes as CG (X)
𝑖. 𝑒 CG (X) = {g ∈ G ∶ gx = xg ∀ x ∈ X}
Note: CG (H)is always non empty because ex = xe ∀ x ∈ X so e ∈ NG (H)
EXAMPL 1 − 𝑆3 = 𝐷3 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏} a3=e, b2=e, (ab)2=e
(i) 𝑋 = {𝑎, 𝑏}
𝑒𝑎 = 𝑎𝑒 & 𝑒𝑏 = 𝑏𝑒 𝑒 ∈ 𝐶𝐷3 (𝑋)

𝑎𝑏 ≠ 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎 ∉ C𝐷3 (X)
𝑎2 . 𝑎 = 𝑎. 𝑎2 &𝑎2 𝑏 ≠ 𝑏𝑎2 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑎2 ∉ C𝐷3 (X)
𝑏𝑎 ≠ 𝑎𝑏 𝑏 ∉ C𝐷3 (X)
𝑎𝑏. 𝑎 = 𝑏 ≠ 𝑎. 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎𝑏 ∉ C𝐷3 (X)
𝑎2 𝑏. 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑏 ≠ 𝑎. 𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏 ∉ C𝐷3 (X)
𝐶𝐷3 (𝑋) = {𝑒}
EXAMPL 1 − 𝐷4 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑎3 𝑏} 𝑎4 = 𝑒, 𝑏2 = 𝑒, (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑒
(i) 𝑋 = {𝑎, 𝑏}
𝑒𝑎 = 𝑎𝑒 & 𝑒𝑏 = 𝑏𝑒 𝑒 ∈ 𝐶𝐷4 (𝑋)

𝑎𝑏 ≠ 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑎3 𝑏 𝑎 ∉ C𝐷4 (X)
𝑎2 . 𝑎 = 𝑎. 𝑎2 &𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎2 = 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎2 ∈ 𝐶𝐷4 (𝑋)
𝑎3 . 𝑎 = 𝑎. 𝑎3 &𝑎3 𝑏 ≠ 𝑏𝑎3 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑎3 ∉ C𝐷4 (X)
𝑏𝑎 ≠ 𝑎𝑏 𝑏 ∉ C𝐷4 (X)
𝑎𝑏. 𝑎 = 𝑏 ≠ 𝑎. 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎𝑏 ∉ C𝐷4 (X)
𝑎2 𝑏. 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑏 ≠ 𝑎. 𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑎3 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏 ∉ CG (X)
𝑎3 𝑏. 𝑎 = 𝑎2 𝑏 ≠ 𝑎. 𝑎3 𝑏 = 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏 ∉ CG (X)
𝐶𝐺 (𝑋) = {𝑒, 𝑎2 }
(i) 𝑯 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 } 𝒊𝒏 𝑫𝟑
𝑒𝑎 = 𝑎𝑒 & 𝑒𝑎2 = 𝑎2 𝑒 𝑒 ∈ 𝐶𝐷3 (𝐻)

𝑒𝑎 = 𝑎𝑒, 𝑎. 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 𝑎 𝑎 ∈ 𝐶𝐷3 (𝐻)
𝑎2 . 𝑎 = 𝑎. 𝑎2 &𝑎2 𝑒 = 𝑏𝑒 𝑎2 ∈ 𝐶𝐷3 (𝐻)

𝑏𝑎 ≠ 𝑎𝑏 𝑏 ∉ 𝐶𝐷3 (𝐻)
𝑎𝑏. 𝑎 = 𝑏 ≠ 𝑎. 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎𝑏 ∉ 𝐶𝐷3 (𝐻)
𝑎2 𝑏. 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑏 ≠ 𝑎. 𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑎3 𝑏 = 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏 ∉ CG (X)
𝐶𝐷3 (𝐻) = 𝐻
Home Work
1) Find The centralizer of 𝑋 = {𝑒, 𝑏} 𝑖𝑛 𝐷3

2) Find The centralizer of 𝑋 = {𝑒, 𝑏} 𝑖𝑛 𝐷4
3) Find The centralizer of 𝑋 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 } 𝑖𝑛 𝐷4
4) Find The centralizer of 𝑋 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 } 𝑖𝑛 𝐷4
5) Find The centralizer of 𝑋 = {𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑏} 𝑖𝑛 𝐷4
6) Find The centralizer of 𝑋 = {1, 𝑖 } 𝑖𝑛 𝑄8
7) Find The centralizer of 𝑋 = {−𝑖, 𝑖 } 𝑖𝑛 𝑄8
8) Find The centralizer of 𝑋 = {1, −1, −𝑗, −𝑗} 𝑖𝑛 𝑄8
THEOREM
Let X be arbitrary complex of a group G then Show that is𝐂𝑮 (𝐗)

subgroup of G.
PROOFWe Know that

𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺
CG (X) = {g ∈ G ∶ gx = xg ∀ x ∈ X}
𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻 we show that 𝑥𝑦 −1 ∈
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ CG (X) 𝐻
Then 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑥𝑏 ∀ x ∈ X
Then 𝑥𝑏 −1 = 𝑏 −1 𝑥
We have to show 𝑎𝑏−1 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑎𝑏−1 ∀ x ∈ X
Consider 𝑎𝑏 −1 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑏 −1 𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑥𝑏 −1 = 𝑥𝑎𝑏−1 ∀ x ∈ X
So 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ C𝐺 (X)
⇒C𝐺 (X) is subgroup of G.
→ 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝐂𝑮 (𝐗) ≤ 𝐍𝑮 (𝐗)
MCQ: Let G be a group and X be any complex of G then which of the following
is true

(a). 𝐂𝑮 (𝐗) < 𝐍𝑮 (𝐗) (b) 𝐂𝑮 (𝐗) > 𝐍𝑮 (𝐗)
(c). both (d) none
CENTRE OF GROUP
The set of those element of G which commute all element of G .We can say that
centralizer of G in G is called center of G
𝐂𝑮 (𝐆) = 𝐙(𝐆) = 𝛏(𝐆) = {𝒈 ∈ 𝑮 ∶ 𝒈𝒂 = 𝒂𝒈 ∀ 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮}

EXAMPL 1 − 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆3 = 𝐷3 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏} 𝑎3 = 𝑒, 𝑏2 = 𝑒, (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑒
𝑒 ∈ 𝐷3 since ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷3 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒
𝑎 ∈ 𝐷3 𝑎𝑒 = 𝑒𝑎, 𝑎. 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 . 𝑎, 𝑎𝑏 ≠ 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑎2 𝑏
𝑎2 ∈ 𝐷3 𝑎2 𝑒 = 𝑒𝑎2 , 𝑎. 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 . 𝑎, 𝑎2 𝑏 ≠ 𝑏𝑎2 = 𝑎𝑏
𝑏 ∈ 𝐷3 𝑏𝑎 ≠ 𝑎𝑏
a𝑏 ∈ 𝐷3 𝑎𝑏. 𝑎 = 𝑏&𝑎. 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎2 𝑏 so 𝑎𝑏. 𝑎 ≠ 𝑎. 𝑎𝑏
𝑎2 𝑏 ∈ 𝐷3 𝑎2 𝑏. 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑏&𝑎. 𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑏 so 𝑎2 𝑏. 𝑎 ≠ 𝑎. 𝑎2 𝑏
Hence Z(𝐷3 ) = {e}
1 − 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷4 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑎3 𝑏} 𝑎4 = 𝑒, 𝑏2 = 𝑒, (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑒
𝑒 ∈ 𝐷4 since ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷4 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒
𝑎 ∈ 𝐷4 𝑎𝑏 ≠ 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑎3 𝑏
𝑎2 ∈ 𝐷4 𝑎2 . 𝑎 = 𝑎. 𝑎2 , 𝑎2 . 𝑎3 = 𝑎3 . 𝑎2 , 𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎2 ,
𝑎2 . 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎3 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏. 𝑎2 = 𝑎3 𝑏 so 𝑎2 . 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏. 𝑎2
Also 𝑎2 . 𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑎2 𝑏. 𝑎2 and 𝑎2 . 𝑎3 𝑏 = 𝑎3 𝑏. 𝑎2
Z(D4 ) = {e, a2 }
Generally
{𝒆} 𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒅𝒅
𝒁(𝑫𝒏 ) = { 𝒏
{𝒆, 𝒂 }𝟐 𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏
MCQ: The minimum order of centre of dihedral group 𝑫𝒏 of order 2n is

(a). 1 (b) 𝟐 (c) 𝟐𝒏 (d) none
MCQ: The maximum order of centre of dihedral group 𝑫𝒏 of order 2n is

(a). 1 (b) 𝟐 (c) 𝟐𝒏 (d) none
MCQ: The centre of dihedral group 𝟔 of order 12 is

(a). {e} (b) {𝒆, 𝒂𝟐 } (c) {𝒆, 𝒂𝟑 } (d) none
MCQ: let G be a abelian group then 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑮 𝒁(𝑮) = ___

(a). {e} (b) 𝑮 (c) (𝒂)& (𝑏) (d) none
THEOREM
Centre of group is subgroup of G .
PROOFSince 𝒁(𝑮) = {𝒈 ∈ 𝑮 ∶ 𝒈𝒂 = 𝒂𝒈 ∀𝒂 ∈ 𝑮}
Let 𝒙, 𝒚 ∈ 𝒁(𝑮) then 𝒙𝒂 = 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚𝒂 = 𝒂𝒚 ∀𝒂 ∈ 𝑮
Then 𝒂𝒚−𝟏 = 𝒚−𝟏 𝒂
We have to show that 𝒙𝒚−𝟏 ∈ 𝒁(𝑮)
Now consider for all 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮 𝒙𝒚−𝟏 𝒂 = 𝒙𝒂𝒚−𝟏 = 𝒂𝒙𝒚−𝟏
Hence 𝒙𝒚−𝟏 ∈ 𝒁(𝑮)
⇒ 𝒁(𝑮)𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 𝒐𝒇 𝑮.
CONJUGATE ELEMENT IN GROUP
Let G be a group and let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 then the element 𝑏 = 𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 for 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺is
called conjugate element of group G
𝑏 = 𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎.

Example𝑮 = {𝟏, −𝟏, 𝒊, −𝒊}
Conjugate element of 𝑖
1𝑖1−1 = 1𝑖1 = 𝑖 ,(−1)𝑖(−1)−1 = (−1)𝑖(−1) = 𝑖
𝑖𝑖𝑖 −1 = 𝑖 ,(−𝑖 )𝑖(−𝑖 )−1 = (−𝑖 )𝑖(𝑖) = 𝑖
Conjugate elements of 𝑖 is only 𝑖

𝑫𝟑 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒃, 𝒂𝒃, 𝒂𝟐 𝒃}𝒂𝟑 = 𝒃𝟐 = (𝒂𝒃)𝟐 = 𝒆
Conjugate element of e
𝑔e𝑔−1 = 𝑔𝑔−1 = 𝑒 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐷3
𝐶𝑒 = {𝑒}
Conjugate element of 𝑎 ∈ 𝐷3
𝑔𝑎𝑔−1
𝑒𝑎𝑒 −1 = 𝑒𝑎𝑒 = 𝑎
𝑎𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎2 = 𝑎𝑎3 = 𝑎. 𝑒 = 𝑎
𝑎2 𝑎(𝑎2 )−1 = 𝑎2 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎
𝑏𝑎𝑏 −1 = 𝑏𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎2 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎2
(𝑎𝑏)𝑎(𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎2
(𝑎2 𝑏)𝑎(𝑎2 𝑏)−1 = 𝑎2 𝑏𝑎𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑎2 𝑏𝑎3 𝑏 = 𝑎2
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎, 𝑎2
𝐶𝑎 = {𝑎, 𝑎2 }
Find Conjugate element of 𝒂𝟐 ∈ 𝑫𝟑 𝒊. 𝒆 𝑪𝒂𝟐
Find Conjugate element of 𝒃 ∈ 𝑫𝟑 𝒊. 𝒆 𝑪𝒃
Find Conjugate element of 𝒂𝒃 ∈ 𝑫𝟑 𝒊. 𝒆 𝑪𝒂𝒃
Find Conjugate element of 𝒂𝟐 𝒃 ∈ 𝑫𝟑 𝒊. 𝒆 𝑪𝒂𝟐 𝒃
QUESTION:
Show that conjugate element in a group G have same order
OR
Prove that in a group G 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 order of 𝑎 & 𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 same order
SOLUTION
Suppose that |𝑎| = 𝑛 &|𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 | = 𝑚
Implies that 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 &(𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 )𝑚 = 𝑒
Consider

𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎. 𝑎. 𝑎 … . 𝑎(𝑚 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)
𝑎𝑚 = 𝑒𝑎𝑒𝑎𝑒𝑎𝑒 … . 𝑒𝑎𝑒(𝑚 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)∴𝑔−1 𝑔 = 𝑒
𝑎𝑚 = 𝑔−1 𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 𝑔 … . 𝑔−1 𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 𝑔(𝑚 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)
𝑎𝑚 = 𝑔−1 (𝑔𝑎𝑔 −1 )(𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 )(𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 )𝑔 … . 𝑔−1 (𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 )𝑔(𝑚 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)
𝑎𝑚 = 𝑔−1 (𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 )𝑚 𝑔∴(𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 )𝑚 = 𝑒
𝑎𝑚 = 𝑔−1 𝑒𝑔 = 𝑔−1 𝑔 = 𝑒
Since |𝑎| = 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑒
S0 𝑛 ≤ 𝑚---(1)
Now Consider
(𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 )𝑛 = (𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 )(𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 )(𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 ) … . (𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 ) 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
(𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 )𝑛 = 𝑔𝑎(𝑔−1 𝑔)𝑎(𝑔−1 𝑔) … . 𝑎(𝑔−1 𝑔 )𝑎𝑔−1
(𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 )𝑛 = 𝑔𝑎(𝑒)𝑎(𝑒) … . 𝑎(𝑒)𝑎𝑔−1
(𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 )𝑛 = 𝑔𝑎𝑎 … . 𝑎𝑎𝑔−1 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
(𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 )𝑛 = 𝑔𝑎𝑛 𝑔−1 Since 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒
(𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 )𝑛 = 𝑔𝑒𝑔−1 = 𝑒
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 |𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 | = 𝑚
So 𝑚 ≤ 𝑛------(2)
From (1) and (2) 𝑛 = 𝑚
Hence |𝑎|𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 | 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙
SELF-CONJUGATE ELEMENT
An element "𝑎" of a group G is said be to be self-conjugate element of

G if 𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 = 𝑎 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
Remark
1) if 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 is self-conjugate element then Ca = {a}
2) Identity element of a group G is self-conjugate element 𝑖. 𝑒 Ce = {e}
3) If G is abelian then every element of a group G is self-conjugate element
that is Ca = {a} ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
4) 𝑎 ∈ 𝑍(𝐺 ) 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

MCQ: let G be a abelian group then 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑮
(a). self-conjugate element (b) 𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝒁(𝑮)
(c) (𝒂)& (𝑏) (d) none
MCQ: the number of self-conjugate element of 𝑫𝟒 𝒂𝒓𝒆

(a). 1 (b) 𝟐 (c) 𝟑 (d) none
MCQ: The element 𝒂 ∈ 𝑫𝟒 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑪𝒂 =____

(a). {e,a} (b) {𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 } (c) {𝒂, 𝒂𝟑 } (d) none
MCQ: let G be a abelian group then 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮 𝒕𝒉𝒆 |𝑪𝒂 | =

(a). 1 (b) 𝟐 (c) 𝟑 (d) none
Q- Find all conjugate element of all element of
𝐷4 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑎3 𝑏}𝑎4 = 𝑏2 = (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑒
And which are self-conjugate element?

Conjugate element of 𝑒 ∈ 𝐷4
𝑔e𝑔−1 = 𝑔𝑔−1 = 𝑒 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐷4
𝐶𝑒 = {𝑒} (𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡)
Conjugate element of 𝑎 ∈ 𝐷4
𝑔𝑎𝑔−1
𝑒𝑎𝑒 −1 = 𝑎
𝑎𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎3 = 𝑎
𝑎2 𝑎(𝑎2 )−1 = 𝑎2 𝑎𝑎2 = 𝑎
𝑎3 𝑎(𝑎3 )−1 = 𝑎3 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎
𝑏𝑎𝑏−1 = 𝑏𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎3 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎3
(𝑎𝑏)𝑎(𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎3
(𝑎2 𝑏)𝑎(𝑎2 𝑏)−1 = 𝑎2 𝑏𝑎𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑎2 𝑏𝑎3 𝑏 = 𝑎2 𝑎𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎3
(𝑎3 𝑏)𝑎(𝑎3 𝑏)−1 = 𝑎3 𝑏𝑎𝑎3 𝑏 = 𝑎3 𝑏𝑎4 𝑏 = 𝑎3

𝐶𝑎 = {𝑎, 𝑎3 }
Conjugate element of 𝑎2 ∈ 𝐷4
𝑔𝑎2 𝑔−1
𝑒𝑎2 𝑒 −1 = 𝑎2
𝑎𝑎2 𝑎−1 = 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎3 = 𝑎2
𝑎2 𝑎2 (𝑎2 )−1 = 𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑎2 = 𝑎2
𝑎3 𝑎2 (𝑎3 )−1 = 𝑎3 𝑎2 𝑎 = 𝑎2
𝑏𝑎2 𝑏 −1 = 𝑏𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑎2 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎2
(𝑎𝑏)𝑎2 (𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑎𝑏𝑎2 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏𝑎3 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎2
(𝑎2 𝑏)𝑎2 (𝑎2 𝑏)−1 = 𝑎2 𝑏𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑎2 𝑏𝑎4 𝑏 = 𝑎2
(𝑎3 𝑏)𝑎2 (𝑎3 𝑏)−1 = 𝑎3 𝑏𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑏 = 𝑎3 𝑏𝑎5 𝑏 = 𝑎3 𝑏𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎2
𝐶𝑎2 = {𝑎2 }( 𝑎2 ∈ 𝐷4 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡)
Conjugate element of 𝑎3 ∈ 𝐷4
𝐶𝑎3 = {𝑎, 𝑎3 }
Conjugate element of 𝑏 ∈ 𝐷4
Conjugate element of 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐷4
Conjugate element of 𝑎2 𝑏 ∈ 𝐷4
Conjugate element of 𝑎3 𝑏 ∈ 𝐷4
Q- Find all conjugate element of all element of
(𝑖)𝐷5 (𝑖𝑖)𝐷6(𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝑄8 (𝑖𝑣 )𝑉4(𝑣 )𝐶6
And which are self-conjugate element?

Note:𝐶6 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 6
𝐶6 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 , 𝑎5 }𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎6 = 𝑒
THEOREM
The relation of conjugacy in a group G is equivalence relation.
PROOF: We define relation R of conjugacy

𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
𝑎𝑅𝑏 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑏 = 𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
i) Reflexive
We know that every element of group is must be conjugate element of
itself
𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 = 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 𝑎𝑅𝑎 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
ii) Symmetric
Let for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 𝑎𝑅𝑏
Then 𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 = 𝑏 for any 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
𝑝𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝑔−1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑔−1 𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 𝑔 = 𝑔−1 𝑏𝑔

𝑒𝑎𝑒 = 𝑔−1 𝑏𝑔
𝑎 = 𝑔−1 𝑏𝑔
𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑏
⇒ 𝑏𝑅𝑎
R is symmetric.
iii) Transitive
Let 𝑎𝑅𝑏 & 𝑏𝑅𝑐
Then there is 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ∈ 𝐺
𝑔1 𝑎𝑔1−1 = 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔2 𝑏𝑔2−1 = 𝑐

Now we have
𝑔2 (𝑔1 𝑎𝑔1−1 )𝑔2−1 = 𝑐
(𝑔2 𝑔1 )𝑎(𝑔1−1 𝑔2−1 ) = 𝑐
(𝑔2 𝑔1 )𝑎(𝑔2 𝑔1 )−1 = 𝑐
Take 𝑔2 𝑔1 = 𝑔3
(𝑔3 )𝑎(𝑔3 )−1 = 𝑐
C is conjugate element of a
So 𝑎𝑅𝑐
⇒ R is transitive.
Hence R is equivalence relation
Remark: equivalence relation defines partition of set into disjoint classes.
𝐷3 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏}𝑎3 = 𝑏2 = (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑒

𝐶𝑒 = {𝑒},
𝐶𝑎 = {𝑎, 𝑎2 } = 𝐶𝑎2

𝐶𝑏 = {𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏} = 𝐶𝑎𝑏 = 𝐶𝑎2 𝑏
It’s mean
𝐶𝑒 ⋃𝐶𝑎 ⋃𝐶𝑏 = 𝐷3
And intersection of any two distinct classes will be empty set .
|𝐶𝑒 ⋃𝐶𝑎 ⋃𝐶𝑏 | = |𝐷3 |
|𝐶𝑒 | + |𝐶𝑎 | + |𝐶𝑏 | = |𝐷3 | = 1 + 2 + 3
This is called class equation of 𝐷3
Inclusion exclusion principle
If A and B are disjoint set the
|A⋃𝐵| = |𝐴| + |𝐵|
If A and B are not disjoint then
|A⋃𝐵| = |𝐴| + |𝐵| − |𝐴⋂𝐵|
𝐴 = {1,2,3,4} ⇒ |𝐴| = 4
𝐵 = {5,6,7,8,9} ⇒ |𝐵| = 5
A⋃𝐵 = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} ⇒ |A⋃𝐵| = 9 = 5 + 4 = |𝐴| + |𝐵|
𝐴 = {1,2,3,4,5,6} ⇒ |𝐴| = 6
𝐵 = {5,6,7,8,9} ⇒ |𝐵| = 5
A⋃𝐵 = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} ⇒ |A⋃𝐵| = 9
A⋂B={5,6}⇒ |A⋂B| = 2
So
|A⋃B|=|A|+|B|-|A⋂B|=6+5-2=9
Find class equation of 𝐷4

𝐶𝑒 = {𝑒},
𝐶𝑎 = {𝑎, 𝑎3 } = 𝐶𝑎3
𝐶𝑎2 = {𝑎2 }
𝐶𝑏 = {𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏}
𝐶𝑎𝑏 = {𝑎𝑏, 𝑎3 𝑏}

𝐶𝑒 ⋃𝐶𝑎 ⋃𝐶𝑎2 ⋃𝐶𝑏 ⋃𝐶𝑎𝑏 = 𝐷4
|𝐶𝑒 ⋃𝐶𝑎 ⋃𝐶𝑎2 ⋃𝐶𝑏 ⋃𝐶𝑎𝑏 | = |𝐷4 |
|𝐶𝑒 | + |𝐶𝑎 | + |𝐶𝑎2 | + |𝐶𝑏 | + |𝐶𝑎𝑏 | = |𝐷4 | = 1 + 1 + 2 + 2 + 2
Which is class equation of 𝐷4
GENERAL FORMULA FOR CLASS EQUATION OF 𝐷𝑛

𝑛−1
IF n is odd |𝐷𝑛 | = 1 + 𝑛 + (2 + 2 + 2+. . +2) [ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 ]
2
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛−2
IF n is even |𝐷𝑛 | = 1 + 1 + 2 + 2 + (2 + 2+. . +2) [ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 ]
2
4 4
|𝐷4 | = 1 + 1 + + + 2 = 1 + 1 + 2 + 2 + 2
2 2
MCQ: the class equation of 𝐷6 𝑖𝑠
(a). 1+1+2+4+4 (b) 1+1+2+2+2+2 (d) 1+6+2+2+2+2 (e) 1+1+3+3+2+2
MCQ: the class equation of 𝐷15 𝑖𝑠
(a). 1+1+15+2+2+2+2+2 (b) 1+15+2+2+2+2+2+2+2
(c) 1+15+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2 (d) 1+15+2+2+2+2+2+2+2
MCQ: let G be a group of order “n” and there are 10 self-conjugate element in G then
|𝑍(𝐺 )| =____
(a). n (b) n/2 (c) 10 (d) none
MCQ: let G be a group of order and its class equation is |𝐺 | = 1 + 1 + 2 + 2 +

2|𝑍(𝐺 )| =____
(a). 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) none
MCQ: the class equation of 𝑉4 is
(a). 1+1+2 (b) 1+1+1+1 (c) 2+2 (d) none
MCQ: the class equation of 𝑄8 is
(a). 1+1+2+4 (b) 1+1+2+2+2 (d) 1+3+2+2 (e) none
MCQ: let the groups G and G’ have same class equation the which one is true
(a). G and G’ are isomorphic

(b) G and G’ are not isomorphism
(d) G and G’ may or may not be isomorphic
(e) none
MCQ: which of the following group have same class equation
(a). 𝑉4 &𝐶4 (b) 𝐷3 &𝐶6 (c) 𝑄8 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷4 (d) (a) & (b) (e) (a) & (c)
MCQ: which of the following group have same class equation but not isomorphic to each
other
(a). 𝑉4 &𝐶4 (b) 𝐷3 &𝐶6 (c) 𝑄8 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷4 (d) (a) & (b) (e) (a) & (c)
MCQ: which of the following group have same class equation but isomorphic to each
other
(a). 𝑍4 & 𝐶4 (b) 𝐷3 & 𝐶6 (c) 𝑄8 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷4 (d) (a) & (b) (e) (a) & (c)
Home work
1- Find class equation of 𝑉4

2- Find class equation of 𝑄8
3- Find class equation of 𝐷5
CONJUGACY CLASS
A set of all conjugate element of an element 𝑎 in a group G is called

conjugacy class of 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 denoted by Ca
CLASS EQUATION
Let there is 𝑟 possible conjacy classes of a finite group G of order n then

the sum of all order or cojugacy classes is equal the order of group G is
called a class equation.
If Ca1 , Ca2 , Ca3 , … Car are possible conjugacy classes of a group G
Then the class equation is
|Ca1 | + |Ca2 | + |Ca3 | + ⋯ + |Car | = |G|
Remark: if G is an abelian group then for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡

Ca = {𝑎} Its mean every element of abelian group is selfconjugate element.
For example.
1- Find class equation of 𝑽𝟒

𝑉4 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏} Klien 4 group is Abelian group so
𝐂𝐞 = {𝒆},𝐂𝐚 = {𝒂},𝐂𝐛 = {𝒃},𝐂𝐚𝐛 = {𝒂𝒃}
So these classes make partition of 𝑉4
𝐂𝐞 ⋃𝐂𝐚 ⋃𝐂𝐛 ⋃𝐂𝐚𝐛 = 𝑉4
⇒|𝐂𝐞 ⋃𝐂𝐚 ⋃𝐂𝐛 ⋃𝐂𝐚𝐛 | = |𝑉4 |
Since all the classes are totally disjoint then by inclusion and exclusion principal
⇒|𝐂𝐞 | + |𝐂𝐚 | + |𝐂𝐛 | + |𝐂𝐚𝐛 | = |𝑉4 |
Which is required class equation.
2- Find class equation of ℤ8
ℤ8 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅, 6̅, 7̅} is a abelian group so
Every element of ℤ8 is self conjugate element
𝐂0̅ = {0̅}, 𝐂1̅ = {1̅}, 𝐂2̅ = {2̅}, 𝐂3̅ = {3̅}, 𝐂4̅ = {4̅}, 𝐂5 = {5̅}
𝐂6̅ = {6̅},𝐂7 = {7̅}
So these classes make partition of ℤ8
𝐂0̅ ⋃𝐂1̅ ⋃𝐂2̅ ⋃𝐂3̅ ⋃𝐂4̅ ⋃𝐂5̅ ⋃𝐂6̅ ⋃𝐂7̅ = ℤ8
Since all the classes are totally disjoint then by inclusion and exclusion principal
|𝐂0̅ | + |𝐂1̅ | + |𝐂2̅ | + |𝐂3̅ | + |𝐂4̅ | + |𝐂5̅ | + |𝐂6̅ | + |𝐂7̅ | = |ℤ8 |
Which is class equation of ℤ8
3- Find class equation of ℤ𝒏
THEOREM
The number of element in conjugacy class 𝐶𝑎 of an element “𝑎" ina

group G is equal to the index of its normalizer in G

APPLICATION
→ Conjugacy class
→ Normalizer of an element
→ index (the number of distinct coset)
In 𝐷4
𝑪𝒂 = {𝒂, 𝒂𝟑 }
Now we have to find 𝑵𝐷4 (𝒂) = {𝒙 ∈ 𝐷4 ∶ 𝑥𝑎 = 𝑎𝑥}
𝒏𝒐𝒘 𝒆𝒂 = 𝒂𝒆, 𝒂. 𝒂 = 𝒂. 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 . 𝒂 = 𝒂. 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 . 𝒂 = 𝒂. 𝒂𝟑 ,
𝒃𝒂 ≠ 𝒂𝒃,
𝒂𝟐 𝒃. 𝒂 = 𝒂𝒃, 𝒂. 𝒂𝟐 𝒃 = 𝒂𝟑 𝒃 ⇒ 𝒂𝟐 𝒃. 𝒂 ≠ 𝒂. 𝒂𝟐 𝒃
𝒂𝟑 𝒃. 𝒂 ≠ 𝒂. 𝒂𝟑 𝒃
⇒𝑵𝐷4 (𝒂) = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 }
Now we denote 𝑵𝐷4 (𝒂) = 𝑵 and we find its distinct left (right) coset
𝒆𝑵 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 } = 𝑵
𝒂𝑵 = {𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 , 𝒆} = 𝑵
𝒂𝟐 𝑵 = {𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 , 𝒆} = 𝑵
𝒂𝟑 𝑵 = {𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 , 𝒆} = 𝑵
𝒃𝑵 = {𝒃, 𝒂𝟑 𝒃, 𝒂𝟐 𝒃, 𝒂𝒃}
𝒂𝒃𝑵 = {𝒃, 𝒂𝟑 𝒃, 𝒂𝟐 𝒃, 𝒂𝒃}
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝑵 = {𝒃, 𝒂𝟑 𝒃, 𝒂𝟐 𝒃, 𝒂𝒃}
𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝑵 = {𝒃, 𝒂𝟑 𝒃, 𝒂𝟐 𝒃, 𝒂𝒃}
There is two distinct coset of N in 𝐷4
𝒆𝑵 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 } 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝑵 = {𝒃, 𝒂𝟑 𝒃, 𝒂𝟐 𝒃, 𝒂𝒃}
So index of N in 𝐷4 is equal to 2

A=set of all distinct cosets={ 𝑵, 𝒃𝑵}
|𝑪𝒂 | = |𝑨|
2- In 𝐷4
𝑪𝒃 =
3- In 𝑄8
𝑪𝒊 =
PROOF
Let Ω be the collection of all distinct left cosets of 𝑵𝐺 (𝒂) = 𝑵 for 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮
𝜴 = {𝒈𝑵 ∶ 𝒈 ∈ 𝑮}
And
𝑪𝒂 = {𝒈𝒂𝒈−𝟏 : 𝒈 ∈ 𝑮}
Define a mapping
𝜑: 𝜴 → 𝑪𝒂 𝒃𝒚
𝜑(𝒈𝑵) = 𝒈𝒂𝒈−𝟏
→𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 − 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒
Consider
𝒈𝟏 𝑵 = 𝒈𝟐 𝑵 𝒈𝟏 , 𝒈𝟐 ∈ 𝑮
⇒ 𝑵 = 𝒈−𝟏
𝟏 𝒈𝟐 𝑵
⇒ 𝒈−𝟏
𝟏 𝒈𝟐 ∈ 𝑵
⇒ 𝒈−𝟏 −𝟏
𝟏 𝒈𝟐 𝒂 = 𝒂𝒈𝟏 𝒈𝟐
⇒ 𝒈𝟐 𝒂𝒈−𝟏 −𝟏
𝟐 = 𝒈𝟏 𝒂𝒈𝟏
⇒ 𝜑(𝒈𝟐 𝑵) = 𝜑(𝒈𝟏 𝑵)
→𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑒
Consider

𝜑(𝒈𝟐 𝑵) = 𝜑(𝒈𝟏 𝑵)
⇒ 𝒈𝟐 𝒂𝒈−𝟏 −𝟏
𝟐 = 𝒈𝟏 𝒂𝒈𝟏
⇒ 𝒈−𝟏 −𝟏
𝟏 𝒈𝟐 𝒂 = 𝒂𝒈𝟏 𝒈𝟐
⇒ 𝒈−𝟏
𝟏 𝒈𝟐 ∈ 𝑵
⇒ 𝒈−𝟏
𝟏 𝒈𝟐 𝑵 = 𝑵
⇒ 𝒈𝟐 𝑵 = 𝒈𝟏 𝑵
→𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜
∀ 𝒈𝒂𝒈−𝟏 ∈ 𝑪𝒂 ∃ 𝒈𝑵 ∈ 𝜴 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕
𝜑(𝒈𝑵) = 𝒈𝒂𝒈−𝟏
⇒ 𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑖𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
Hence
|𝑪𝒂 | = |𝜴 |
⇒ |𝑪𝒂 | = |𝑮: 𝑵|
COROLLARY:
Let G be a finite group and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. then the number of element in

conjugacy class of 𝑎 divide the order of G.
PROOF:
Let G be a group and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 then
|𝑪𝒂 | = |𝑮: 𝑵𝐺 (𝒂)|
|𝑮: 𝑵𝐺 (𝒂)| = 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 𝒐𝒇 𝑵𝐺 (𝒂) 𝒊𝒏 𝑮
By LaGrange theorem index of subgroup divide the order of group
|𝑮: 𝑵𝐺 (𝒂)| 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆 |𝑮|
⇒ |𝑪𝒂 |𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆 |𝑮|
COROLLARY:
The number of element in a conjugacy class of an element in a Group

G is finite iff the index of normalizer of that element is finite

PROOF: Let G be a group and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 then
𝑪𝒂 = {𝒈𝒂𝒈−𝟏 : 𝒈 ∈ 𝑮}
And
𝑵𝐺 (𝒂) = {𝒈 ∈ 𝑮 ; 𝒈𝒂 = 𝒂𝒈}
Since
|𝑪𝒂 | = |𝑮: 𝑵𝐺 (𝒂)|
If
|𝑮: 𝑵𝐺 (𝒂)| 𝒊𝒔 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒆
⇔ |𝑪𝒂 | 𝒊𝒔 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒆
CONJUGATE SUBGROUPS
Two subgroups 𝐻 & 𝐾 of a group G are said to be conjugate subgroups

if
𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 = 𝐾 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
EXAMPLE:𝐷3 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏}𝑎3 = 𝑏2 = (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑒
𝐷3 = {𝑒, 𝑟, 𝑟 2 , 𝑠, 𝑟𝑠, 𝑟 2 𝑠}𝑟 3 = 𝑠 2 = (𝑟𝑠)2 = 𝑒
𝐷3 =< 𝑎, 𝑏 ∶ 𝑎3 = 𝑏2 = (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑒 > =< 𝑟, 𝑠 ∶ 𝑟 3 = 𝑠 2 = (𝑟𝑠)2 = 𝑒 >
A subgroup is
𝐻 = {𝑒, 𝑏} 𝑤𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠
𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
𝑒𝐻𝑒 −1 = 𝑒{𝑒, 𝑏}𝑒 = {𝑒, 𝑏} = 𝐻
𝑎𝐻𝑎−1 = 𝑎{𝑒, 𝑏}𝑎2 = {𝑎𝑒𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑏𝑎2 } = {𝑒, 𝑎2 𝑏} = 𝐻1
𝑎2 𝐻(𝑎2 )−1 = 𝑎2 {𝑒, 𝑏}𝑎 = {𝑎2 𝑒𝑎, 𝑎2 𝑏𝑎} = {𝑒, 𝑎𝑏} = 𝐻2
𝑏𝐻𝑏 −1 = 𝑏{𝑒, 𝑏}𝑏 = {𝑏𝑒𝑏, 𝑏𝑏𝑏} = {𝑒, 𝑏} = 𝐻

𝑎𝑏𝐻(𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑎𝑏{𝑒, 𝑏}𝑎𝑏 = {𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑏, 𝑎𝑏𝑏𝑎𝑏} = {𝑒, 𝑎2 𝑏} = 𝐻1
𝑎2 𝑏𝐻(𝑎2 𝑏)−1 = 𝑎2 𝑏{𝑒, 𝑏}𝑎2 𝑏 = {𝑎2 𝑏𝑒𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏𝑏𝑎2 𝑏} = {𝑒, 𝑎𝑏} = 𝐻2
Conjugate subgroups of 𝐻 = {𝑒, 𝑏} are 𝐻 = {𝑒, 𝑏} , 𝐻1 = {𝑒, 𝑎2 𝑏} , 𝐻2 = {𝑒, 𝑎𝑏}
2- 𝐾 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 }
𝑒𝐾𝑒 −1 = 𝐾
𝑎𝐾𝑎−1 = 𝑎{𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 }𝑎2 = {𝑎𝑒𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎2 } = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 } = 𝐾
𝑎2 𝐾(𝑎2 )−1
𝑏𝐾𝑏 −1
𝑎𝑏𝐾(𝑎𝑏)−1
𝑎2 𝑏𝐾(𝑎2 𝑏)−1
REMARK:
𝐾 = 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 = {𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 ∶ ℎ ∈ 𝐻 } 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺

PROOF:
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐾 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑔ℎ1 𝑔−1 & 𝑦 = 𝑔ℎ2 𝑔−1 , ℎ1 , ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻
Now
𝑥𝑦 −1 = (𝑔ℎ1 𝑔−1 )(𝑔ℎ2 𝑔−1 )−1
𝑥𝑦 −1 = 𝑔ℎ1 𝑔−1 (𝑔−1 )−1 ℎ2−1 𝑔−1
𝑥𝑦 −1 = 𝑔ℎ1 𝑔−1 𝑔ℎ2−1 𝑔−1 ∴ 𝑔−1 𝑔 = 𝑒
𝑥𝑦 −1 = 𝑔ℎ1 𝑒ℎ2−1 𝑔−1
𝑥𝑦 −1 = 𝑔ℎ1 ℎ2−1 𝑔−1 ∴ ℎ1 ℎ2−1 = ℎ3 ∈ 𝐻
𝑥𝑦 −1 = 𝑔ℎ3 𝑔−1 ∈ 𝐻
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 −1 ∈ 𝐾
HENCE 𝐾 = 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺
SELF-CONJUGATE SUBGROUP(𝑵𝑶𝑹𝑴𝑨𝑳 𝑺𝑼𝑩𝑮𝑹𝑶𝑼𝑷)
A subgroup H of a group G self-conjugate subgroup if
𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 = 𝐻 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺

It is also known as Normal subgroup or invariant subgroup
Note: for normal subgroup H of a group G
𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 = 𝐻 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ 𝑔𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
Left and right cosets are equal in normal subgroup
EXAMPLE:𝐷4 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑎3 𝑏}𝑎4 = 𝑏2 = (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑒
𝐷4 =< 𝑎, 𝑏 ∶ 𝑎4 = 𝑏2 = (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑒 >
Find conjugate subgroups of 1) 𝐻 = {𝑒, 𝑎2 } 2) 𝐻 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 } 3) 𝐻 = {𝑒, 𝑎𝑏}
EXAMPLE: 𝑄8 = {±1, ±𝑖, ±𝑗, ±𝑘}
Find conjugate subgroups of 1) 𝑯 = {𝟏, −𝟏} 2) 𝑯 = {±𝟏, ±𝒋}
SOL: 1) 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
1𝐻1−1 = 𝐻
(−1)𝐻(−1) −1 = 𝐻
(𝑖 )𝐻(𝑖 )−1 = 𝑖{1, −1}(−𝑖) = {−𝑖 2 , 𝑖 2 } = {1, −1} = 𝐻
(−𝑖 )𝐻(−𝑖 )−1 = −𝑖{1, −1}(𝑖) = {−𝑖 2 , 𝑖 2 } = {1, −1} = 𝐻
(𝑗)𝐻(𝑗)−1 = 𝑗{1, −1}(−𝑗) = {−𝑗 2 , 𝑗 2 } = {1, −1} = 𝐻
(−𝑗)𝐻 (−𝑗)−1 = −𝑗{1, −1}(𝑗) = {−𝑗 2 , 𝑗 2 } = {1, −1} = 𝐻
(𝑘)𝐻(𝑘)−1 = 𝑘{1, −1}(−𝑘) = {−𝑘 2 , 𝑘 2 } = {1, −1} = 𝐻
(−𝑘)𝐻(−𝑘)−1 = −𝑘{1, −1}(𝑘) = {−𝑘 2 , 𝑘 2 } = {1, −1} = 𝐻
Here 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 = 𝐻 ∀𝑔 ∈ 𝑄8
⇒𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓𝐺 , 𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺
SOL: 2)𝐻 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖 } 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
1𝐻1−1 = 𝐻
(−1)𝐻(−1) −1 = 𝐻
(𝑖)𝐻(𝑖) −1 = 𝑖{1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖 }(−𝑖 ) = {−𝑖 2 , 𝑖 2 , −𝑖 3 , 𝑖 3 } = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} = 𝐻
(−𝑖)𝐻(−𝑖) −1 = −𝑖{1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖 }(𝑖 ) = {−𝑖 2 , 𝑖 2 , −𝑖 3 , 𝑖 3 } = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} = 𝐻

(𝑗)𝐻(𝑗) −1 = 𝑗{1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖 }(−𝑗) = {−𝑗 2 , 𝑗 2 , −𝑗𝑖𝑗, 𝑗𝑖𝑗} = {1, −1, −𝑖, 𝑖} = 𝐻
𝑗𝑖𝑗 = 𝑗𝑘 = 𝑖
(−𝑗)𝐻(−𝑗) −1 = −𝑗{1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖 }(𝑗) = {−𝑗 2 , 𝑗 2 , 𝑗𝑖𝑗, 𝑗𝑖𝑗} = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} = 𝐻
(𝑘)𝐻(𝑘) −1 = 𝑘{1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖 }(−𝑘) = {−𝑘 2 , 𝑘 2 , −𝑘𝑖𝑘, 𝑘𝑖𝑘 } = {1, −1, −𝑖, 𝑖} = 𝐻
𝑘𝑖𝑘 = 𝑗𝑘 = 𝑖
(−𝑘)𝐻(−𝑘) −1 = −𝑘{1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖 }(𝑘) = {−𝑘 2 , 𝑘 2 , −𝑘𝑖𝑘, 𝑘𝑖𝑘 } = {1, −1, −𝑖, 𝑖} = 𝐻
Here 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 = 𝐻 ∀𝑔 ∈ 𝑄8
⇒𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓𝐺 𝑜𝑟 𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺
MCQ: which of the following non-abelian group in which every subgroup is

normal subgroup
(a). 𝑪𝟓 (b) 𝑫𝟒 (c) 𝑸𝟖 (d) (a) & (c)
MCQ: every subgroup of Abelian group is ______
(a). 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 (b) 𝒎𝒂𝒚 𝒃𝒆 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 (c) 𝒏𝒐𝒏 − 𝒂𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒊𝒂𝒏 (d) none
THEOREM:
Any two conjugate subgroup of a group G have same order
PROOF: Let H be a subgroup of a group G and

𝐾 = 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 = {𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 ∶ ℎ ∈ 𝐻}
Define a mapping
𝜑: 𝐻 → 𝐾 𝑏𝑦 𝜑(ℎ) = 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1
𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 − 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒
ℎ1 = ℎ2
𝑝𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝑔−1
⇒ 𝑔ℎ1 𝑔−1 = 𝑔ℎ2 𝑔−1
⇒ 𝜑(ℎ1 ) = 𝜑(ℎ2 )
𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑒 − 𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝜑(ℎ1 ) = 𝜑(ℎ2 )

⇒ 𝑔ℎ1 𝑔−1 = 𝑔ℎ2 𝑔−1
𝑏𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑤
⇒ ℎ1 = ℎ2
𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜
∀ 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 ∈ 𝐾 ∃ ℎ ∈ 𝐻 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝜑(ℎ) = 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1
⇒ 𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑖𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
Hence 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 = 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟
THEOREM:
Any two conjugate subgroup of a group G are isomorphic to each other

Isomorphism 1- bijective 2-homomorphism 𝝋(𝒉𝟏 𝒉𝟐 ) = 𝝋(𝒉𝟏 )𝝋(𝒉𝟐 )
PROOF: Let H be a subgroup of a group G and

𝐾 = 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 = {𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 ∶ ℎ ∈ 𝐻}
Define a mapping
𝜑: 𝐻 → 𝐾 𝑏𝑦 𝜑(ℎ) = 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1
𝝋 𝒊𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒍 − 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆
ℎ1 = ℎ2
𝑝𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝑔−1
⇒ 𝑔ℎ1 𝑔−1 = 𝑔ℎ2 𝑔−1
⇒ 𝜑(ℎ1 ) = 𝜑(ℎ2 )
𝜑(ℎ1 ) = 𝜑(ℎ2 )
⇒ 𝑔ℎ1 𝑔−1 = 𝑔ℎ2 𝑔−1
𝑏𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑤
⇒ ℎ1 = ℎ2

∀ 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 ∈ 𝐾 ∃ ℎ ∈ 𝐻 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝜑(ℎ) = 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1
⇒ 𝝋 𝒊𝒔 𝒃𝒊𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝝋 𝒊𝒔 𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒎
Consider
𝜑(ℎ1 ℎ2 ) = 𝑔ℎ1 ℎ2 𝑔−1
𝜑(ℎ1 ℎ2 ) = 𝑔ℎ1 𝑒ℎ2 𝑔−1 ∴ 𝑒 = 𝑔−1 𝑔
𝜑(ℎ1 ℎ2 ) = 𝑔ℎ1 𝑔−1 𝑔ℎ2 𝑔−1
𝜑(ℎ1 ℎ2 ) = 𝜑(ℎ1 )𝜑(ℎ2 )
Hence 𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑜 𝐻 ≅ 𝐾 = 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
MCQ: any two conjugate subgroup of a group G is
(a). 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 (b) 𝒊𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒄 (c) 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 (d) (b) & (c)
THEOREM
The number of conjugate subgroups of a subgroup H is a group G is equal to

the the index of its normalizer 𝑁𝐺 (𝐻)
APPLICATION 𝑫𝟑 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒃, 𝒂𝒃, 𝒂𝟐 𝒃}
𝐻 = {𝑒, 𝑏}
Conjugate subgroups of 𝐻 = {𝑒, 𝑏}are 𝐻 = {𝑒, 𝑏} , 𝐻1 = {𝑒, 𝑎2 𝑏} , 𝐻2 = {𝑒, 𝑎𝑏}
The set of all conjugate subgroups of H= 𝐶𝐻 ={ 𝐻, 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 }
𝑁𝐺 (𝐻) = {𝑔 ∈ 𝐷3 ∶ 𝑔𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔}
𝑒𝐻 = 𝐻𝑒
𝑎𝐻 = {𝑎, 𝑎𝑏} ≠ 𝐻𝑎 = {𝑎, 𝑎2 𝑏}
𝑎2 𝐻 ≠ 𝐻𝑎2
𝑏𝐻 = 𝐻𝑏
𝑎𝑏𝐻 ≠ 𝐻𝑎𝑏
𝑎2 𝑏𝐻 ≠ 𝐻𝑎2 𝑏
𝑁𝐷3 (𝐻) = {𝑒, 𝑏} = 𝑁

6
Since |𝑁| = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝐷3 | = 6 so index |𝐷3 ∶ 𝐻| = 2 = 3
2- 𝐷4 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑎3 𝑏}
𝐻 = {𝑒, 𝑏}
PROOF: Let H be a subgroup of G and 𝐶𝐻 be the collection of all conjugate subgroup of

H
i.e
𝐶𝐻 = {𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 ∶ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺}
Also suppose that Ω be the collection of all distinct left coset of 𝑁 = 𝑁𝐺 (𝐻) = {𝑔 ∈
𝐺 ; 𝑔𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔} i.e
𝛺 = {𝑔𝑁 ∶ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺}
Define a mapping
𝜑: 𝛺 → 𝐶𝐻 𝑏𝑦 𝜑(𝑔𝑁) = 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
𝝋 𝒊𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒍 − 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆
𝑔1 𝑁 = 𝑔2 𝑁
⇒ 𝑔2−1 𝑔1 𝑁 = 𝑁 ∴ 𝑎𝐻 = 𝐻 ⇔ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻
⇒ 𝑔2−1 𝑔1 ∈ 𝑁
⇒ 𝑔2−1 𝑔1 𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔2−1 𝑔1
⇒ 𝑔1 𝐻𝑔1−1 = 𝑔2 𝐻𝑔2−1
⇒ 𝜑(𝑔1 𝑁) = 𝜑(𝑔2 𝑁)
𝜑(𝑔1 𝑁) = 𝜑(𝑔2 𝑁)
⇒ 𝑔1 𝐻𝑔1−1 = 𝑔2 𝐻𝑔2−1
⇒ 𝑔2−1 𝑔1 𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔2−1 𝑔1
⇒ 𝑔2−1 𝑔1 ∈ 𝑁

⇒ 𝑔2−1 𝑔1 𝑁 = 𝑁
⇒ 𝑔1 𝑁 = 𝑔2 𝑁
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 ∈ 𝐶𝐻 ∃ 𝑔𝑁 ∈ Ω 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝜑(𝑔𝑁) = 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
⇒ 𝝋 𝒊𝒔 𝒃𝒊𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
Hence
|𝐶𝐻 | = |Ω|
Remark:
→ Normal subgroup mean self-conjugate subgroup
→every group must have two normal subgroups which are {e} and G itself. These are
trivial or improper normal subgroups
→ the normal subgroup of G other than {e} and G itself is proper normal subgroup
→ If G is abelian then every subgroup is normal subgroup
MCQ: every group of ____ order has no proper normal subgroup
(a). 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 (b) 𝒐𝒅𝒅 (c) 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆 (d) none
SIMPLE GROUP
A group having no proper normal subgroup is called simple group
Or
If a group have only two normal subgroup namely {e} and G itself is called
simple group
THEOREM
The following statements about a subgroup H of a group G are equivalent
I) H is a normal subgroup of G
II) The normalizer of H in G is the whole group 𝑁𝐺 (𝐻 ) = 𝐺
III) Any left coset of H is equal to the right coset

IV) For each ℎ ∈ 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 ∈ 𝐻 i.e H
contains the whole class of conjugates of each of its elements
(i)→(ii) →(iii) →(iv) →(i)
PROOF:(𝑖) → (𝑖𝑖) suppose that H is normal subgroup of G 𝐴=𝐵

We have to show𝑁𝐺 (𝐻) = 𝐺 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
⊆𝐴
Since 𝑁𝐺 (𝐻) ⊆ 𝐺 − − − (1)
We know that 𝑁𝐺 (𝐻) = {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 ∶ 𝑔𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔}
Since H is normal subgroup of G
𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 = 𝐻 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ 𝑔𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ 𝑔 ∈ 𝑁𝐺 (𝐻) ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ 𝐺 ⊆ 𝑁𝐺 (𝐻) − − − (2)
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2)
𝑁𝐺 (𝐻) = 𝐺
(ii) →(iii)
Suppose that 𝑁𝐺 (𝐻) = 𝐺
We have to show that any two left or wright cosets are equal
Since 𝑁𝐺 (𝐻) = {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 ∶ 𝑔𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔} = 𝐺
So 𝑔𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
Hence right coset equal to left coset
(iii) →(iv) suppose that Any left coset of H is equal to the right coset
We have to show For each ℎ ∈ 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 ∈ 𝐻
From given statement 𝑔𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
Then there exist ℎ, ℎ′ ∈ 𝐻 such that
𝑔ℎ = ℎ′𝑔
⇒ 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 = ℎ′ ∈ 𝐻
⇒ 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 ∈ 𝐻 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺

→(iv) →(i)
Suppose that For each ℎ ∈ 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 ∈ 𝐻
We have to show that H is normal subgroup of G 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 = 𝐻
𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 = {𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 ∶ ℎ ∈ 𝐻}
For any ℎ ∈ 𝐻
ℎ = 𝑒ℎ𝑒 ∴ 𝑔−1 𝑔 = 𝑔𝑔−1 = 𝑒
⇒ ℎ = 𝑔−1 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 𝑔
⇒ ℎ = 𝑔−1 𝑔ℎ(𝑔−1 𝑔 )−1 ∈ 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
⇒ ℎ ∈ 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
⇒ 𝐻 ⊆ 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 − − − −(3)
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑎 ∈ 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑏𝑦 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 ∈ 𝐻
⇒𝑎∈𝐻
⇒ 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 ⊆ 𝐻 − − − (4)
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (3)𝑎𝑛 (4)
⇒ 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 = 𝐻 ∀𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
𝑻𝑯𝑬𝑶𝑹𝑬𝑴
The intersection of any collection of normal subgroup is also normal

subgroup.
PROOF: let Ω be the collection of all normal subgroup of G then

𝛺 = {𝐻𝛼 ∶ 𝛼 ∈ 𝐼 }
We have to show that

⋂ 𝐻𝛼 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
𝛼∈𝐼
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
⋂ 𝐻𝛼 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
𝛼∈𝐼
𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒙 ∈ ⋂ 𝐻𝛼
𝛼∈𝐼
⇒ 𝒙 ∈ 𝐻𝛼 ∀ 𝛼 ∈ 𝐼
𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝐻𝛼 ∀ 𝛼 ∈ 𝐼 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒈 ∈ 𝑮 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕
𝒈𝒙𝒈−𝟏 ∈ 𝐻𝛼 ∀ 𝛼 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ 𝒈𝒙𝒈−𝟏 ∈ ⋂ 𝐻𝛼
𝛼∈𝐼
𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 ⋂ 𝐻𝛼 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺

𝛼∈𝐼
𝑻𝑯𝑬𝑶𝑹𝑬𝑴
A subgroup of index 2 is normal subgroup.
PROOF
Let H be a subgroup of G with index 2
Then {𝑒𝐻, 𝑔𝐻} = {𝐻𝑒, 𝐻𝑔}
⇒ 𝑔𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔
⇒ 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 = 𝐻
⇒ H is normal subgroup of G
𝐸𝑋𝐴𝑀𝑃𝐿𝐸
𝐷3 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏}
𝐻 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 } 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐷3 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 2

So by above theorem it is must be normal
MCQ: let G be a group of order n and H is normal subgroup is its order equal to
____
𝒏
(a). 𝟐 (b) (c) 𝒏 − 𝟏 (d) none
𝟐
QUESTION: Find all the normal subgroup of 𝑸𝟖 group of quaternion of

order 8
Solution first we find all subgroup of
𝑄8 = {±1, ±𝑖, ±𝑗, ±𝑘}
Since {1} and 𝑄8 itself normal subgroups
Since |−1| = 2 ⇒ (−1)2 = 1 𝑠𝑜 𝐻 = {1, −1}
And 𝑖 4 = (−𝑖 )4 = 𝑗 4 = (−𝑗)4 = (−𝑘)4 = 𝑘 4 = 1
⇒ |𝑖 | = |−𝑖 | = |𝑗| = |−𝑗| = |𝑘| = | − 𝑘| = 4
𝐻1 = {𝑖, 𝑖 2 , 𝑖 3 , 𝑖 4 } = {1. −1. 𝑖. −𝑖 }
𝐻2 = {𝑗, 𝑗 2 , 𝑗 3 , 𝑗 4 } = {1. −1. 𝑗. −𝑗}
𝐻3 = {𝑘, 𝑘 2 , 𝑘 3 , 𝑘 4 } = {1. −1. 𝑘. −𝑘}
All proper subgroups are
𝐻 = {1, −1}𝐻1 = {1. −1. 𝑖. −𝑖 } , 𝐻2 = {1. −1. 𝑗. −𝑗}, 𝐻3 = {1. −1. 𝑘. −𝑘}
There are three subgroup of order 4
Which are 𝐻1 = {1. −1. 𝑖. −𝑖 } , 𝐻2 = {1. −1. 𝑗. −𝑗}, 𝐻3 = {1. −1. 𝑘. −𝑘}
All have index 2 so by above theorem these all are normal subgroup of 𝑄8
Now we only check subgroup 𝐻 = {1, −1}
𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
1𝐻1−1 = 𝐻
(−1)𝐻(−1)−1 = (−1){1, −1}(−1) = {1, −1} = 𝐻
(𝑖 )𝐻(𝑖 )−1 = (𝑖){1, −1}(−𝑖) = {1, −1} = 𝐻
(−𝑖 )𝐻(−𝑖 )−1 = (−𝑖){1, −1}(𝑖) = {1, −1} = 𝐻
(𝑗)𝐻(𝑗)−1 = 𝐻

(−𝑗)𝐻(−𝑗)−1 = 𝐻
(𝑘)𝐻(𝑘)−1 = 𝐻
(−𝑘)𝐻 (−𝑘)−1 = 𝐻
⇒ 𝐻 = {1, −1}𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
𝐻𝐸𝑁𝐶𝐸 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑄8 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 .
QUESTION
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒉𝒆𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝟔
SOLUTION; 𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝐷3 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏}
𝑆𝐼𝑁𝐶𝐸 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑠 {𝑒} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷3 𝑖𝑡𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐷3
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 |𝑎| = |𝑎2 | = 3 ⇒ 𝑎3 = (𝑎2 )3 = 𝑒 𝑠𝑜 𝐻1 = {𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 = 𝑒} = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 }
𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑏| = 2 ⇒ 𝑏2 = 𝑒 𝑠𝑜 𝐻2 = {𝑒, 𝑏}
|𝑎𝑏| = 2 ⇒ (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑒 𝑠𝑜 𝐻3 = {𝑒, 𝑎𝑏}
|𝑎2 𝑏| = 2 ⇒ (𝑎2 𝑏)2 = 𝑒 𝑠𝑜 𝐻4 = {𝑒, 𝑎2 𝑏}
𝐻1 , 𝐻2 , 𝐻3 , 𝐻4 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐷3
6
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐻1 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 } 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝐷3 | = 6 ⇒ 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 = =2
3
A subgroup with index 2 is normal so 𝐻1 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺
Now for 𝐻2 , 𝐻3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻4
1st𝑔𝐻2 𝑔−1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔 ∈ 𝐷3
𝑒𝐻2 𝑒 −1 = 𝐻2
𝑎𝐻2 𝑎−1 = 𝑎{𝑒, 𝑏}𝑎2 = {𝑎𝑒𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑏𝑎2 } = {𝑒, 𝑎2 𝑏} = 𝐻4
𝑎2 𝐻2 (𝑎2 )−1 = 𝑎2 {𝑒, 𝑏}𝑎 = {𝑎2 𝑒𝑎, 𝑎2 𝑏𝑎} = {𝑒, 𝑎𝑏} = 𝐻3
Here
𝐻2 , 𝐻3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻4 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑠
Hence normal proper subgroup is 𝐻1 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 }
MCQ: the no. of normal subgroup of 𝑫𝟒 𝒅𝒊𝒉𝒆𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝟖 are

(a). 𝟐 (b) 𝟒 (c) 𝟔 (d) none
𝑸𝒖𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 − 𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒉𝒆𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝟖
𝑸𝒖𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 − 𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒉𝒆𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝟏𝟎
𝑸𝒖𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 − 𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒌𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝟒 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑
𝑸𝒖𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 − 𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑𝒔 𝒐𝒇 ℤ𝟖
Note: if H is normal subgroup of a group G
𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 = 𝐻
For any ℎ ∈ 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 ∈ 𝐻
THEOREM:
Let H and K are normal subgroups of a group G. Then HK is also normal

subgroup
PROOF:Give H and K are normal subgroups of G then

For ℎ ∈ 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 ∈ 𝐻 and
𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑔𝑘𝑔−1 ∈ 𝐾
Let ℎ𝑘 ∈ 𝐻𝐾
Now 𝑔ℎ𝑘𝑔−1 = 𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑘𝑔−1 ∴ 𝑔−1 𝑔 = 𝑒
⇒ 𝑔ℎ𝑘𝑔−1 = 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 𝑔𝑘𝑔−1 ∈ HK
So HK is normal subgroup of G
MCQ: every subgroup H of a group G is normal subgroup of its
(a). 𝑁𝐺 (𝐻) (b) 𝐶𝐺 (𝐻) (c) (𝒂)& (𝑏) (d) none
THEOREM:
Let H be a subgroup of a group G then H is a normal subgroup of 𝑁𝐺 (𝐻)
PROOF: We know that 𝑁𝐺 (𝐻) always subgroup of G

𝑁𝐺 (𝐻) = {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 ∶ 𝑔𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔} ]
𝐴𝑛𝑑 ∀ ℎ ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ ℎ𝐻 = 𝐻 = 𝐻ℎ

⇒ ℎ𝐻 = 𝐻ℎ
⇒ ℎ ∈ 𝑁𝐺 (𝐻)
⇒ 𝐻 ⊆ 𝑁𝐺 (𝐻)
⇒ 𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝐺 (𝐻)
And for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝑁𝐺 (𝐻)
⇒ 𝑎𝐻 = 𝐻𝑎
⇒ 𝑎𝐻𝑎−1 = 𝐻 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 ∈ 𝑁𝐺 (𝐻)
⇒ 𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓𝑁𝐺 (𝐻)
THEOREM:
Let H be a normal subgroup of a group G then 𝐶𝐺 (𝐻) is a normal subgroup

of 𝐺
PROOF: here 𝐶𝐺 (𝐻) = {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 ∶ 𝑔ℎ = ℎ𝑔 ∀ ℎ ∈ 𝐻}

Since H is a normal subgroup of G
Then ∀ 𝒉 ∈ 𝑯 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒈 ∈ 𝑮 ⇒ 𝒈−𝟏 𝒉𝒈 ∈ 𝑯
Say
𝒈−𝟏 𝒉𝒈 = 𝒉′
⇒ 𝒉𝒈 = 𝒈𝒉′ . . ⇒ 𝒈−𝟏 𝒉 = 𝒉′ 𝒈−𝟏 − − − −(𝒊)
Now let
𝑥 ∈ 𝑪𝑮 (𝑯) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒈 ∈ 𝑮
𝑪𝑮 (𝑯) ⊵ 𝑮 . for this 𝑔𝑥𝑔−1 ∈ 𝑪𝑮 (𝑯)
ℎ(𝑔𝑥𝑔−1 ) = (ℎ𝑔)𝑥𝑔−1 = 𝑔ℎ′ 𝑥𝑔−1 = 𝑔𝑥ℎ′ 𝑔−1 = 𝑔𝑥𝑔−1 ℎ
⇒ ℎ(𝑔𝑥𝑔−1 ) = (𝑔𝑥𝑔−1 )ℎ
⇒ 𝑔𝑥𝑔−1 ∈ 𝑪𝑮 (𝑯)
Hence 𝑪𝑮 (𝑯)is normal subgroup of G
Example 𝑫𝟑 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒃, 𝒂𝒃, 𝒂𝟐 𝒃} 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 𝑯 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 }

𝒆 ∈ 𝑫𝟑
𝒆. 𝒂 = 𝒂. 𝒆
𝑪𝑮 (𝑯) = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 }
𝑪𝑮 (𝑯) △ 𝑮
H is a subgroup the for all 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯 ⇒ 𝒂𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯
If H is group w.r.t addition then ⇒ 𝒂 + (−𝒃) ∈ 𝑯 ⇒ 𝒂 − 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯
QUESTION:
Find the order of all element of ℤ𝟔 . Also find all normal subgroup.
̅, 𝟏
SOLUTION: we know that ℤ𝟔 = {𝟎 ̅ ,𝟐
̅ ,𝟑 ̅ } is Abelian group w.r.t adition
̅ , ̅𝟒, 𝟓
If 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮 has order n w.r.t. adtion so 𝒏𝒂 = 𝟎
̅| = 𝟏
Since order of identity element is 1. ⇒ |𝟎
̅) = 𝟔
Here 𝟔(𝟏 ̅=𝟎
̅ ⇒ |𝟏
̅| = 𝟔
3(2̅) = 𝟔
̅=𝟎
̅ ⇒ |𝟐
̅| = 𝟑
2(3̅) = 𝟔
̅=𝟎
̅ ⇒ |𝟑
̅| = 𝟐
3(4̅) = ̅̅̅̅ ̅ ⇒ |𝟒
𝟏𝟐 = 𝟎 ̅| = 𝟑
̅) = 𝟑𝟎
𝟔(𝟓 ̅̅̅̅ = 𝟎 ̅| = 𝟔
̅ ⇒ |𝟓
Now we will find the subgroup of ℤ𝟔
̅} 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ℤ𝟔
The trivial subgroups are {𝟎
̅| = 𝟔 so subgroup generated by 𝟏
̅| = 𝟔 and |𝟓
Since |𝟏 ̅ 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒕𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒇 ℤ𝟔
̅ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟓
̅ ) , 𝟐( 𝟏
{1(𝟏 ̅ ) , 𝟑( 𝟏
̅ ) , 𝟒( 𝟏
̅ ) , 𝟓( 𝟏
̅ ) , 𝟔( 𝟏
̅)} = ℤ𝟔
̅), 𝟐(𝟓
{1(𝟓 ̅), 𝟑(𝟓
̅), 𝟒(𝟓 ̅), 𝟔(𝟓
̅), 𝟓(𝟓 ̅)} = {𝟓
̅, 𝟒
̅, 𝟑
̅, 𝟐
̅, 𝟏
̅, 𝟎
̅} = ℤ𝟔
̅| = 𝟑
Since |𝟐
̅ ) , 𝟐( 𝟐
So 𝑯𝟏 = {1(𝟐 ̅ ) , 𝟑( 𝟐
̅)} = {2̅, ̅4 , 0̅}
̅| = 𝟐 𝒔𝒐
Since |𝟑
𝐻2 = {1(3̅), 2(3̅)} = {3̅, 0̅}

̅| = 𝟑
Since |𝟒
̅ ) , 𝟐( 𝟒
So 𝑯𝟏 = {1(𝟒 ̅ ) , 𝟑( 𝟒
̅)} = {2̅, ̅4 , 0̅}
So non-trivial subgroups are
𝑯𝟏 = {2̅, ̅4 , 0̅}&𝐻2 = {3̅, 0̅}
And ℤ𝟔 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒆 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 𝒊𝒔
𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒐 every subgroup of ℤ𝟔 are normal .
QUESTION 2: Find the order of all element of ℤ𝟖 . Also find all normal subgroup.
QUESTION 3: Find the order of all element of ℤ𝟕 . Also find all normal subgroup.
QUESTION 2: Find the order of all element of ℤ𝟗 . Also find all normal subgroup.
QUOTIENT / FACTOR GROUP
Let G be a group and H be a normal subgroup of G. The quotient group is set

𝐺
of all left coset of H in G . denoted by 𝑖. 𝑒
𝐻
𝐺
= {𝑔𝐻 ∶ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 } ( 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑤 . 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝐻
Its addition and multiplication define as
𝐺
𝑔1 𝐻 , 𝑔2 𝐻 ∈
𝐻
𝑔1 𝐻 + 𝑔2 𝐻 = (𝑔1 + 𝑔2 )𝐻
𝑔1𝐻 𝑔2 𝐻 = 𝑔1 𝑔2 𝐻
𝐺
= {𝑔 + 𝐻 ∶ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 } ( 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑤 . 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝐻
Its addition and multiplication define as

𝐺
𝑔1 + 𝐻 , 𝑔2 + 𝐻 ∈
𝐻
(𝑔1 + 𝐻 ) + (𝑔2 + 𝐻 ) = (𝑔1 + 𝑔2 ) + 𝐻
(𝑔1 + 𝐻 )(𝑔2 + 𝐻 ) = 𝑔1𝑔2 + 𝐻
For example
𝑽𝟒 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒂𝒃}
Its normal subgroup is
𝐻 = {𝑒, 𝑏}
𝑒𝐻 = 𝐻
𝑎𝐻 = {𝑎, 𝑎𝑏}
𝑏𝐻 = {𝑒, 𝑏} = 𝐻
𝑎𝑏𝐻 = {𝑎𝑏, 𝑎}
Now the quotient group of H
𝑉4
= {𝐻, 𝑎𝐻}
𝐻
THEOREM
Let 𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ homomorphism from group G to Group G’. Prove that 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 is

normal subgroup of G
PROOF:Since𝑲𝒆𝒓𝝋 = {𝒈 ∈ 𝑮 ∶ 𝝋(𝒈) = 𝒆′ } 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒆′ 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑮′
1st we will show that 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝝋 is a subgroup of G
𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝝋
⇒ 𝝋(𝒂) = 𝒆′ & 𝜑(𝒃) = 𝒆′
Now
𝝋(𝒂𝒃−𝟏 ) = 𝝋(𝒂)𝝋(𝒃−𝟏 )
∴ 𝝋 𝒊𝒔 𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒎
⇒ 𝝋(𝒂𝒃−𝟏 ) = 𝝋(𝒂)𝝋(𝒃)−𝟏
⇒ 𝝋(𝒂𝒃−𝟏 ) = 𝒆′ 𝒆′−𝟏 = 𝒆′

⇒ 𝒂𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝝋
Now we will show 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝝋 is normal subgroup of G
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑎 ∈ 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝝋 & 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ 𝝋(𝒂) = 𝒆′
Now
𝝋(𝒈𝒂𝒈−𝟏 ) = 𝝋(𝒈)𝝋(𝒂)𝝋(𝒈−𝟏 )
∴ 𝝋 𝒊𝒔 𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒎
⇒ 𝝋(𝒈𝒂𝒈−𝟏 ) = 𝝋(𝒈)𝒆′ 𝝋(𝒈)−𝟏
⇒ 𝝋(𝒈𝒂𝒈−𝟏 ) = 𝝋(𝒈)𝝋(𝒈)−𝟏 = 𝒆′
⇒ 𝝋(𝒈𝒂𝒈−𝟏 ) = 𝒆′
⇒ 𝒈𝒂𝒈−𝟏 ∈ 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝝋
Hence 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝝋 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺
FIRST FUNDAMENTEL THEOREM OF GROUP HOMOMORPHISM
Let 𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′be a onto group homomorphism (epimorphism) then
1- 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 is normal subgroup of G

𝐺
2- ≅ 𝐺′
𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑
PROOF
𝝋: 𝑮 → 𝑮′ be a onto
1- DO YOUR SELF
2- 1ST we take 𝑲𝒆𝒓𝝋 = 𝑲 ∀ 𝒈’ ∈ 𝑮’ ∃ 𝒈
𝑮 𝑮 ∈ 𝑮 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕
= = {𝒈𝑲 ∶ 𝒈 ∈ 𝑮}
𝑲𝒆𝒓𝝋 𝑲 𝝋(𝒈) = 𝒈′
Define a mapping
𝑮
𝝍: → 𝑮′ 𝒃𝒚 𝝍(𝒈𝑲) = 𝒈′ = 𝝋(𝒈)
𝑲
Ψ is well-define
𝑔1 𝐾 = 𝑔2 𝐾
⇒ 𝑔2−1 𝑔1 𝐾 = 𝐾
⇒ 𝑔2−1 𝑔1 ∈ 𝐾
⇒ 𝜑(𝑔2−1 𝑔1 ) = 𝑒 ′
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒 ′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐺′

∴ 𝜑 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚
⇒ 𝜑(𝑔2−1 )𝜑(𝑔1 ) = 𝑒 ′
⇒ 𝜑(𝑔2 )−1 𝜑(𝑔1 ) = 𝑒 ′
⇒ 𝜑(𝑔1 ) = 𝜑(𝑔2 )
⇒ 𝜓(𝑔1 𝐾 ) = 𝜓(𝑔2 𝐾 )
Ψ is one-one
𝜓(𝑔1 𝐾 ) = 𝜓(𝑔2 𝐾 )
⇒ 𝜑(𝑔1 ) = 𝜑(𝑔2 )
⇒ 𝜑(𝑔2 )−1 𝜑(𝑔1 ) = 𝑒 ′
⇒ 𝜑(𝑔2−1 )𝜑(𝑔1 ) = 𝑒 ′
⇒ 𝜑(𝑔2−1 𝑔1 ) = 𝑒 ′
⇒ 𝑔2−1 𝑔1 ∈ 𝐾
⇒ 𝑔2−1 𝑔1 𝐾 = 𝐾
⇒ 𝑔1 𝐾 = 𝑔2 𝐾
Ψ is onto
Since 𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ be a onto ∀ 𝑔’ ∈ 𝐺’ ∃ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝜑(𝑔) = 𝑔′

𝐺
So ∀ 𝑔’ = 𝜑(𝑔) ∈ 𝐺’ ∃ 𝑔𝐾 ∈ 𝐾 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝜓(𝑔𝐾 ) = 𝑔′ = 𝜑(𝑔)
Ψ is homomorphism
𝜓(𝑔1 𝐾𝑔2 𝐾 ) = 𝜓(𝑔1 𝑔2 𝐾 )
𝜓(𝑔1 𝐾𝑔2 𝐾 ) = 𝜑(𝑔1 𝑔2 )
𝜓(𝑔1 𝐾𝑔2 𝐾 ) = 𝜑(𝑔1 )𝜑(𝑔2 )
𝜓(𝑔1 𝐾𝑔2 𝐾 ) = 𝜓(𝑔1 𝐾 )𝜓(𝑔2 𝐾 )
So 𝜓 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐺
Hence 𝐾 ≅ 𝐺 ′ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾 = 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑
Example

𝜑: ℤ → ℤ6 𝑏𝑦 𝜑(𝑛) = 𝑛̅
ℤ6 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅}
𝜑(0) = 0̅ = 𝜑(6),0̅ = 6̅
𝜑(1) = 1̅ = 𝜑(7)
𝜑(2) = 2̅ = 𝜑(8)
𝜑(3) = 3̅ = 𝜑(9)
𝜑(4) = 4̅ = 𝜑(10)
𝜑(5) = 5̅ = 𝜑(611)
𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 − 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑛1 = 𝑛2
⇒ ̅̅̅
𝑛1 = ̅̅̅
𝑛2
⇒ 𝜑(𝑛1 ) = 𝜑(𝑛2 )
𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑒 − 𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝜑(𝑛1 ) = 𝜑(𝑛2 )
𝑛1 = ̅̅̅
̅̅̅ 𝑛2
⇏ 𝑛1 = 𝑛2
𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜
∀ 𝑛̅ ∈ ℤ6 ∃ 𝑛 ∈ ℤ 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝜑(𝑛) = 𝑛̅
𝜑 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚
𝜑(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 ) = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
𝜑(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 ) = ̅̅̅
𝑛1 + ̅̅̅
𝑛2
𝜑(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 ) = 𝜑(𝑛1 ) + 𝜑(𝑛2 )
So 𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚
Then by 1st fundamental theorem of group homomorphism
ℤ
≅ ℤ6 − − − −(1)
𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑
Now

𝜑: ℤ → ℤ6
𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 = {𝑛 ∈ ℤ ∶ 𝜑(𝑛) = 0̅}
𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 = {𝑛 ∈ ℤ ∶ 𝑛̅ = 0̅} = {0, ±6, ±12, ±18, ±24, … }
𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 = {𝑛 ∈ ℤ ∶ 𝑛̅ = 0̅} = 6{0, ±1, ±1 ± 2, ±4, … } = 6ℤ
Then (1) become
ℤ
≅ ℤ6
6ℤ
Example
𝜑: ℤ → ℤ8 𝑏𝑦 𝜑(𝑛) = 𝑛̅
Example
𝜑: ℤ → ℤ11 𝑏𝑦 𝜑(𝑛) = 𝑛̅
3rd FUNDAMENTEL THEOREM OF GROUP HOMOMORPHISM
Let 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 are normal subgroups of a group G and 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐾 then

𝐺/𝐻 𝐺
≅
𝐾/𝐻 𝐾
𝐺
𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ≅ 𝐺′
𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑
𝑮 𝑮 𝐾
𝜑: → 𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒎 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 =
𝑯 𝑲 𝐻
𝑮 𝑮
𝑯 𝑮 𝑯 𝑮
≅ ⇒ 𝐾 ≅
𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 𝑲 𝑲
𝐻
PROOF:𝑯𝑮 = {𝒈𝑯 ∶ 𝒈 ∈ 𝑮} 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑲𝑮 = {𝒈𝑲 ∶ 𝒈 ∈ 𝑮}

𝑮 𝑮
We define 𝜑: 𝑯 → 𝑲 𝒃𝒚 𝜑(𝑔𝐻) = 𝑔𝐾
𝜑 is well-define
𝑔1 𝐻 = 𝑔2 𝐻

⇒ 𝑔2−1 𝑔1 𝐻 = 𝐻
⇒ 𝑔2−1 𝑔1 ∈ 𝐻
∴𝑯⊆𝑲
⇒ 𝑔2−1 𝑔1 ∈ 𝐾
⇒ 𝑔2−1 𝑔1 𝐾 = 𝐾
⇒ 𝑔1 𝐾 = 𝑔2 𝐾
⇒ 𝜑(𝑔1 𝐻) = 𝜑(𝑔2 𝐻)
𝜑 is onto
𝐺 𝐺
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝐾 ∈ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑔𝐻 ∈ 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝜑(𝑔𝐻) = 𝑔𝐾
𝐾 𝐻
𝜑 is homomorphism
𝜑(𝑔1 𝐻. 𝑔2 𝐻) = 𝜑(𝑔1 𝑔2 𝐻)
𝜑(𝑔1 𝐻. 𝑔2 𝐻) = 𝑔1 𝑔2 𝐾
𝜑(𝑔1 𝐻. 𝑔2 𝐻) = 𝜑(𝑔1 𝐻)𝜑(𝑔2 𝐻)

𝑮 𝑮
⇒ 𝜑: 𝑯 → 𝑲 𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒎
Then by 1st fundamental theorem of group homorphism

𝑮
𝑯 𝑮
≅ ( 𝟏)
𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 𝑲
Now we will find 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑
𝐺
𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 = {𝑔𝐻 ∈ ; 𝜑(𝑔𝐻) = 𝐾}
𝐻
𝐺
𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 = {𝑔𝐻 ∈ ; 𝑔𝐾 = 𝐾}
𝐻
𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 = {𝑔𝐻 ; 𝑔 ∈ 𝐾 }
𝐾
𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 = {𝑔𝐻 ; 𝑔 ∈ 𝐾 } =
𝐻
Then (1) become

𝑮
𝑯 𝑮
≅
𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 𝑲
𝑮
𝑯 𝑮
𝐾 ≅
𝑲
𝐻
𝑮
= {𝒆𝑯 𝒈𝟏 𝑯, 𝒈𝟐 𝑯, 𝒈𝟑 𝑯, , , . . , 𝒈𝒏 𝑯} = {𝒈𝑯 ∶ 𝒈 ∈ 𝑮}
𝑯
𝑮
= {𝒆𝑲 𝒈𝟏 𝑲, 𝒈𝟐 𝑲, 𝒈𝟑 𝑲, , , . . , 𝒈𝒏 𝑲}
𝑲
𝑲
= {𝒈𝑲 ∶ 𝒈 ∈ 𝑲}
𝑯
2nd FUNDAMENTEL THEOREM OF GROUP HOMOMORPHISM
Let H be a normal subgroup and K be any subgroup of a group G. Then HK

is a subgroup of G , 𝐻⋂𝐾 is normal subgroup in K and
𝑯𝑲 𝑲
≅
𝑯 𝑯⋂𝑲
PROOF. 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻𝐾 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 = ℎ1𝑘1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = ℎ2𝑘2

H is normal subgroup
, ℎ1 , ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 ∈ 𝐾
𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 = 𝐻
Now
For any h∈H and g∈G
−1 )−1
𝑥𝑦 = (ℎ1 𝑘1 )(ℎ2 𝑘2
𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 ∈ H
𝑥𝑦 −1 = (ℎ1 𝑘1 )(𝑘2−1 ℎ2 −1 ) 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 = ℎ′ 𝑔ℎ = ℎ′𝑔
𝑥𝑦 −1 = ℎ1 𝑘1 𝑘2−1 ℎ2 −1 ∴𝑘1 𝑘2−1 = 𝑘3
𝑥𝑦 −1 = ℎ1 𝑘3 ℎ2 −1 ∴ H is normal subgroup of G
For any ℎ3 ∈ 𝐻 𝑘3 ℎ2 −1 = ℎ3 𝑘3
𝑥𝑦 −1 = ℎ1 ℎ3 𝑘3 ℎ1 ℎ3 = ℎ3 ′

𝑥𝑦 −1 = ℎ3 ′𝑘3 ∈ 𝐻𝐾
⇒ 𝐻𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺
Now we know that intersection of two subgroup is also subgroup
So 𝐻⋂𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐾
Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻⋂𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾
⇒𝑎 ∈𝐻 & 𝑎∈𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘∈𝐾
Here 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 ⊆ 𝐺 𝑠𝑜 𝑘 ∈ 𝐺
Since H is normal subgroup
⇒ 𝑘𝑎𝑘 −1 ∈ 𝐻
Also 𝑎 ∈ 𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘∈𝐾
𝑘𝑎𝑘 −1 ∈ 𝐾
⇒ 𝑘𝑎𝑘 −1 ∈ 𝐻⋂𝐾
Hence 𝐻⋂𝐾 is normal subgroup of K.
Now we will show
𝐾 𝐻𝐾
≅
𝐻⋂𝐾 𝐻
𝐻𝐾
= {ℎ𝑘𝐻 ∶ ℎ𝑘 ∈ 𝐻𝐾}
𝐻
𝐻𝐾
= {𝑘ℎ′𝐻 ∶ ℎ ∈ 𝐻 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾}
𝐻
∴ ℎ′𝐻 = 𝐻
𝐻𝐾
= {𝑘𝐻 ∶ 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾}
𝐻
Define a mapping
𝐻𝐾
𝜑: 𝐾 → 𝑏𝑦 𝜑(𝑘) = 𝑘𝐻
𝐻
𝝋 is well-define
𝑘1 = 𝑘2
𝑘1 𝐻 = 𝑘2 𝐻

𝜑(𝑘1 ) = 𝜑(𝑘1 )
𝝋 is onto
𝐻𝐾
∀ 𝑘𝐻 ∈ ∃ 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝐻
𝜑(𝑘) = 𝑘𝐻
𝝋 is homomorphism
𝜑(𝑘1 𝑘2 ) = 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝐻
𝜑(𝑘1 𝑘2 ) = 𝑘1 𝐻𝑘2 𝐻 = 𝜑(𝑘1 )𝜑(𝑘2 )
𝜑(𝑘1 𝑘2 ) = 𝜑(𝑘1 )𝜑(𝑘2 )

𝐻𝐾
⇒ 𝜑: 𝐾 → 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚
𝐻
Then 1st fundamental theorem
𝐾 𝐻𝐾
≅ (1 )
𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 𝐻
Now
𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 = {𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 ∶ 𝜑(𝑘) = 𝑒𝐻}
𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 = {𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 ∶ 𝑘𝐻 = 𝐻}
𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 = {𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 ∶ 𝑘 ∈ 𝐻}
𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 = 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾
Then (1) become
𝐾 𝐻𝐾
≅
𝐻∩𝐾 𝐻
𝐺
𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ≅ 𝐺′
𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑
𝑯𝑲
𝝋: 𝑲 → 𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒎 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 = 𝑯 ∩ 𝑲
𝑯
𝑲 𝑯𝑲 𝑲 𝑯𝑲
≅ ⇒ ≅
𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 𝑯 𝑯∩𝑲 𝑯

𝐺
MCQ: let Z(G) be the center of a cyclic group G then 𝑍(𝐺) is
(a). cyclic (b) abelian (c) non-abelian (d) none
THEOREM
𝐺
Let G is Abelian group iff the factor group is cyclic. Where 𝑍(𝐺) is
𝑍(𝐺)
center of G.
PROOF:𝑍(𝐺 ) = {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 ; 𝑔𝑎 = 𝑎𝑔 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺}
Suppose that G is abelian then 𝑍(𝐺 ) = 𝐺 so
𝐺 𝐺
= = {𝑒𝐺 } 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑐.
𝑍 (𝐺 ) 𝐺
𝐺 = 𝑉4 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏}
𝐺
= {𝑔𝐺 ∶ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺} = {𝑒𝐺 = 𝐺}
𝐺
Conversely,
𝐺
Suppose that 𝑍(𝐺) = {𝑔𝑍(𝐺 ): 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 } is cyclic group
𝐺
Let 𝑎𝑍(𝐺) ∈ 𝑍(𝐺) is generator and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
𝐺
Now let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺 then 𝑥𝑍(𝐺 )𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦𝑍(𝐺 ) ∈ 𝑍(𝐺) the
𝑛1 𝑛2
𝑥𝑍(𝐺 ) = (𝑎𝑍(𝐺)) & 𝑦𝑍(𝐺 ) = (𝑎𝑍(𝐺))
⇒ 𝑥𝑍(𝐺 ) = a𝑛1 𝑍(𝐺 )& 𝑦𝑍(𝐺 ) = a𝑛2 𝑍(𝐺 )
Then
𝑥 ∈ a𝑛1 𝑍(𝐺 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ a𝑛2 𝑍(𝐺 )
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛1 𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛2 𝑧 ′ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧, 𝑧 ′ ∈ 𝑍(𝐺 )
Now
𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛1 𝑧 𝑎𝑛2 𝑧 ′

⇒ 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 𝑧𝑧 ′
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛1 +𝑛2 𝑧𝑧 ′
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛2 +𝑛1 𝑧𝑧 ′
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛2 𝑎𝑛1 𝑧′𝑧
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛2 𝑧′𝑎𝑛1 𝑧
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦𝑥
Hence G is abelian
ENDOMORPHISM
A mapping 𝛼: 𝐺 → 𝐺 is said to be endomorphism if
𝛼 is homomorphism 𝛼 (𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝛼(𝑔1 )𝛼(𝑔2 )
AUTOMORPHISM
A mapping 𝛼: 𝐺 → 𝐺 is said to be automorphism if
1- 𝛼 is homomorphism 𝛼 (𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝛼(𝑔1 )𝛼(𝑔2 )

2- 𝛼 is bijective ( one-one and onto)
Example 0̅ 0̅
1̅ 1̅
̅, 𝟏
ℤ𝟔 = {𝟎 ̅, 𝟐
̅, 𝟑
̅, 𝟒 ̅} is group w.r.t +
̅, 𝟓
2̅ 2̅
Define 𝜶: ℤ𝟔 → ℤ𝟔 𝒃𝒚 𝜶(𝒏 ̅𝒏
̅) = 𝟓 ̅
3̅ 3̅
𝛼(0̅) = 0̅𝛼(1̅) = 5̅, 𝛼 (2̅) = 5.

̅ 2̅ = 4̅𝛼(3̅) = 5̅. 3̅ = 3̅ 4̅ 4̅
5̅ 5̅
𝛼(4̅) = 5̅4̅ = 2̅𝛼(5̅) = 5̅5̅ = 1̅
Clearly 𝛼 is bijective
𝛼(𝑛̅1 +𝑛̅2 ) = 5̅(𝑛̅1 + 𝑛̅2 )
𝛼(𝑛̅1 +𝑛̅2 ) = 5̅𝑛̅1 + 5𝑛̅2

𝛼(𝑛̅1 + 𝑛̅2 ) = 𝛼 (𝑛̅1 ) + 𝛼(𝑛̅2 )
𝛼 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚
Define 𝛽: ℤ6 → ℤ6 𝑏𝑦 𝛽(𝑛̅) = 𝑛̅
𝛽 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚 .
𝛽 (𝑛̅1 𝑛̅2 ) = 𝑛̅1 𝑛̅2 = 𝛽 (̅̅̅ 𝑛2 ) (homomorphism)

𝑛1 )𝛽 (̅̅̅
Define a mapping 𝜶𝟏 : ℤ𝟔 → ℤ𝟔 𝒃𝒚 𝜶𝟏 (𝒏 ̅𝒏
̅) = 𝟒 ̅ is automorphism?
𝛼(0̅) = 0̅𝛼(1̅) = 4̅, 𝛼 (2̅) = 4.

̅ 2̅ = 2̅𝛼(3̅) = 4̅. 3̅ = 0̅
𝛼 (4̅) = 4̅. 4̅ = 4̅𝛼(5̅) = 4̅5̅ = 2̅
This mapping is not one one because so this is not automorphism.
𝐴𝑢𝑡(ℤ6 ) = {𝛼: ℤ6 → ℤ6 𝑏𝑦 𝛼(𝑛̅) = 5̅𝑛̅, 𝛽: ℤ6 → ℤ6 𝑏𝑦 𝛽 (𝑛̅) = 𝑛̅} ≅ 𝑈 (6)
Example
We know that (ℂ +) is group
̅
Define a mapping 𝝋: (ℂ, +) → (ℂ, +) 𝒃𝒚 𝝋(𝒁) = 𝒁
𝝋 is one-one
Let 𝑍1 = 𝑎1 + 𝑖𝑏1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑖𝑏2
𝜑(𝑍1 ) = 𝜑(𝑍2 )
̅̅̅
𝑍1 = ̅̅̅
𝑍2
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑎1 + 𝑖𝑏1 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑎2 + 𝑖𝑏2
𝑎1 − 𝑖𝑏1 = 𝑎2 − 𝑖𝑏2
⇒ 𝑎1 + 𝑖𝑏1 = 𝑎2 + 𝑖𝑏2
⇒ 𝑍1 = 𝑍2
𝝋 is onto
For all 𝑍̅ ∈ ℂ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑍 ∈ ℂ such that 𝜑(𝑍) = 𝑍̅
𝜑 is homomorphism
𝜑(𝑍1 + 𝑍2 ) = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑍1 + 𝑍2

𝜑(𝑍1 + 𝑍2 ) = ̅̅̅
𝑍1 + ̅̅̅
𝑍2
𝜑(𝑍1 + 𝑍2 ) = 𝜑(𝑍1 ) + 𝜑(𝑍2 )
⇒𝝋 is automorphism.
Another example We know that (ℂ\{0} ×) is group
Define a mapping 𝜑: (ℂ\{0} ×) → (ℂ\{0} ×) 𝑏𝑦 𝜑(𝑍) = 𝑍̅ is also automorphism
One more example on set complex number
We know that (ℂ +) is group
Define a mapping 𝝋: (ℂ, +) → (ℂ, +) 𝒃𝒚 𝝋(𝒂 + 𝒊𝒃) = 𝒃 + 𝒊𝒂
QUESTION:
Prove that 𝑨𝒖𝒕(𝑮) the set of all automorphism mapping of a group G

is group composition of function.
Solution 𝐴(𝐺 ) = {𝛼 | 𝛼: 𝐺 → 𝐺 𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚 }
i- Closure law
Let 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 ∈ 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺 ) then
𝛼1 : 𝐺 → 𝐺 𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚 and 𝛼2 : 𝐺 → 𝐺 𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚
Since
𝛼1 , 𝛼2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 . 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑏𝑖𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔
Is always bijective
𝛼1 𝛼2 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑖𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
For 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ∈ 𝐺
𝛼1 𝛼2 (𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝛼1 (𝛼2 (𝑔1 )𝛼2 (𝑔2 ))∴𝛼2 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚
𝛼1 𝛼2 (𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝛼1 (𝛼2 (𝑔1 ))𝛼1 (𝛼2 (𝑔2 ))∴𝛼1 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚
𝛼1 𝛼2 (𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = (𝛼1 𝛼2 (𝑔1 ))(𝛼1 𝛼2 (𝑔2 ))
𝛼1 𝛼2 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚 .
⇒𝛼1 𝛼2 ∈ 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺)
ii- ASSOCIATIVE LAW
For 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 ∈ 𝐴(𝐺)
We can easily check
𝛼1 ( 𝛼2 𝛼3 ) = (𝛼1 𝛼2 )𝛼3
(𝛼1 (𝛼2 𝛼3 ))(𝑔) = 𝛼1 (𝛼2 𝛼3 )(𝑔)
(𝛼1 (𝛼2 𝛼3 ))(𝑔) = 𝛼1 (𝛼2 (𝛼3 (𝑔)))
(𝛼1 (𝛼2 𝛼3 ))(𝑔) = 𝛼1 (𝛼2 𝛼3 (𝑔))
(𝛼1 (𝛼2 𝛼3 ))(𝑔) = 𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 (𝑔 )

Similarly
((𝛼1 𝛼2 )𝛼3 )(𝑔) = 𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 (𝑔 )
iii- Identity element
Define a mapping
𝐼: 𝐺 → 𝐺 𝑏𝑦 𝐼(𝑔) = 𝑔
Clearly identity mapping is one one and onto
And for homomorphism
𝐼(𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝑔1 𝑔2 = 𝐼(𝑔1 )𝐼 (𝑔2 )
And for all 𝛼 ∈ 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺)
(𝛼𝐼 )(𝑔) = 𝛼(𝐼 (𝑔)) = 𝛼 (𝑔 )
And
(𝐼𝛼 )(𝑔) = 𝐼(𝛼 (𝑔)) = 𝛼 (𝑔 )
⇒ 𝛼𝐼 = 𝛼 = 𝐼𝛼
𝑠𝑜 𝐼 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺 )
iv- Inverse element
For each 𝛼 ∈ 𝐴(𝐺 ), the inverse mapping 𝛼 −1 : 𝐺 → 𝐺
Since inverse of bijective mapping is also bijective
So 𝛼 −1 is bijective
Now we will show 𝛼 −1 is homomorphism
𝛼 −1 (𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝛼 −1 (𝐼(𝑔1 )𝐼(𝑔2 ))
𝛼 −1 (𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝛼 −1 (𝛼𝛼 −1 (𝑔1 )𝛼𝛼 −1 (𝑔2 ))
𝛼 −1 (𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝛼 −1 (𝛼(𝛼 −1 (𝑔1 ))𝛼(𝛼 −1 (𝑔2 )))
∴ 𝛼 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚
𝛼 −1 (𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝛼 −1 𝛼 ((𝛼 −1 (𝑔1 ))(𝛼 −1 (𝑔2 )))
𝛼 −1 (𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝐼 ((𝛼 −1 (𝑔1 ))(𝛼 −1 (𝑔2 )))
𝛼 −1 (𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝛼 −1 (𝑔1 )𝛼 −1 (𝑔2 )
⇒ 𝛼 −1 ∈ 𝐴(𝐺 )
Hence 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺 ) is a group.
QUESTION:
Let G be any group and 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮 be any element of G. A mapping
𝒇: 𝑮 → 𝑮 by 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙𝒂−𝟏 is automorphism.
Solution
1- 𝒇 is one-one
𝑓 (𝑥1 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥2 )
⇒ 𝑎𝑥1 𝑎−1 = 𝑎𝑥2 𝑎−1
𝑏𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑤

⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2
2- 𝒇 is onto
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥𝑎−1
3- 𝒇 is homomorphism
𝑓 (𝑥1 𝑥2 ) = 𝑎𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑎−1
⇒ 𝑓(𝑥1 𝑥2 ) = 𝑎𝑥1 𝑒𝑥2 𝑎−1
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐺
⇒ 𝑓 (𝑥1 𝑥2 ) = 𝑎𝑥1 𝑎−1 𝑎𝑥2 𝑎−1
⇒ 𝑓 (𝑥1 𝑥2 ) = 𝑓(𝑥1 )𝑓(𝑥2 )
Hence 𝑓 is automorphism
𝑨𝒖𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑.
Question: Let G is infinite cyclic group then find 𝑨𝒖𝒕(𝑮)
SOLUTION: Let 𝐺 =< 𝑎 > = {𝑎𝑛 ∶ 𝑛 ∈ ℤ}

Observe that 𝑎𝑖 = 1 ⇔ 𝑖 = 0
Now let 𝑓 ∈ Aut(G)
Then 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑖𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚
𝑓 (𝑎) = 𝑎𝑚 for some 𝑚 ∈ 𝑍
Since 𝑓 is onto then for 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 there exist 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 such that
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎 and G is cyclic generated by and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 then
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍
𝑓 (𝑎 𝑛 ) = 𝑎
𝑓(𝑎. 𝑎. 𝑎 … . 𝑎(𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)) = 𝑎
∴ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚
𝑓(𝑎)𝑓(𝑎)𝑓(𝑎) … 𝑓(𝑎)(𝑛 𝑡𝑚𝑒) = 𝑎
[𝑓(𝑎)]𝑛 = 𝑎
[𝑎 𝑚 ]𝑛 = 𝑎

𝑎𝑚𝑛−1 = 1
⇒ 𝑚𝑛 − 1 = 0
⇒ 𝑚𝑛 = 1
⇒ 𝑚 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑚 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = −1
So
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎±1
⇒ 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺 ) = {𝑓 ∶ 𝑓 (𝑎) = 𝑎±1 }
⇒ |𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺 )| = 2
Remark: If G is infinite cyclic group then |𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺 )| = 2
Since group of order 2 is cyclic
We can say that 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺 ) is cyclic and any two cyclic group of same order are isomorphic
. And ℤ2 = {0̅, 1̅} is cyclic
So
𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺 ) ≅ ℤ2
𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺 ) ≅ 𝐶2
Also ℤ set of integer is infinite cyclic group
𝐺≅ℤ
𝐴𝑢𝑡(ℤ) ≅ ℤ2 ≅ 𝐶2 ≅ {1, −1}
MCQ: Let G be a infinite cyclic group then 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺) is isomorphisc to
(a). ℤ2 (b) 𝐶2 (c) {1, −1} (d) all of these
Set of unite elements of ℤ𝑛

𝑈(ℤ𝑛 ) = 𝑈(𝑛) = 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℤ𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑛
ℤ2 = {0̅, 1̅} ⇒ 𝑈(2) = {1̅}
ℤ3 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅} ⇒ 𝑈(3) = {1̅, 2̅}
ℤ4 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅} ⇒ 𝑈(4) = {1̅, 3̅}
ℤ5 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅} ⇒ 𝑈(5) = {1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅}
ℤ6 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅} ⇒ 𝑈(6) = {1̅, 5̅}

ℤ7 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅, 6̅} ⇒ 𝑈(7) = {1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅, 6̅}
ℤ8 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅, 6̅, 7̅} ⇒ 𝑈(8) = {1̅, 3̅, 5̅, 7̅}
ℤ9 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅, 6̅, 7̅, 8̅} ⇒ 𝑈 (9) = {1̅, 2̅, 4̅, 5̅, 7̅, 8̅}
ℤ11 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅, 6̅, 7̅, 8̅, , 9̅, ̅10
̅̅̅} ⇒ 𝑈 (11) = {1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅, 6̅, 7̅, 8̅, , 9̅, ̅10
̅̅̅}
→ 𝑼(𝒏)𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑨𝒖𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑
Example Find automorphism of ℤ12 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅, 6̅, 7̅, 8̅, 9̅, ̅10
̅̅̅, ̅11
̅̅̅}
Define 𝛼: ℤ12 → ℤ12 𝑏𝑦 𝛼 (𝑛̅) = 𝑚

̅ 𝑛̅ automorphism
𝛼 is one one
𝛼 (𝑛̅1 ) = 𝛼 (𝑛̅2 )
𝑚
̅ 𝑛̅1 = 𝑚
̅ 𝑛̅2
⇒ 𝑛̅1 = 𝑛̅2 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 12
2̅5̅ = 2̅̅65
̅̅̅
S0 𝑚 = 1,5,7,11
𝛼(𝑛̅) = 2̅𝑛̅
𝛼 (0̅) = 0̅𝛼(1̅) = 2̅1̅ = 2̅ 𝛼(2̅) = 2̅2̅ = 4̅ 𝛼(3̅) = 2̅3̅ = 6̅ 𝛼(4̅) = 2̅4̅ = 8̅
𝛼(5̅) = 2̅5̅ = 10
̅̅̅̅, 𝛼(6̅) = 2̅6̅ = 12
̅̅̅̅ 𝛼(7̅) = 2̅7̅ = 14
̅̅̅̅ = 2̅
𝛼 (0̅) ∈ ℤ12
⇒ 𝛼: ℤ12 → ℤ12 𝑖𝑠 automorphism 𝛼(𝑛̅) = 𝑚 ̅ = 1̅, 5̅, 7̅, 11

̅ 𝑛̅ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 ̅̅̅̅
𝑈 (12) = {1̅, 5̅, 7̅, ̅11

̅̅̅}
2
̅̅̅ = 1̅, (5̅)3 = ̅̅̅̅̅
(5̅) = ̅25
4
125 = 5̅, (5̅) = ̅̅̅̅̅
625 = 1̅
(7̅)2 = ̅49
̅̅̅ = 1̅, (7̅)3 = 7̅, (7)4 = 1̅
𝑈(12) 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
THEOREM
For any integer n≥2 𝐴𝑢𝑡(ℤ𝑛 ) ≅ 𝑈(𝑛)

OR
Let G be a cyclic group of order n then 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺) ≅ 𝑈(𝑛)
PROOF:Let 𝐺 =< 𝑎 ∶ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 >
Let 𝑓 ∈ 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺) then 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 bijective homomorphism ( automorphism)
Then for 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑓 (𝑎) ∈ 𝐺 then there exist an positive integer 𝑖 such that
0<𝑖<𝑛
𝑓 (𝑎 ) = 𝑎 𝑖
Since 𝑓 is automorpphism
𝑂(𝑓(𝑎)) = 𝑂 (𝑎) = 𝑛
⇒ 𝑂(𝑎𝑖 ) = 𝑛
𝑛
⇒ (𝑎𝑖 ) = 𝑒
Now we show that (𝑛, 𝑖 ) = 1
For this let
(𝑛, 𝑖 ) = 𝑘
⇒ 𝑘|𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘|𝑖

𝑛
⇒ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝑘
𝑛 1 1
⇒ 𝑎 𝑘 = (𝑎 𝑛 )𝑘 = (𝑒 )𝑘 = 𝑒
It is only possible when 𝑘 = 1
⇒ (𝑛, 𝑖 ) = 1
So
𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺 ) = {𝑓𝑖 ∶ 𝑓𝑖 : 𝐺 → 𝐺 𝑠. 𝑡 𝑓𝑖 (𝑎) = 𝑎𝑖 , 0 < 𝑖 < 𝑛 &(𝑛, 𝑖 ) = 1}
𝑈 (𝑛) = {𝑖 ∶ 0 < 𝑖 < 𝑛 &(𝑛, 𝑖 ) = 1}
Now we will show that 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺 ) ≅ 𝑈(𝑛)
Define a mapping 𝜑: 𝑈(𝑛) → 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺 ) by 𝜑(𝑖 ) = 𝑓𝑖 with 0 < 𝑖 < 𝑛 &(𝑛, 𝑖 ) = 1
𝝋 is well-define

𝑖1 = 𝑖2
⇒ 𝑎𝑖1 = 𝑎 𝑖2
⇒ 𝑓𝑖1 (𝑎) = 𝑓𝑖2 (𝑎)
⇒ 𝑓𝑖1 = 𝑓𝑖2
⇒ 𝜑(𝑖1 ) = 𝜑(𝑖2 )
𝝋 is one-one
𝜑(𝑖1 ) = 𝜑(𝑖2 )
⇒ 𝑓𝑖1 = 𝑓𝑖2
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ 𝑓𝑖1 (𝑎) = 𝑓𝑖2 (𝑎)
⇒ 𝑎𝑖1 = 𝑎 𝑖2
⇒ 𝑖1 = 𝑖2
𝝋 is onto
For all 𝑓𝑖 ∈ 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺 ) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑖 ∈ 𝑈 (𝑛) 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝜑(𝑖 ) = 𝑓𝑖
𝝋 is homomorphism
For any 𝑖, 𝑗 ∈ 𝑈 (𝑛)
𝜑(𝑖𝑗) = 𝑓𝑖𝑗 (1)

𝑗
𝑓𝑖𝑗 (𝑎) = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = (𝑎𝑖 )
𝑓𝑖𝑗 (𝑎) = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = (𝑓𝑖 (𝑎))𝑗
𝑓𝑖𝑗 (𝑎) = 𝑓𝑗 (𝑓𝑖 (𝑎))
𝑓𝑖𝑗 (𝑎) = 𝑓𝑗 𝑓𝑖 (𝑎)
𝑓𝑖𝑗 = 𝑓𝑗 𝑓𝑖
Then (1) become
𝜑(𝑖𝑗) = 𝑓𝑖𝑗 = 𝑓𝑗 𝑓𝑖

𝜑(𝑖𝑗) = 𝜑(𝑖 )𝜑(𝑗)
So 𝜑 is isomorphism mapping
Hence
𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺 ) ≅ 𝑈(𝑛)
Since any two cyclic group of same order are isomorphic
And ℤ𝑛 is cyclic group of order n. also G is cyclic group of order n 𝐺 ≅ ℤ𝑛
𝐴𝑢𝑡(ℤ𝑛 ) ≅ 𝑈(𝑛)
Note
𝐺 ≅ ℤ𝑛 ≅ 𝐶𝑛
𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐶𝑛 ) ≅ 𝑈 (𝑛)
Put n=6
𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐶6 ) ≅ 𝑈(6) = {1,5} ≅ 𝐶2 ≅ ℤ2
𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐶6 ) ≅ 𝐶2
→𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐶𝑝 ) ≅ 𝐶𝑝−1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒
→𝐴𝑢𝑡(ℤ𝑝 ) ≅ ℤ𝑝−1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒
MCQ: let G be a cyclic group of order 12 then |𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺 )| =_____
(a). 2 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) none
→ let G be a cyclic group of order n then |𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺 )| = |𝑈 (𝑛)| = 𝜙(𝑛)
Order AUTOMORPHISM OF 𝐷𝑛 =𝑛𝜙(𝑛)
Order AUTOMORPHISM OF 𝐷3 =3𝜙(3) = 3(2) = 6
𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐷3 ) ≅ 𝐷3
Order AUTOMORPHISM OF 𝐷4 =4𝜙(4) = 4(2) = 8
𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐷4 ) ≅ 𝐷4
INNER AUTOMORPHISM
Let G be a group and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 be any fixed element .define a function
𝜑𝑎 : 𝐺 → 𝐺 𝑏𝑦 𝜑𝑎 (𝑔) = 𝑎𝑔𝑎−1 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺

Is called an inner automorphism of G to G.
Any other automorphism if exist is called outer automorphism of G to G.

EXAMPLE: Let the dihedral group of order 6 𝑖. 𝑒 𝐷3 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏}
For 𝑎 ∈ 𝐷3
Define a mapping 𝜑𝑎 : 𝐷3 → 𝐷3 𝑏𝑦 𝜑𝑎 (𝑔) = 𝑎𝑔𝑎−1 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐷3

𝑒 𝑒
𝜑𝑎 (𝑒) = 𝑎𝑒𝑎−1 = 𝑒
𝑎 𝑎
𝜑𝑎 (𝑎) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑎
𝑎2 𝑎2
𝜑𝑎 (𝑎2 ) = 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎−1 = 𝑎2
𝑏 𝑏
−1 2) 2
𝜑𝑎 (𝑏) = 𝑎𝑏𝑎 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑎 = 𝑎(𝑎𝑏) = 𝑎 𝑏
𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏
𝜑𝑎 (𝑎𝑏) = 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑎−1 = 𝑎2 (𝑏𝑎2 ) = 𝑎2 (𝑎𝑏) = 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏
𝜑𝑎 (𝑎2 𝑏) = 𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑎−1 = (𝑏𝑎2 ) = 𝑎𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏
EXERCISE: prove that function defined by
𝜑𝑎 : 𝐺 → 𝐺 𝑏𝑦 𝜑𝑎 (𝑔) = 𝑎𝑔𝑎−1 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
Is an automorphism of G
SOLUTION:
Given 𝜑𝑎 (𝑔) = 𝑎𝑔𝑎−1
𝝋𝒂 is one-one
𝜑𝑎 (𝑔1 ) = 𝜑𝑎 (𝑔2 )
⇒ 𝑎𝑔1 𝑎−1 = 𝑎𝑔2 𝑎 −1
By right and left cancelation Law
⇒ 𝑔1 = 𝑔2
𝝋𝒂 is onto
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑔𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺 ∃ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝜑𝑎 (𝑔) = 𝑎𝑔𝑎−1
𝝋𝒂 is homomorphism
𝜑𝑎 (𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝑎𝑔1 𝑔2 𝑎−1
⇒ 𝜑𝑎 (𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝑎𝑔1 𝑒𝑔2 𝑎−1

⇒ 𝜑𝑎 (𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝑎𝑔1 𝑎−1 𝑎𝑔2 𝑎−1
⇒ 𝜑𝑎 (𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝜑𝑎 (𝑔1 )𝜑𝑎 (𝑔2 )
Hence 𝜑𝑎 (𝑔) = 𝑎𝑔𝑎−1 is an automorphism
THEOREM
The set 𝑰𝒏𝒏(𝑮)of all inner automorphism of of a group G is normal

subgroup of 𝐴(𝐺 )
PROOF: Let 𝜑𝑎 , 𝜑𝑏 ∈ 𝑰𝒏𝒏(𝑮) then𝜑𝑎 (𝑔) = 𝑎𝑔𝑎−1 and 𝜑𝑏 (𝑔) = 𝑏𝑔𝑏 −1 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
Note that 𝜑𝑏−1 = 𝜑𝑏−1
Now
𝜑𝑎 𝜑𝑏−1 (𝑔) = 𝜑𝑎 𝜑𝑏−1 (𝑔)
⇒ 𝜑𝑎 𝜑𝑏−1 (𝑔) = 𝜑𝑎 (𝑏−1 𝑔(𝑏−1 )−1 )
⇒ 𝜑𝑎 𝜑𝑏−1 (𝑔) = 𝜑𝑎 (𝑏 −1 𝑔𝑏)
⇒ 𝜑𝑎 𝜑𝑏−1 (𝑔) = (𝑎𝑏 −1 𝑔𝑏𝑎−1 )
⇒ 𝜑𝑎 𝜑𝑏−1 (𝑔) = (𝑎𝑏−1 𝑔(𝑎𝑏−1 )−1 )
⇒ 𝜑𝑎 𝜑𝑏−1 (𝑔) = 𝜑𝑎𝑏−1 (𝑔)
⇒ 𝜑𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐼 (𝐺 )\
So 𝐼 (𝐺 ) is a subgroup of A(G)
Let for any 𝛼 ∈ 𝐴(𝐺)
(𝛼𝜑𝑎 𝛼 −1 )(𝑔) = (𝛼𝜑𝑎 (𝛼 −1 (𝑔)))
(𝛼𝜑𝑎 𝛼 −1 )(𝑔) = (𝛼(𝑎𝛼 −1 (𝑔)𝑎−1 )
∴ 𝛼 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑚
(𝛼𝜑𝑎 𝛼 −1 )(𝑔) = (𝛼(𝑎)𝛼(𝛼 −1 (𝑔))𝛼(𝑎−1 ))
−1
(𝛼𝜑𝑎 𝛼 −1 )(𝑔) = (𝛼(𝑎)𝑔(𝛼 (𝑎)) )
(𝛼𝜑𝑎 𝛼 −1 )(𝑔) = 𝜑𝑎(𝑎) (𝑔)
⇒ 𝛼𝜑𝑎 𝛼 −1 ∈ 𝐼 (𝐺 )

Hence 𝐼 (𝐺 ) is normal subgroup of G
MCQ: the set of inner automorphism of a group G is _____ _ of automorphism of G
(a). subgroup (b) proper subgroup (c) normal subgroup (d) none of these
𝐺
= {𝑔𝐻 ∶ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 }
𝐻
𝐺 𝐺
→ if G is a cyclic group then 𝑍(𝐺 ) = 𝐺 then = = {𝐺 }
𝑍(𝐺) 𝐺
MCQ: let G be a abelian group. Then the order of inner automorphism of G is
(a). 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
MCQ: let G be an abelian group. 𝑰𝒏𝒏(𝑮) ≅
(a). {e} (b) G (c) 𝐶2 (d) none
THEOREM
Let G be a group with 𝒁(𝑮)is its center and 𝑰𝒏𝒏(𝑮)is set of all inner
automorphism of a group G. Then
𝑮
≅ 𝑰𝒏𝒏(𝑮)
𝒁(𝑮 )
PROOF: 𝑰𝒏𝒏(𝑮) = {𝜑𝑎 ∶ 𝜑𝑎 (𝑔) = 𝑎𝑔𝑎−1 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 }
Define a mapping 𝜓: 𝐺 → 𝑰𝒏𝒏(𝑮) 𝒃𝒚 𝜓(𝑎) = 𝜑𝑎
𝝍 is well-defined
𝑎1 = 𝑎2
⇒ 𝑎1 𝑔𝑎1−1 = 𝑎2 𝑔𝑎2−1
⇒ 𝜑𝑎1 (𝑔) = 𝜑𝑎2 (𝑔)
⇒ 𝜑𝑎1 = 𝜑𝑎2
⇒ 𝜓(𝑎1 ) = 𝜓(𝑎1 )
𝝍 is one one
𝑫𝒏 𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒅𝒅
NOTE: 𝑰𝒏𝒏(𝑫𝒏 ) ≅ { 𝑫𝒏 𝒏 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏
𝟐

𝑰𝒏𝒏(𝑫𝟑 ) ≅ 𝑫𝟑
𝑰𝒏𝒏(𝑫𝟒 ) ≅ 𝑫𝟐 ≅ 𝑽𝟒
THEOREM
Let G be a group. The mapping 𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝐺 define by 𝜑(𝑔) = 𝑔−1 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 is an

automorphism iff G is abelian.
PROOF:
Suppose that G is abelian
𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝐺 define by 𝜑(𝑔) = 𝑔−1 is an automorphism
𝜑(𝑔1 ) = 𝜑(𝑔2 )
⇒ 𝑔1−1 = 𝑔2−1
⇒ 𝑔1 = 𝑔2
For all 𝑔−1 ∈ 𝐺 there exist 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝜑(𝑔) = 𝑔−1
𝝋 𝒊𝒔 𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒎
𝜑(𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = (𝑔1 𝑔2 )−1
⇒ 𝜑(𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝑔2−1 𝑔1−1
Since G is abelian
⇒ 𝜑(𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝑔1−1 𝑔2−1
⇒ 𝜑(𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝜑(𝑔1 )𝜑(𝑔2 )
Hence 𝜑 is automorphism
Conversely, suppose that 𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝐺 define by 𝜑(𝑔) = 𝑔−1 is an automorphism
We have to show that G is abelian
Consider

𝜑(𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝜑(𝑔1 )𝜑(𝑔2 )
⇒ 𝜑(𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝑔1−1 𝑔2−1 (1)
But
𝜑(𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = (𝑔1 𝑔2 )−1
⇒ 𝜑(𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝑔2−1 𝑔1−1 (2)
From (1) and (2)
𝑔1−1 𝑔2−1 = 𝑔2−1 𝑔1−1
⇒ (𝒈𝟐 𝒈𝟏 )−𝟏 = (𝒈𝟏 𝒈𝟐 )−𝟏
⇒ 𝒈𝟏 𝒈𝟐 = 𝒈𝟐 𝒈𝟏
Hence G is abelian.
MCQ: The mapping 𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝐺 define by 𝜑(𝑔) = 𝑔−1 is an automorphism then 𝐺 ≅__
(a). 𝐷3 (b) 𝐷4 (c) 𝑉4 (d) none
THEOREM:
Let G be a group which has an element of order greater than 2 then G

has an automorphism different from the identity automorphism.
PROOF:
If G is abelian then a mapping 𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝐺 define by 𝜑(𝑔) = 𝑔 −1 is an automorphism
different from identity automorphism.
If G is non-abelian group. And contain an element of order greater than 2.
And 𝑎𝑔 ≠ 𝑔𝑎
Define a mapping
𝜑𝑎 : 𝐺 → 𝐺 Define by 𝜑𝑎 (𝑔 ) = 𝑎𝑔𝑎−1 ≠ 𝑔
This mapping is automorphism different from identity automorphism.
CHARACTRISTIC SUBGROUP
A subgroup 𝑯 of a group 𝑮 is said to be characteristic if 𝜑(𝐻 ) =

𝐻 ∀ 𝜑 ∈ 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺)
Denoted by H char G.

→|𝝋(𝑯)| = |𝑯|
→ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝝋 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒔𝒐 𝒊𝒇 𝒘𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝝋(𝑯) ⊆ 𝑯 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝝋(𝑯) = 𝑯
Example: 𝑨𝒖𝒕(𝑪𝟔 ) ≅ 𝑼(𝟔) = {𝟏, 𝟓}
𝐶6 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 , 𝑎5 }
𝐻 = {𝑎2 , 𝑎4 , 𝑎6 = 𝑒} = {𝑒, 𝑎2 , 𝑎4 }
𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝐶6) = {𝐼 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥, 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 5 }
𝐼 (𝐻 ) = 𝐻 Clearly
Now
𝑓 (𝑒 ) = 𝑒 5 = 𝑒
𝑓 (𝑎2 ) = (𝑎2 )5 = 𝑎10 = 𝑎4
𝑓 (𝑎4 ) = (𝑎4 )5 = 𝑎20 = 𝑎2
So
𝑓 (𝐻 ) = 𝐻
Hence
𝐻 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟 𝐺
Result 1: Let H be a unique subgroup of order m of a group G. then H is

characteristic
Solution:
Since 𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝐺 is automorphism of G
And if H is subgroup of G (domain) then 𝜑(𝐻) is subgroup of G (codomain)
And |𝜑(𝐻)| = |𝐻| = 𝑚
Given that there is only one subgroup of order m

⇒𝜑(𝐻) = 𝐻
Result 2: Let H is a subgroup of cyclic group G then H is charactristic.
Proof: case 1:|𝐺| = 𝑛 if G is finite

Suppose that |𝐻| = 𝑚 we know that for a cyclic group there is a unique subgroup of
every divisor of order of G. so H is only one subgroup of order m
Hence 𝐻 is characteristic subgroup of G
Case 2: if order of G is infinite
For infinite cyclic group
𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺 ) = {𝐼 (𝑎) = 𝑎 , 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎−1 }
H is subgroup of G
⇒𝐼 (𝐻) = 𝐻 and 𝑓 (𝐻) = 𝐻 −1 = 𝐻
So 𝐻 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟 𝐺
Result 3: Let 𝑍(𝐺 ) is center of a group G then Z(G) is characteristic

subgroup.
Proof.
𝑍(𝐺 ) = {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 ∶ 𝑔𝑥 = 𝑥𝑔 ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 }
we will show for all 𝜑 ∈ 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺)
𝜑(𝑍(𝐺 )) = 𝑍(𝐺 )
Let 𝜑(𝑔) ∈ 𝜑(𝑍(𝐺 ))
We have to show
𝑥𝜑(𝑔) = 𝜑(𝑔)𝑥 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺
∴ 𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝐺 𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 ∃ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝜑(𝑦) = 𝑥
𝑥𝜑(𝑔) = 𝜑(𝑦)𝜑(𝑔)
𝑥𝜑(𝑔) = 𝜑(𝑦𝑔)
𝑥𝜑(𝑔) = 𝜑(𝑔𝑦)
𝑥𝜑(𝑔) = 𝜑(𝑔)𝜑(𝑦)
𝑥𝜑(𝑔) = 𝜑(𝑔)𝑥 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ 𝜑(𝑔) ∈ 𝑍(𝐺)
⇒ 𝜑(𝑍 (𝐺 )) ⊆ 𝑍(𝐺 )
⇒ 𝜑(𝑍 (𝐺 )) = 𝑍(𝐺 )

Hence 𝑍(𝐺 ) 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟 𝐺
COMMUTATAR
Let G be a group and 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 then the element 𝑎𝑏𝑎−1𝑏−1 is called

commutator of a & b. It is denoted by [𝑎, 𝑏] = 𝑎𝑏𝑎 −1𝑏−1
Example
1- 𝑽𝟒 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒃. 𝒂𝒃}
[𝑒, 𝑒] = 𝑒𝑒𝑒 −1 𝑒 −1 = 𝑒
[𝑒, 𝑎] = 𝑒𝑎𝑒𝑎 = 𝑒
[𝑒, 𝑏] = 𝑒
[𝑒, 𝑎𝑏] = 𝑒
[𝑎, 𝑎] == 𝑒
[𝑎, 𝑏] = 𝑎𝑏𝑎−1 𝑏 −1 = 𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 = 𝑒
[𝑎, 𝑎𝑏] = 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑎−1 (𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑎2 𝑏𝑎𝑎𝑏 = 𝑒
2- 𝑫𝟑 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒃, 𝒂𝒃, 𝒂𝟐 𝒃}
[𝑒, 𝑒] = 𝑒
[𝑒, 𝑎] = 𝑒𝑎𝑒 −1 𝑎−1 = 𝑒
[𝑒, 𝑎2 ] = 𝑒
[𝑒, 𝑏] = 𝑒
[𝑒, 𝑎𝑏] = 𝑒
[𝑒, 𝑎2 𝑏] = 𝑒
[𝑎, 𝑒] = 𝑒
[𝑎, 𝑎] = 𝑎𝑎𝑎−1 𝑎−1 = 𝑒
−1
[𝑎, 𝑎2 ] = 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎−1 𝑎2 = 𝑒
[𝑎, 𝑏] = 𝑎𝑏𝑎−1 𝑏−1 = 𝑎𝑏𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎2
[𝑎, 𝑎𝑏] = 𝑎2
[𝑎, 𝑎2 𝑏] = 𝑎2
[𝑎 2 , 𝑒 ] = 𝑒
[𝑎 2 , 𝑎 ] = 𝑒
[𝑎 2 , 𝑎 2 ] = 𝑒
[𝑎2 , 𝑏] = 𝑎2 𝑏𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎
−1
[𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑏] = 𝑎2 𝑎𝑏𝑎2 (𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑎3 𝑏𝑎𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎
[𝑎2 , 𝑎2 𝑏] = 𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑏𝑎𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑎

[𝑏, 𝑒] = 𝑒
[𝑏, 𝑎] = 𝑏𝑎𝑏 𝑎 = 𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑎2 = 𝑎2 𝑏𝑏𝑎2 = 𝑎
−1 −1
[𝑏, 𝑎2 ] = 𝑏𝑎2 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑎𝑏𝑏𝑎 = 𝑎2

[𝑏, 𝑏] = 𝑒
[𝑏, 𝑎𝑏] = 𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑏𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑎
[𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏] = 𝑏𝑎2 𝑏𝑏𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎2
[𝑎𝑏, 𝑒] = 𝑒
[𝑎𝑏, 𝑎] = 𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑎2 = 𝑎𝑏𝑎2 𝑏𝑎2 = 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏𝑎2 = 𝑎
[𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 ] = 𝑎𝑏𝑎2 𝑎𝑏𝑎 = 𝑎2
[𝑎𝑏, 𝑏] = 𝑎𝑏𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎2
[𝑎𝑏, 𝑎𝑏] = 𝑒
[𝑎𝑏, 𝑎 𝑏] = 𝑎𝑏𝑎2 𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑎
2
[𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑒] = 𝑒
[𝑏, 𝑎] =
[𝑏, 𝑎2 ] = 𝑒
[𝑏, 𝑏] = 𝑒
[𝑏, 𝑎𝑏] = 𝑒
[𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏] = 𝑒
(𝟏)
The 1st derived subgroup of 𝑫𝟑 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 }
3- 𝑫𝟒 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 , 𝒃, 𝒂𝒃 , 𝒂𝟐 𝒃, 𝒂𝟑 𝒃}
Exercise: Ler G be a group.
1- [𝑏, 𝑎] = [𝑎, 𝑏]−1

𝑥 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑥𝑎−1
Sol: RHS=[𝑎, 𝑏]−1 = (𝑎𝑏𝑎−1 𝑏 −1 )−1
[𝑎, 𝑏]−1 = (𝑏−1 )−1 (𝑎−1 )−1 𝑏−1 𝑎−1
[𝑎, 𝑏]−1 = 𝑏𝑎𝑏−1 𝑎−1 = [𝑏, 𝑎]
2- [𝑎𝑏, 𝑐 ] = [𝑏, 𝑐 ]𝑎 [𝑎, 𝑐]
Sol: RHS=[𝑏, 𝑐 ]𝑎 [𝑎, 𝑐 ] = 𝑎[𝑏, 𝑐 ]𝑎−1 [𝑎, 𝑐 ]
[𝑏, 𝑐 ]𝑎 [𝑎, 𝑐 ] = 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑏 −1 𝑐 −1 𝑎−1 𝑎𝑐𝑎−1 𝑐 −1
[𝑏, 𝑐 ]𝑎 [𝑎, 𝑐 ] = 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑏−1 𝑐 −1 𝑐𝑎−1 𝑐 −1
[𝑏, 𝑐 ]𝑎 [𝑎, 𝑐 ] = 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑏−1 𝑎−1 𝑐 −1

[𝑏, 𝑐 ]𝑎 [𝑎, 𝑐 ] = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 (𝑎𝑏)−1 𝑐 −1 = [𝑎𝑏, 𝑐 ] = 𝐿𝐻𝑆
3- [𝑎, 𝑏𝑐 ] = [𝑎, 𝑏][𝑎, 𝑐 ]𝑏

−1
4- [𝑎, 𝑏 −1 ] = [𝑏, 𝑎]𝑏
−1
5- [𝑎−1 , 𝑏] = [𝑏, 𝑎]𝑎
DERIVED SUBGROUP OF G
Let G be a group then the set of all commutator of G is called 1 st derived

subgroup.
And denoted by𝐺 (1)
1st derived subgroup of G
𝐺 (1) = {[𝑎, 𝑏]: 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 }
2nd derived subgroup
𝐺 (2) = 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐺 (1)
𝐺 (2) = {[𝑎, 𝑏]: 𝑎. 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 (1) }
3𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
𝐺 (3) = 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐺 (2)
𝐺 (3) = {[𝑎, 𝑏]: 𝑎. 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 (2) }
𝐺
= {𝑔𝐻 ∶ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 }
𝐻
𝑎𝐻 = 𝐻 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻
(1)
The 1st derived subgroup of 𝐷3 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 }
𝐷3 (1) (1) (1)
Find quotient group (1) = {𝑔𝐷3 ∶ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐷3 } = {𝐷3 , 𝑏𝐷3 }
𝐷3
(1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1)

We know that 𝑒𝐷3 = 𝑎𝐷3 = 𝑎2 𝐷3 = 𝐷3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝐷3 = 𝑎𝑏𝐷3 = 𝑎2 𝑏𝐷3
(2)
The 2nd derived subgroup of 𝐷3 =𝐷3 = {𝑒}
(3) (4) (5) (𝑛)
𝐷3 = 𝐷3 = 𝐷3 = ⋯ . = 𝐷3 = {𝑒}
→ If G is abelian then its all derived subgroup are {e}

MCQ: let G be a non-abelian group and its 1st derived subgroup 𝐺 (1) is abelian then 𝐺 (2)
is equal to
(a). G (b) 𝐺 (1) (c) {e} (d) none
MCQ: let G be a abelian group and its 1st derived subgroup 𝐺 (1) is equal to
(a). 𝐺 (2) (b) 𝐺 (3) (c) {e} (d) all
4- 𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑉4 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑏. 𝑎𝑏} is abelian group

(1)
𝑉4 = {𝑒}
Question1: Find Derived subgroup of dihedral group of order 8 𝑖. 𝑒 𝐷4 . How many

𝐷4
different derived subgroup of 𝐷4 . Also find (1)
𝐷4
Question1: Find Derived subgroup of group of Quaternion of order 8 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑄8 .

𝑄8
How many different derived subgroup of 𝑄8 . Also find (1)
𝑄8
THEOREM
Let G be a group then
i) The derives subgroup 𝐺 (1) is normal subgroup of G

𝐺
ii) The factor group 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑛
𝐺 (1)
𝐺
iii) If K is normal subgroup of G such that is abelian then 𝐺 (1) ⊆ 𝐾
𝐾
Proof: i) 𝐺 (1) = {[𝑎, 𝑏]: 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 }
Let 𝑥, ∈ 𝐺 (1) where
𝑥 = [𝑎, 𝑏] , 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑑 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
Now we will show
𝑔𝑥𝑔−1 ∈ 𝐺 (1)

𝑔𝑥𝑔−1 = 𝑔[𝑎, 𝑏]𝑔−1
𝑔𝑥𝑔−1 = 𝑔𝑎𝑏𝑎−1 𝑏−1 𝑔−1
𝑔𝑥𝑔−1 = 𝑔𝑎𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑎−1 𝑒𝑏−1 𝑔−1
𝑔𝑥𝑔−1 = 𝑔𝑎𝑔−1 𝑔𝑏𝑔−1 𝑔𝑎−1 𝑔−1 𝑔𝑏−1 𝑔 −1
𝑔𝑥𝑔−1 = 𝑎 𝑔 𝑏 𝑔 (𝑎−1 )𝑔 (𝑏−1 )𝑔
𝑔𝑥𝑔−1 = 𝑎 𝑔 𝑏 𝑔 (𝑎 𝑔 )−1 (𝑏 𝑔 )−1 = [𝑎 𝑔 , 𝑏 𝑔 ] ∈ 𝐺 (1)
Hence 𝐺 (1) is a normal subgroup
𝐺
. ii) now we will show that 𝐺 (1) is abelian
𝐺
= {𝑔𝐺 (1) ∶ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺}
𝐺 (1)
𝐺
Let 𝑔1 𝐺 (1) , 𝑔2 𝐺 (1) ∈
𝐺 (1)
Now
−1 −1
[𝑔1 𝐺 (1) , 𝑔2 𝐺 (1) ] = 𝑔1 𝐺 (1) 𝑔2 𝐺 (1) (𝑔1 𝐺 (1) ) (𝑔2 𝐺 (1) )
[𝑔1 𝐺 (1) , 𝑔2 𝐺 (1) ] = 𝑔1 𝐺 (1) 𝑔2 𝐺 (1) 𝑔1−1 𝐺 (1) 𝑔2−1 𝐺 (1)
[𝑔1 𝐺 (1) , 𝑔2 𝐺 (1) ] = 𝑔1 𝑔2 𝑔1−1 𝑔2−1 𝐺 (1)
[𝑔1 𝐺 (1) , 𝑔2 𝐺 (1) ] = [𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ]𝐺 (1) = 𝑒𝐺 (1)
Hence
𝐺
(1)
= {𝑔𝐺 (1) ∶ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺}
𝐺
Is a abelian group.
.iii) Given K is normal subgroup such that
𝐺
= {𝑔𝐾 ∶ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 } 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑛
𝐾
𝐺 𝐺
Then every commutator is identity of 𝐾 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐾
𝐾
𝐺
𝑔1 𝐾, 𝑔2 𝐾 ∈
𝐾

[𝑔1 𝐾, 𝑔2 𝐾 ] = 𝐾
𝑔1 𝐾𝑔2 𝐾 (𝑔1 𝐾 )−1 (𝑔2 𝐾 )−1 = 𝐾
𝑔1 𝐾𝑔2 𝐾𝑔1−1 𝐾𝑔2−1 𝐾 = 𝐾
𝑔1 𝑔2 𝑔1−1 𝑔2−1 𝐾 = 𝐾
[𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ]𝐾 = 𝐾
[𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ] ∈ 𝐾
Hence
𝐺(1) ⊆ 𝐾
DOUBLE COSETS
Let 𝐻 & 𝐾 are two subgroup of a group G and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 be any element of G

then the set
𝐻𝑎𝐾 = {ℎ𝑎𝑘 ∶ ℎ ∈ 𝐻 , 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 }
Is called double cosset of G.

Example:
𝑄8 = {±1, ±𝑖, ±𝑗, ±𝑘}
Take any two subgroup
𝐻 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖 }
𝐾 = {1, −1, 𝑗, −𝑗}
We find 𝐻𝑎𝐾 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎 ∈ 𝑄8
𝐻1𝐾 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖 }1{1, −1, 𝑗, −𝑗} = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖, 𝑗, −𝑗, 𝑘, −𝑘}
𝐻(−1)𝐾 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖 }(−1){1, −1, 𝑗, −𝑗} = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖, 𝑗, −𝑗, 𝑘, −𝑘}
𝐻(𝑖)𝐾 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖 }(𝑖){1, −1, 𝑗, −𝑗} = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖, 𝑗, −𝑗, 𝑘, −𝑘}
𝐻(𝑖)𝐾 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖 }(𝑖){1, −1, 𝑗, −𝑗} = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖, 𝑗, −𝑗, 𝑘, −𝑘}
An other example
𝐷3 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏}

𝐻 = {𝑒, 𝑏} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 = {𝑒, 𝑎𝑏}
𝐻𝑒𝐾 =
𝐻𝑎𝐾 =
𝐻𝑎2 𝐾 =
𝐻𝑏𝐾 =
𝐻𝑎𝑏𝐾 =
𝐻𝑎2 𝑏𝐾 =
THEOREM:
Let H and K are two subgroups of a group G. Then the collection of distinct
double cossets of H and K define partition of G
PROOF:let {𝐻𝑎𝐾 ∶ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 } 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾

We have to show that this set define a partition of G for this
⋃ 𝐻𝑎𝐾 = 𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻𝑎𝐾 ∩ 𝐻𝑏𝐾 = 𝜑

𝑎∈𝐺
1𝑠𝑡 ⋃ 𝐻𝑎𝐾 = 𝐺
𝑎∈𝐺
Since 𝐻𝑎𝐾 ⊆ 𝐺 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ ⋃ 𝐻𝑎𝐾 ⊆ 𝐺 (𝑖 )
𝑎∈𝐺
For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 since H and K both are subgroup 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 ∈ 𝐾
𝑎 = 𝑒𝑎𝑒 ∈ 𝐻𝑎𝐾
⇒ 𝑎 ∈ ⋃ 𝐻𝑎𝐾
𝑎∈𝐺
⇒ 𝐺 ⊆ ⋃ 𝐻𝑎𝐾 (𝑖𝑖)
𝑎∈𝐺
From (i) and (ii)
⋃ 𝐻𝑎𝐾 = 𝐺
𝑎∈𝐺

2𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐻𝑎𝐾 ∩ 𝐻𝑏𝐾 = 𝜑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐻𝑎𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻𝑏𝐾 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠
Let 𝐻𝑎𝐾 ∩ 𝐻𝑏𝐾 ≠ 𝜑
𝑥 ∈ 𝐻𝑎𝐾 ∩ 𝐻𝑏𝐾
𝑥 ∈ 𝐻𝑎𝐾 & 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻𝑏𝐾
𝑥 = ℎ1 𝑎𝑘1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = ℎ2 𝑏𝑘2
⇒ ℎ1 𝑎𝑘1 = ℎ2 𝑏𝑘2 − −(𝑖𝑖𝑖)
From (iii)
𝑎 = ℎ1−1 ℎ2 𝑏𝑘2 𝑘1−1
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻𝑎𝐾
𝑦 = ℎ3 𝑎𝑘3 = ℎ3 ℎ1−1 ℎ2 𝑏𝑘2 𝑘1−1 𝑘3
ℎ3 ℎ1−1 ℎ2 = ℎ4 ∈ 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘2 𝑘1−1 𝑘3 = 𝑘4 ∈ 𝐾
⇒ 𝑦 = ℎ4 𝑏𝑘4 ∈ 𝐻𝑏𝐾
⇒ 𝐻𝑎𝐾 ⊆ 𝐻𝑏𝐾 − −(𝑖𝑣)
From (iii)
ℎ2−1 ℎ1 𝑎𝑘1 𝑘2−1 = 𝑏
Now
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑧 ∈ 𝐻𝑏𝐾
𝑧 = ℎ5 𝑏𝑘5 = ℎ5 ℎ2−1 ℎ1 𝑎𝑘1 𝑘2−1 𝑘5
ℎ5 ℎ2−1 ℎ1 = ℎ6 ∈ 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘1 𝑘2−1 𝑘5 = 𝑘6 ∈ 𝐾
𝑧 = ℎ6 𝑎𝑘6 ∈ 𝐻𝑎𝐾
⇒ 𝐻𝑏𝐾 ⊆ 𝐻𝑎𝐾 − −(𝑣)
From (iv) and (v)
𝐻𝑏𝐾 = 𝐻𝑎𝐾
Which is contradiction to fact that 𝐻𝑎𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻𝑏𝐾 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
Hence 𝐻𝑎𝐾 ∩ 𝐻𝑏𝐾 = 𝜑
EMBADDING:

Let G and G’ are two groups such that 𝐺 ≇ 𝐺′ but there is a subgroup 𝐺1of
G’ implies that 𝐺 ≅ 𝐺1 so G is embedded in G’ denoted by 𝐺 ↪ 𝐺′
ℤ = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, … }
𝑝
ℚ = {𝑥: 𝑥 = &𝑞 ≠ 𝑜 , 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ ℤ}
𝑞
0 1 2
𝐴 = { ,± ,± ,…}
1 1 1
𝑍≅𝐴
ℤ↪ℚ
Permutation or symmetric group of a group

Set of all bijective mapping from G to G
No. of bijective mapping of a group G=|G|!
𝑉4 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏}
𝜑𝑒 : 𝑉4 → 𝑉4 𝜑𝑒 (𝑒) = 𝑒. 𝑒, 𝜑𝑒 (𝑎) = 𝑒. 𝑎, 𝜑𝑒 (𝑏) = 𝑒. 𝑏, 𝜑𝑒 (𝑎𝑏) = 𝑒. 𝑎𝑏
𝜑𝑎 : 𝑉4 → 𝑉4 , 𝜑𝑎 (𝑒) = 𝑎. 𝑒, 𝜑𝑎 (𝑏) = 𝑎. 𝑏, 𝜑𝑎 (𝑎𝑏) = 𝑎. 𝑎𝑏
𝜑𝑏 : 𝑉4 → 𝑉4
𝜑𝑎𝑏 : 𝑉4 → 𝑉4
{𝜑𝑒 , 𝜑𝑎 , 𝜑𝑏 , 𝜑𝑎𝑏 } = {𝜑𝑔 : 𝑔 ∈ 𝑉4 }
CAYLEY’S THEOREM
Every group is isomorphic to a subgroup of symmetric group.
OR
Every group is isomorphic to a subgroup of permutation group
OR
Every Group can be embedded in a group of bijective mapping in a certain

set .
OR
Every group can be embedded of a permutation group of certain set.

PROOF:first we define a mapping
𝜑𝑔 : 𝐺 → 𝐺 𝑏𝑦
𝜑𝑔 (𝑎) = 𝑔𝑎 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
We will show above mapping is bijective
𝝋𝒈 is well-define
𝑎1 = 𝑎2
Pre multiply b.s by 𝑔
⇒ 𝑔𝑎1 = 𝑔𝑎2
⇒ 𝜑𝑔 (𝑎1 ) = 𝜑𝑔 (𝑎2 )
𝝋𝒈 is one-one
𝜑𝑔 (𝑎1 ) = 𝜑𝑔 (𝑎2 )
⇒ 𝑔𝑎1 = 𝑔𝑎2
By left cancelation law
𝑎1 = 𝑎2
𝝋𝒈 is onto
∀ 𝑔𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 ∃ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝜑𝑔 (𝑎) = 𝑔𝑎
⇒ 𝜑𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑖𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 .
Now let
𝜱𝑮 = {𝝋𝒈 ∶ 𝒈 ∈ 𝑮}
We will prove that 𝛷𝐺 is group.
𝜱𝑮 is closed
Let 𝜑𝑔1 , 𝜑𝑔2 ∈ 𝛷𝐺
Now
𝜑𝑔1 𝜑𝑔2 (𝑎) = 𝜑𝑔1 (𝑔2 𝑎) = 𝑔1 𝑔2 𝑎 = 𝜑𝑔1 𝑔2 (𝑎)
𝜑𝑔1 𝜑𝑔2 = 𝜑𝑔1 𝑔2 ∈ 𝛷𝐺

𝜱𝑮 is associative:
Let 𝜑𝑔1 , 𝜑𝑔2 , 𝜑𝑔3 ∈ 𝛷𝐺
We have to show 𝜑𝑔1 (𝜑𝑔2 𝜑𝑔3 ) = (𝜑𝑔1 𝜑𝑔2 )𝜑𝑔3
Identity element
Since 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
So 𝜑𝑒 ∈ 𝛷𝐺 is identity element
𝜑𝑒 𝜑𝑔 (𝑎) = 𝜑𝑒 (𝑔𝑎) = 𝑒𝑔𝑎 = 𝑔𝑎 = 𝜑𝑔 (𝑎)
And
𝜑𝑔 𝜑𝑒 (𝑎) = 𝜑𝑔 (𝑒𝑎) = 𝜑𝑔 (𝑎)
𝜑𝑒 𝜑𝑔 = 𝜑𝑔 𝜑𝑒 = 𝜑𝑔
Identity element
Since ∀𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 ∃ 𝑔−1 ∈ 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑔−1 = 𝑒
So 𝜑𝑔 ∈ 𝛷𝐺 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜑𝑔−1 ∈ 𝛷𝐺
𝜑𝑔 𝜑𝑔−1 = 𝜑𝑔−1 𝜑𝑔 = 𝜑𝑒
So 𝜑𝑔−1 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝜑𝑔
Hence
𝜱𝑮 = {𝝋𝒈 ∶ 𝒈 ∈ 𝑮} 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 .
And it is subset of permutation group
Now we will prove 𝛷𝐺 ≅ 𝐺
For this we define a mapping
𝜓: 𝐺 → 𝛷𝐺 𝑏𝑦 𝜓(𝑔) = 𝜑𝑔
𝝍 is well-define
𝑔1 = 𝑔2
𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 𝑜𝑛 𝑏 − 𝑠
𝑔1 𝑎 = 𝑔2 𝑎
𝜑𝑔1 (𝑎) = 𝜑𝑔2 (𝑎)

⇒ 𝜑𝑔1 = 𝜑𝑔2
⇒ 𝜓(𝑔1 ) = 𝜓(𝑔2 )
𝝍 is one-one
𝜓(𝑔1 ) = 𝜓(𝑔2 )
⇒ 𝜑𝑔1 = 𝜑𝑔2
For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
𝜑𝑔1 (𝑎) = 𝜑𝑔2 (𝑎)
𝑔1 𝑎 = 𝑔2 𝑎
𝑔1 = 𝑔2
𝝍 is onto
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝜑𝑔 ∈ 𝛷𝐺 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝜓(𝑔) = 𝜑𝑔
𝝍 is homomorphism
𝜓(𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝜑𝑔1 𝑔2 = 𝜑𝑔1 𝜑𝑔2 = 𝜓(𝑔1 )𝜓(𝑔2 )
So 𝜓 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚
𝑮 ≅ 𝜱𝑮
Hence G is embedded in a permutation group .
𝑷 − 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑
A group G is said to be a p-group if order of every element of G can be

written as 𝑝𝛼 for some fixed prime number p and α be any non-negative
integer.
Example
𝑽𝟒 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒂𝒃}
|𝑒| = 1 = 20 , |𝑎| = 2 = 21 , |𝑏| = 21 , |𝑎𝑏| = 21
⇒ 𝑉4 is 2-group and also |𝑉4 | = 22
𝐷3 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏}
|𝑒| = 1 , |𝑎| = 3, |𝑎2 | = 3, |𝑏| = 2 , |𝑎𝑏| = |𝑎2 𝑏| = 2

⇒ 𝐷3 is not p-group
𝑍(𝐷3 ) = {𝑒}
𝐷4 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑎3 𝑏}
|𝑒| = 20 , |𝑎| = |𝑎3 | = 22 , |𝑎2 | = |𝑏| = |𝑎𝑏| = |𝑎2 𝑏| = |𝑎3 𝑏| = 21
⇒ 𝐷4 is 2-group |𝐷4 | = 23
𝑍(𝐷4 ) = {𝑒, 𝑎2 }
Recall
𝑍(𝐺 ) = 𝜉 (𝐺 ) = {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 ∶ 𝑔𝑎 = 𝑎𝑔 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 }
If 𝑔 ∈ 𝑍(𝐺 )
𝑔𝑎 = 𝑎𝑔 ⇒ 𝑎𝑔𝑎−1 = 𝑔 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Its mean 𝐶𝑔 = {𝑔} ⇒ |𝐶𝑔 | = 1
We conclude if any element 𝑔 ∈ 𝑍(𝐺 ) ⇒ |𝐶𝑔 | = 1
THEOREM:
The center of a finite p-group is non-trivial.
PROOF:let G be a finite p-group such that |𝐺 | = 𝑝𝑚

Let there are ′′𝑟′′ possible conjugacy classes of G of order 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 , … 𝑚𝑟 respectively
Since the conjugacy classes defines the partition of Group G
So by inclusion exclusion principle
|𝐺 | = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑐𝑦 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑝𝑚 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑟 (1)
be a class equation of G
then each 𝑚𝑖 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑝𝑚 = |𝐺| 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 − 1,2,3, … , 𝑟 then 𝑚𝑖 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑝𝛼𝑖 so equation
(1) become
𝑝𝑚 = 𝑝𝛼1 + 𝑝𝛼2 + 𝑝𝛼3 + ⋯ + 𝑝𝛼𝑟 (2)
Since 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
⇒ |𝐶𝑒 | = 1 = 𝑝𝛼1 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)

Then
𝑝𝑚 = 1 + 𝑝𝛼2 + 𝑝𝛼3 + ⋯ + 𝑝𝛼𝑟
⇒ 1 = 𝑝𝑚 − (𝑝𝛼2 + 𝑝𝛼3 + ⋯ + 𝑝𝛼𝑟 )
Here p divides right hand side of above equation but does not divide left hand side
Above equation is not balanced equation not possible
Therefor there are more than one element say k element which are self-conjugate
Such that 𝑝𝛼1 = 𝑝𝛼2 = 𝑝𝛼3 = ⋯ = 𝑝𝛼𝑘 = 1
Then (2)⇒
𝑝𝑚 = 1 + 1 + 1+. . +1 + 𝑝𝛼𝑘+1 + 𝑝𝛼𝑘+2 +. . +𝑝𝛼𝑟
𝑝𝑚 = 𝑘 + 𝑝𝛼𝑘+1 + 𝑝𝛼𝑘+2 +. . +𝑝𝛼𝑟
𝑘 = 𝑝𝑚 − (𝑝𝛼𝑘+1 + 𝑝𝛼𝑘+2 +. . +𝑝𝛼𝑟 )
The above equation is must be a balanced equation so p divides R-H-S and L-H-S
𝑝 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑘
There is more then one element which is belong to 𝑍(𝐺)
Hence Center is non-trivial
THEOREM
Every group of order 𝑝 2 , where p is prime number, is abelian.
PROOF:suppose that G be a group such that|𝐺 | = 𝑝2, where p is a prime number.

Let 𝑍(𝐺) be the center of G which is non-trivial. And 𝑍(𝐺) is subgroup of G
By lagrange’s theorem order of 𝑍(𝐺) divide the order of G
∴ |𝐺 | = 𝑝2 so |𝑍(𝐺 )| = 𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑝2
If |𝑍(𝐺 )| = 𝑝
𝐺
Then 𝑍(𝐺) ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑝.
𝐺
Since every group of prime order is cyclic so 𝑍(𝐺) must be cyclic

𝐺
∴ a group G is abelian iff 𝑍(𝐺) is cyclic
So G is abelian
If |𝑍(𝐺 )| = 𝑝2
𝐺
Then 𝑍(𝐺) has order 1 which shows that 𝐺 = 𝑍(𝐺)
Hence G is abelian.
THEOREM
Let H and K are two finite subgroup of a group G then the complex HK
𝑚𝑛 |𝐻 ||𝐾|
contain exactly =| elements where m,n & q are orders of H , K and
𝑞 H⋂K |
Q=H⋂K respectively.
|𝐻||𝐾|
|𝐻𝐾| =
|H⋂K |
PROOF: Since H and K are finite subgroup of G such that |𝐻| = 𝑚, |𝐾 | = 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑄| =
|H⋂K | = q
Since intersection of two subgroups is also subgroup so Q=H⋂K is also subgroup
Also Q=H⋂K⊆H and Q=H⋂K⊆K so Q is also subgroup of H and K
Suppose that there are "𝑟" distinct cossets of Q in K 𝑖. 𝑒 |𝐾: 𝑄| = 𝑟
So by lagrange theorem
𝑛
|𝐾: 𝑄||𝑄| = |𝐾 | ⇒ 𝑟𝑞 = 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑟 =
𝑞
{𝑄𝑘1 , 𝑄𝑘2 , … , 𝑄𝑘𝑟 } 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑄 𝑖𝑛 𝐾
𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑘1 = 𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑄𝑘1 = 𝑄 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝑘𝑖 ≠ 𝑄 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 > 1 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑘𝑖 ∉ 𝑄 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 > 1
Then
𝑟
𝐾 = ⋃ 𝑄𝑘𝑖
𝑖=1
⇒ 𝐻𝐾 = 𝐻 ⋃ 𝑄𝑘𝑖
𝑖=1

𝑟
⇒ 𝐻𝐾 = ⋃ 𝐻𝑄𝑘𝑖
𝑖=1
∴ 𝑄 ⊆ H ⇒ 𝐻𝑄 = 𝐻
𝑟
⇒ 𝐻𝐾 = ⋃ 𝐻𝑘𝑖
𝑖=1
As 𝑘𝑖 ∈ 𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘𝑖 ∉ 𝑄 ⇒ 𝑘𝑖 ∉ 𝐻 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 > 1
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝐻𝑘𝑖 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝐻| = |𝐻𝑘𝑖 | = 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠
⇒ 𝐻𝐾 = 𝐻𝑘1 ⋃𝐻𝑘2 ⋃𝐻𝑘3 ⋃. . . ⋃𝐻𝑘𝑟
⇒ |𝐻𝐾| = |𝐻𝑘1 ⋃𝐻𝑘2 ⋃𝐻𝑘3 ⋃. . . ⋃𝐻𝑘𝑟 |
By inclusion exclusion principle
⇒ |𝐻𝐾 | = |𝐻𝑘1 | + |𝐻𝑘2 | + |𝐻𝑘3 |+. . . +|𝐻𝑘𝑟 |
⇒ |𝐻𝐾 | = 𝑚 + 𝑚 + 𝑚+. . . +𝑚 (𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)

𝑛
⇒ |𝐻𝐾 | = 𝑚𝑟 ∴𝑟=
𝑞
𝑚𝑛
⇒ |𝐻𝐾 | =
𝑞
|𝐻||𝐾|
⇒ |𝐻𝐾 | =
|H⋂K |
THEOREM
Let H & K are finite subgroups of a group G then each double cosset
𝑚𝑛
𝐻𝑎𝐾 contain exactly element where |𝐻| = 𝑚, |𝐾| = 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑄| =
𝑞
|𝐻⋂𝑎𝐾𝑎−1| =𝑞
|𝐻||𝐾|
|𝐻𝑎𝐾| =
|𝐻⋂𝑎𝐾𝑎−1|
PROOF: Given H & K are finite subgroups of G. |𝐻| = 𝑚, |𝐾 | = 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑄| =

|𝐻⋂𝑎𝐾𝑎−1 | = 𝑞
As H and K are finite so for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 𝐻𝑎𝐾 is also finite
Let 𝐻𝑎𝐾 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑟 } 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥𝑖′ 𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑡.

Consider 𝐻𝑎𝐾𝑎 −1 = {𝑥1 𝑎−1 , 𝑥2 𝑎−1 , … , 𝑥𝑟 𝑎−1 }
Now we will show |𝐻𝑎𝐾 | = |𝐻𝑎𝐾𝑎 −1 | for this we will have to show 𝑥𝑖 𝑎−1 are distinct
Suppose on contrary 𝑥𝑖 𝑎−1 are not distinct
Let
𝑥𝑖 𝑎−1 = 𝑥𝑗 𝑎−1 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
⇒ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥𝑗 𝑎−1 𝑎
⇒ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥𝑗 𝑒
⇒ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥𝑗
Which is contradiction so 𝑥𝑖 𝑎−1 are distinct
S0 |𝐻𝑎𝐾 | = |𝐻𝑎𝐾𝑎 −1 |
𝑙𝑒𝑡 |𝐾 ′ | = |𝑎𝐾𝑎−1 | = |𝐾 | = 𝑛
Then
|𝐻||𝐾 ′ |
|𝐻𝐾 ′ | =
|𝐻⋂𝐾 ′ |
|𝐻||𝑎𝐾𝑎−1 | 𝑚𝑛
|𝐻𝑎𝐾𝑎−1 | = =
|𝐻⋂𝑎𝐾𝑎−1 | 𝑞
Hence
𝑚𝑛 |𝐻||𝑎𝐾𝑎−1 |
|𝐻𝑎𝐾 | = =
𝑞 |𝐻⋂𝑎𝐾𝑎−1 |
THEOREM
Let 𝐻𝑎𝐾 be a double cosset of the subgroups 𝐻 & 𝐾 of a group G and 𝑄 =

𝐻⋂𝑎𝐾𝑎−1. Then, there is one-one correspondence between the left cosets
of K in H that a contained in 𝐻𝑎𝐾 and the left cossets of the intersection Q
of H and 𝑎𝐾𝑎 −1 in H.
PROOF: Let Ω be the collection of all left cossets of K that contained in 𝐻𝑎𝐾
Define 𝐻𝑎𝐾 = {ℎ𝑎𝑘 ∶ ℎ ∈ 𝐻 ∧ 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 }
Ω = {haK ∶ h ∈ H}

And Ω′ be the collection of all left cossets of Q in H
Ω′ = {ℎ𝑄 ∶ ℎ ∈ 𝐻}
Define a mapping
𝜑: Ω → Ω′ 𝑏𝑦 𝜑(ℎ𝑎𝐾) = ℎ𝑄
𝝋 is well-defined
Let
ℎ1 𝑎𝐾 = ℎ2 𝑎𝐾
Then ∃ 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 ∈ 𝐾 such that
ℎ1 𝑎𝑘1 = ℎ2 𝑎𝑘2
ℎ2−1 ℎ1 = 𝑎𝑘2 𝑘1−1 𝑎−1 ∴ 𝑘3 = 𝑘2 𝑘1−1
⇒ ℎ2−1 ℎ1 = 𝑎𝑘3 𝑎 −1
Since 𝑎𝑘3 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝑎𝐾𝑎−1 ⇒ ℎ2−1 ℎ1 ∈ 𝑎𝐾𝑎−1
Also ℎ2−1 ℎ1 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑘3 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻
⇒ ℎ2−1 ℎ1 = 𝑎𝑘3 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝑄 = 𝐻⋂𝑎𝐾𝑎−1
ℎ2−1 ℎ1 𝑄 = 𝑄
⇒ ℎ1 𝑄 = ℎ2 𝑄
⇒ 𝜑(ℎ1 𝑎𝐾 ) = 𝜑(ℎ2 𝑎𝐾 )
Which shows that 𝜑 is well-defined
𝝋 is one-one
𝜑(ℎ1 𝑎𝐾 ) = 𝜑(ℎ2 𝑎𝐾 )
⇒ ℎ1 𝑄 = ℎ2 𝑄
ℎ2−1 ℎ1 𝑄 = 𝑄
⇒ ℎ2−1 ℎ1 ∈ 𝑄 = 𝐻⋂𝑎𝐾𝑎−1
⇒ ℎ2−1 ℎ1 ∈ 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ2−1 ℎ1 ∈ 𝑎𝐾𝑎−1
Then ∃ 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
ℎ2−1 ℎ1 = 𝑎𝑘𝑎−1
⇒ ℎ1 𝑎 = ℎ2 𝑎𝑘
⇒ ℎ1 𝑎𝐾 = ℎ2 𝑎𝑘𝐾
⇒ ℎ1 𝑎𝐾 = ℎ2 𝑎𝐾
Which shows that φ is one one
𝝋 is onto
For all ℎ𝑄 ∈ Ω′ ∃ ℎ𝑎𝐾 ∈ Ω such that 𝜑(ℎ𝑎𝐾 ) = ℎ𝑄
Hence 𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑖𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 .
𝐻 = 𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1 = 𝐻 𝑥
THEOREM
Let H be a non-empty subset of a group G such that 𝑥𝐻 = 𝐻𝑥𝐻 then H is

normal in G.
PROOF: for 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺 we write 𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑦𝑥 −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝐻𝑥 = 𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1

Given
𝑥𝐻 = 𝐻𝑥𝐻 (𝑖)
⇒ 𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1 = 𝐻𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1
⇒ 𝐻 𝑥 = 𝐻𝐻 𝑥 (𝑖𝑖)
From (𝑖 ) replacing 𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑥 −1
𝑥 −1 𝐻 = 𝐻𝑥 −1 𝐻
Pre- multiply by x
𝑥𝑥 −1 𝐻 = 𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1 𝐻
𝑒𝐻 = 𝐻 𝑥 𝐻
𝐻 = 𝐻𝑥 𝐻 (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
From (𝑖𝑖) we note that every element of 𝐻 𝑥 can be written as 𝑧𝑦 𝑥
for 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺
so
𝑧𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑧𝑥𝑦𝑥 −1
𝑧𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑧𝑥𝑦𝑥 −1 𝑒

𝑧𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑧𝑥𝑦𝑥 −1 𝑧 −1 𝑧
𝑧𝑦 𝑥 = (𝑧𝑥 )𝑦(𝑧𝑥 )−1 𝑧
𝑧𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑦 𝑧𝑥 𝑧 ∈ 𝐻 𝑥 𝐻 = 𝐻
⇒ 𝐻𝑥 ⊆ 𝐻 (𝑖𝑣)
⇒ 𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1 ⊆ 𝐻
By replacing 𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑥 −1
⇒ 𝑥 −1 𝐻𝑥 ⊆ 𝐻
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 −1 𝐻𝑥𝑥 −1 ⊆ 𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1
⇒ 𝑒𝐻𝑒 ⊆ 𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1
⇒ 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐻 𝑥 (𝑣)
From (𝑖𝑣)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑣)
⇒ 𝐻 = 𝐻𝑥
⇒ 𝐻 = 𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1
Hence H is normal subgroup in G
THEOREM
Let a group G of order n have subgroup H and K with order 𝑙 and 𝑚

respectively then
𝑙𝑚 𝑙𝑚 𝑙𝑚
𝑛= + +⋯+
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞𝑟
Where 𝑞𝑖 is the order of 𝑄𝑖 = 𝐻⋂𝑎𝑖 𝐾𝑎𝑖−1𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑟
|𝐻||𝑎𝐾𝑎−1|
|𝐻𝑎𝐾| =
|𝐻⋂𝑎𝐾𝑎−1|
PROOF: since collection of all distinct double cossets 𝐻𝑎𝐾 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 define partition of
G
𝐺 = ⋃𝐻𝑎𝑖 𝐾 , 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝐺

𝑟
⇒ |𝐺 | = ∑|𝐻𝑎𝑖 𝐾 | (1)
1
Since 𝑙, 𝑚 &𝑞𝑖 are the orders of 𝐻 , 𝐾 &𝑄𝑖 = 𝐻⋂𝑎𝑖 𝐾𝑎𝑖−1 respectively,
So for each 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑟
𝑙𝑚
|𝐻𝑎𝑖 𝐾 | = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 1,2,3, . . , 𝑟 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑛 (1)
𝑞𝑖
𝑟
𝑙𝑚 𝑙𝑚 𝑙𝑚 𝑙𝑚
⇒ |𝐺 | = ∑ = + +⋯+
𝑞𝑖 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞𝑟
1
Hence
𝑙𝑚 𝑙𝑚 𝑙𝑚
𝑛= + + ⋯+
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞𝑟
Normal subgroup 𝑎𝐻𝑎−1 = 𝐻 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ ∈ 𝐺 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎ℎ𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻
THEOREM
Let H is a subgroup of G and 𝐻𝑎𝐻𝑏 = 𝐻𝑎𝑏 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 then H is normal

subgroup of G
PROOF:
Given that
𝐻𝑎𝐻𝑏 = 𝐻𝑎𝑏
Then for some ℎ1 , ℎ2 , ℎ3 ∈ 𝐻 such that
ℎ1 𝑎ℎ2 𝑏 = ℎ3 𝑎𝑏
𝑎ℎ2 = ℎ1−1 ℎ3 𝑎𝑏𝑏−1
𝑎ℎ2 𝑎−1 = ℎ ∈ 𝐻 ∴ ℎ = ℎ1−1 ℎ3
𝑎ℎ2 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻
Hence 𝐻 ⊵ 𝐺
2 divide a. a=2,4,6,…

CAUCHY’S THEOREM FOR ABELIAN GROUP
STATEMENT: Let G be a finite abelian group of order n and 𝑝 be a prime

divisor of the order of G. Then G contain an element of order 𝑝.
PROOF: Let G be an abelian group of order n and p be a prime divisor of n.

We will prove it by using induction on 𝑛 = |𝐺|.
If 𝑛 = 𝑝(𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒)
Since every group of prime order is cyclic and order of generator of G is p
So we have a basic for induction.
Suppose that the theorem is true for all abelian group of order less than n and divisible
by p.
Consider 𝑒 ≠ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 since |𝐺 | = 𝑛 < ∞ 𝑠𝑜 |𝑎| ≤ 𝑛
Say |𝑎| = 𝑘
Let H is cyclic group generated by a 𝑖. 𝑒 𝐻 = {𝑎, 𝑎2 , … 𝑎𝑘−1 , 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑒}
so H is subgroup of G
Then there are two possibilities
(i) The order of H say k is divisible by p

(ii) The order of H say k is not divisible by p
Case (i) if the order of H divisible by p, then
2 divides 10 then 10=2(5)
𝑘 = 𝑝𝑞 𝑞 ≥ 1
⇒ 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑒
⇒ 𝑎𝑝𝑞 = 𝑒
⇒ (𝑎 𝑞 )𝑝 = 𝑒
Which implies that 𝑎𝑞 is an element of order p in H and so in G.
Case (ii) If order k of H is not divisible by p

𝐺
Since G is abelian, so H is normal in G therefore, is factor group having order less
𝐻
𝐺
than n but divisible by p, so by induction hypothesis 𝐻 has an element of order p that
is
(𝑏𝐻)𝑝 = 𝐻 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ 𝑏𝑝 𝐻 = 𝐻
⇒ 𝑏𝑝 ∈ 𝐻
Since p is prime so (𝑝, 𝑘 ) = 1 so𝑏𝑝 also generator of H
So order of cyclic group and every generatore is same
|𝑎 | = |𝑏 𝑝 | = 𝑘
⇒ (𝑏 𝑝 )𝑘 = 𝑒
⇒ (𝑏 𝑘 )𝑝 = 𝑒
𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑏𝑘 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑘 ∈ 𝐻 𝑠𝑜 𝑏𝑘 ∈ 𝐺
The proof is complete.
CAUCHY’S THEOREM FOR NON-ABELIAN GROUP
STATEMENT: If a prime number 𝑝 divides the order of a group G then G

contain an element of order p.
PROOF: Let G be a group of order n divisible by 𝑝.

we will prove it by induction on 𝑛 = |𝐺 |
if 𝑛 = 𝑝
then G is a cyclic group of order 𝑝 and order of cyclic group equal to its generator
so basic step of induction is satisfied
Suppose that the theorem is true for all groups of order less than n and divisible by p.
So we have the following possibilities
(i) G contain a proper subgroup whose order is divisible by p

(ii) Every proper subgroup 𝐻 of 𝐺 has index divisible by p.
Case (i) since order of H is less than order of G and is divisible by 𝑝
So by induction hypothesis 𝐻 has an element of order p. which is also element of G of

order 𝑝.
Case (ii) Every proper subgroup 𝐻 of 𝐺 has index divisible by p.
we know that centre of p-group is non-trivial

Let there are 𝑘 number of conjugacy classes and class equation is
|𝐺 | = |𝐶𝑒 | + |𝐶𝑎2 | + |𝐶𝑎3 | + ⋯ + |𝐶𝑎𝑘 |
𝑛 = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑘 (1)
Where 𝑛𝑖 for 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑘 is the number of element of is a conjugacy class in G. Now

each 𝑛𝑖 being the index of the normalizer in the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ conjugacy class is divisible by p
𝑏𝑦 (𝑖𝑖)
Since identity is self-conjugate so without lost of generality, suppose 𝑛1 = 1 so eq (1)

become
𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛2 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑘
1 = 𝑛 − (𝑛2 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑘 )
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅 − 𝐻 − 𝑆 of above equation is divisible by p but 𝐿 − 𝐻 − 𝑆 is not so it is not a

balanced equation
So for balancing above equation there must be p or divisible by p number of self-

conjugate element
∴ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑍(𝐺 ) ⇔ 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 |𝐶𝑎 | = 1
So there are 𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑝 self-conjugate element
⇒order of 𝑍(𝐺) is divisible by p and 𝑍(𝐺 ) is Abelian group.
So it has an element of order p and 𝑍(𝐺) ⊂ 𝐺 so G has an element which is divisible by p.
Exampla : |𝐺 | = 4
A prime 2 divide 4 G has an element of order 2
This implies G has an subgroup of order 2
2nd|𝐺 | = 6
A prime 2 divide |G| G has an element of order 2
This implies G has a subgroup of order 3
3rd|𝐺 | = 52 = 22 13

SYLOW P-SUBGROUP
Let G b a group of order n and p be a prime divisor of n. Subgroup H of G is

said to be a sylow p-subgroup of G if H has order 𝑝𝛼 divides n and 𝑝𝛼+1
does not divides n
Example:
1- 𝑫𝟑 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒃, 𝒂𝒃, 𝒂𝟐 𝒃}
|𝐷3 | = 6 = 2.3
21 Divide 6 but22 does not divide 6
So 𝐷3 has a sylow 2-subgroup
So 𝐷3 has a sylow 3-subgroup
2- Let G be any group such that |𝑮| = 𝟏𝟎𝟖

108 = 22 33
So G has a sylow 2 subgroup of order 22 = 4
Also 33 divide 108 but34 does not divide 108
So G has a sylow 3-subgroup of order 33 = 27
If |𝐺 | = 25 32 57
SYLOW’S 1ST THEOREM
A finite group whose order is divisible by a prime p, contain a sylow p-

subgroup.
OR
If G is a finite group of order n and if 𝑝𝛼 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑛 where p is prime and 𝛼 ≥

0 then G has a subgroup of order 𝑝𝛼 which is sylow p-subgroup
PROOF: Let G be a group of order n and p be a prime divisor of n.
We will prove this theorem by using induction on |𝐺 | = 𝑛
If n=p
Then G itself a subgroup of order p (G is itself p-subgroup)
Now suppose that the theorem is true for all group of order less than n and divisible by
p.
So we have two possibilities
(i) There is a proper subgroup H of G whose order is divisible by p and index is

prime to p
(ii) Every subgroup H of G has index divisible by p
CASE (i) : if H has order less than n and divisible by p then by induction hypothesis H
has a sylow p-subgroup.
Since index is prime to p, therefore, the sylow p-subgroup of H is a sylow p-subgroup of

G
CASE (ii): if every subgroup H of a group G has index divisible by p then
𝒁(𝑮)centre of G is non-trivial and order of 𝑍(𝐺) is multiple of p
By Cauchy theorem, 𝑍(𝐺 )contain an element (say 𝑎)of order p, so
𝐾 =< 𝑎 ∶ 𝑎𝑝 = 𝑒 >= {𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 … , 𝑎𝑝−1 , 𝑎𝑝 = 𝑒}

𝐺
Then K is a subgroup of 𝑍(𝐺) and is normal in G then the factor group 𝐾 is well-defined.
𝐺
the order of 𝐾 is less than the order of G and is divisible by 𝑝𝛼−1 and no higher power of
p
𝐺 𝐻
Therefore, by induction hypothesis, 𝐾 has a sylow p-subgroup say 𝐾 of order𝑝𝛼−1 ,
where H is subgroup of G
Now
𝐻
| | = 𝑝𝛼−1
𝐾
|𝐻| = |𝐾 |𝑝𝛼−1
|𝐻| = 𝑝𝑝𝛼−1
|𝐻 | = 𝑝 𝛼

This shows that H is a sylow p-subgroup of G
SYLOW’S 2ND THEOREM
Any two sylow p-subgroups of a group G are conjugate.
Example:
1- 𝑫𝟑 = {𝒆, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒃, 𝒂𝒃, 𝒂𝟐 𝒃}
|𝐷3 | = 6 = 2.3
Subgroup of order 2
𝐻1 = {𝑒, 𝑏}, 𝐻2 = {𝑒, 𝑎𝑏}, 𝐻3 = {𝑒, 𝑎2 𝑏} are sylow 2-subgroup
Conjugate subgroup 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 is conjugate subgroup of H
𝑎𝐻1 𝑎−1 = 𝑎{𝑒, 𝑏}𝑎−1 = {𝑎𝑒𝑎1 . 𝑎𝑏𝑎−1 } = {𝑒 , 𝑎𝑏𝑎2 } = {𝑒, 𝑎2 𝑏}
𝑎𝐻1 𝑎−1 = 𝐻3
PROOF: Let G be a group of order n

Let H & K be any two sylow p-subgroup of order 𝑝𝛼 in G, then
𝑛 = 𝑝𝛼 𝑚 (𝑝, 𝑚) = 1
Consider the double coset HaK. Since all double cosets of H and K define partition of G
then
𝑟
𝐺 = ⋃ 𝐻𝑎𝑖 𝐾 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝐺
𝑖=1
Then
𝑟
|𝐺 | = ∑|𝐻𝑎𝑖 𝐾 |
𝑖=1
Since
|𝐻||𝑎𝑖 𝐾𝑎𝑖−1 |
|𝐻𝑎𝑖 𝐾 | =
|𝐻⋂𝑎𝑖 𝐾𝑎𝑖−1 |
Since H and K are p-subgroups
|𝐻| = |𝐾 | = |𝑎𝑖 𝐾𝑎𝑖−1 | = 𝑝𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑡 |𝐻⋂𝑎𝑖 𝐾𝑎𝑖−1 | = 𝑞𝑖

So
𝑟
|𝐻||𝑎𝑖 𝐾𝑎𝑖−1 |
|𝐺 | = ∑
|𝐻⋂𝑎𝑖 𝐾𝑎𝑖−1 |
𝑖=1
𝑟
𝑝𝛼 𝑝𝛼
|𝐺 | = ∑
𝑞𝑖
𝑖=1
Dividing both side by 𝑝𝛼

𝑟
𝑛 𝑝𝛼 𝑝𝛼 𝑝𝛼 𝑝𝛼
𝑚= 𝛼=∑ = + +⋯+
𝑝 𝑞𝑖 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞𝑟
𝑖=1
Now𝑞𝑖 , being the order of intersection of two p-groups, is a multiple of p, so each term
of the R-H-S of above equation either multiple of p or equal to 1.
Since L-H-S of above equation is not divisible by p, so atleast one
𝑝𝛼
=1 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑟
𝑞𝑖
Without loss of generality, let
𝑝𝛼
= 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝛼 = 𝑞1
𝑞1
So that the order of 𝐻⋂𝑎1 𝐾𝑎1−1 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝛼
But 𝐻⋂𝑎1 𝐾𝑎1−1 , being the subgroup of H having order same as H and K
|𝐻⋂𝑎1 𝐾𝑎1−1 | = |𝐻|
so
𝐻 = 𝐻⋂𝑎1 𝐾𝑎1−1 𝑎1 ∈ 𝐺
𝐻 ⊆ 𝑎1 𝐾𝑎1−1 𝑎1 ∈ 𝐺
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 |𝐻| = |𝑎1 𝐾𝑎1−1 |𝑎1 ∈ 𝐺
𝐻 = 𝑎1 𝐾𝑎1−1
This shows that H and K are conjugate
THEOREM
A finite group G has a unique sylow p-subgroup H iff H is normal in G

PROOF:
Suppose that H is unique sylow p subgroup of G
And we know that the conjugate subgroup of sylow p-subgroup is also sylow p-
subgroup
𝑎𝐻𝑎−1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑠𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝 − 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
Since H is unique sylow p subgroup of G then
𝐻 = 𝑎𝐻𝑎−1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
Hence H is normal subgroup.
Conversely suppose that H is normal subgroup of H
𝐻 = 𝑎𝐻𝑎−1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
All sylow p subgroup of the form 𝑎𝐻𝑎−1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝐻
Hence H is unique sylow p-subgroup .
CONGYRENCE 𝒂 ≡ 𝒃 𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒏 𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒏|𝒂 − 𝒃 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒏𝒕 = 𝒂 − 𝒃
𝑘 ≡ 1 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑝|𝑘 − 1 𝑠𝑜 𝑘 − 1 = 𝑝𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑘 = 1 + 𝑝𝑡 𝑡 ∈ 𝑍
SYLOW’S 3RD THEOREM
STATEMENT: The number of sylow p-subgroup of a finite group G

congruent to 1 mod p and is the factor of group that is 𝑘 ≡ 1 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 =
1 + 𝑝𝑡 𝑡 ∈ 𝑊
Example:
|𝐷3 | = 6 = 2 × 3
There are sylow 2-subgroup and 3-subgroup
𝑘 = 1 + 2𝑡 𝑡 ∈ 𝑊
𝑡 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑘 = 1
𝑡 = 1 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑘 = 3
There are 3 sylow 2-subgroup
𝑘 = 1 + 3𝑡 𝑡 ∈ 𝑊

𝑡 =0𝑘=1
𝑡 = 1 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑘 = 4 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒
Its mean only one sylow 3-subgroup
𝐷3 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏}
𝐻 = {𝑒, 𝑏} conjugate subgroup of H are {𝑒, 𝑏}, 𝐻1 = {𝑒, 𝑎𝑏}, 𝐻2 = {𝑒, 𝑎2 𝑏}
𝐶𝐻 = {𝐻, 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 }
|𝐺 | = 14 = 2.7
No. of sylow 2 subgroup k=1+2t
𝑡 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑘 = 1
𝑡 = 1 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑘 = 3 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑡 = 2 𝑘 = 5 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑡 = 3 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑘 = 7 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒
PROOF: let H be a sylow p-subgroup of G and |𝐺 | = 𝑛

As any two sylow p-subgroup of G are conjugate to each other. So number of sylow p-
subgroup of G equal to number of subgroups in conjugacy class of H.
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 = |𝐶𝐻 |
And we know that number of conjugate subgroup of H equal to index of its normalizer
Let 𝑁𝐺 (𝐻) = 𝑁 is normalizer of G in H
Let |𝐻| = 𝑝𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑁| = 𝑚 and

𝑛
𝑘 be the index of normalizer |𝐺 | = |𝑁||𝐺: 𝑁| 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑛 = 𝑚𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑚 = 𝑘
since the collection double coset of H and N define partition of G

𝑡
𝐺 = ⋃ 𝑁𝑎𝑖 𝐻 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝐺
𝑖−1
Then
𝑡 𝑡
|𝐺 | = |⋃ 𝑁𝑎𝑖 𝐻 | = ∑|𝑁𝑎𝑖 𝐻|
𝑖−1 𝑖=1

|𝐻||𝑎𝐾𝑎−1 |
|𝐻𝑎𝐾 | =
|𝐻⋂𝑎𝐾𝑎−1 |
𝑡 𝑡
|𝑁||𝑎𝑖 𝐻𝑎𝑖−1 | 𝑚𝑝𝛼
|𝐺 | = ∑ =∑
|𝑁⋂𝑎𝑖 𝐻𝑎𝑖−1 | 𝑞𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝑡
𝑚𝑝𝛼
𝑛=∑
𝑞𝑖
𝑖=1
𝑡
𝑛 𝑝𝛼
𝑘= =∑
𝑚 𝑞𝑖
𝑖=1
As each term of R-H-S of above equation is multiple of p or else equal to 1
Since one of the term 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝑖 = 1
Since R-H-S is divisile by p but L-H-S is not divisible by p
Which is not balanced equation for balancing

𝑡
𝑝𝛼
𝑘 = 1+∑
𝑞𝑖
𝑖=2
Now we will show there are no more term of R-H-S is equal to 1
Suppose on contrary
𝑝𝛼
For some 𝑖 > 1 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡𝑎ℎ𝑡 =1
𝑞𝑖
⇒ 𝑝𝛼 = 𝑞𝑖
⇒ |𝐻| = |𝑁⋂𝑎𝑖 𝐻𝑎𝑖−1 |
And
|𝐻| = |𝑎𝑖 𝐻𝑎𝑖−1 |
⇒ |𝑎𝑖 𝐻𝑎𝑖−1 | = |𝑁⋂𝑎𝑖 𝐻𝑎𝑖−1 |
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁⋂𝑎𝑖 𝐻𝑎𝑖−1 ⊆ 𝑎𝑖 𝐻𝑎𝑖−1
⇒ 𝑎𝑖 𝐻𝑎𝑖−1 = 𝑁⋂𝑎𝑖 𝐻𝑎𝑖−1
So
⇒ 𝑎𝑖 𝐻𝑎𝑖−1 = 𝑁

Since a sylow p-subgroup H of G is sylow p-subgroup of any subgroup containing H
So, H a sylow p-subgroup of N and we know that H is normal in N
So H is unique sylow p-subgroup of N
⇒ 𝒂𝒊 𝑯𝒂−𝟏
𝒊 =𝑵
Which is contradiction
𝑝𝛼
Hence there are no more term = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 > 1
𝑞𝑖
𝑡
𝑝𝛼 𝑝𝛼 𝑝𝛼 𝑝𝛼
𝑘 =1+∑ = 1+ + +⋯+ = 1 + 𝑝𝑡
𝑞𝑖 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞𝑡
𝑖=2
Group upto-isomorphism\ how many different group of given order
→𝑖𝑓 |𝐺 | = 𝑝 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 is prime then only one group
→if |𝐺 | = 𝑝𝑞 and 𝑝 < 𝑞 and 𝑝 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑞 − 1 then there are total 2 group
One is abelian and other is non-abelian
→if |𝐺 | = 𝑝𝑞 and 𝑝 < 𝑞 and 𝑝 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑞 − 1 then there are total 1 group
Then this must be cyclic
→ if |𝐺 | = 𝑝3 then there are 5 group 3 abelian and 2 non-abelian
→no of non-isomorphic abelian group of given order
|𝐺 | = 𝑛 = 𝑝1𝑎1 𝑝2𝑎2 … 𝑝𝑛𝑎𝑛
Then no of different abelian group of order n are =𝑃(𝑎1 )𝑃(𝑎2 ) … 𝑃(𝑎𝑛 )
Example
|𝐺 | = 8 = 23
Integer partition of 3= 3, 2+1, 1+1+1
Then no of different abelian group of order n are =𝑃(3) = 3
2nd
|𝐺 | = 10 = 2.5
And 2 divide 5-1=4

There are 2 non-isomorphis group
3rd
|𝐺 | = 52 = 22 . 13
Interger partition of 2 : 2, 1+1
𝑃 (2) = 2
𝑃 (1) = 1
No of different abelian group of order 52 are =𝑃(2)𝑃(3) = 2.1 = 2
4th
|𝐺 | = 27 = 33
Total non-isomorphism groups are 5. 3 abelian are 2 are non-abelian .

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2020

[COMPANY NAME] | [Company address]

Let A be a non-empty set. A binary operation ‘’*’’ is a function define as

e.g. Plus, Minus, Multiplication, Division, composition of function etc.

The binary operation + hold in N.

Let G be a non-empty set and * be any binary operation

i) Closure Law (closed)

ii) Associative Law

iii) Identity Element

iv) Inverse Element

MUHAMMAD USMAN +92-311-6545143 1 | Page

𝐴 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐺 𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑

𝐴 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑒𝑚𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐺 𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠

𝐴 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑒𝑚𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐺 𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 ∗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠

𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 ∗

𝐴 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑒𝑚𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐺 𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠

𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 ∗

𝐴 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑒𝑚𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐺 𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠

𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 ∗

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 (𝐺 ∗) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝

MUHAMMAD USMAN +92-311-6545143 2 | Page

Set/ Closure Associative identity Inverse commutative conclusion

(ℕ,+) Yes Yes No No Yes Abelian

(ℤ,×) Yes Yes yes No Yes Abelian

MUHAMMAD USMAN +92-311-6545143 3 | Page

Some More Example

1. Cube root of unity

MUHAMMAD USMAN +92-311-6545143 4 | Page

GENERAL LINEAR GROUP

(𝑎𝑒 + 𝑏𝑔)( 𝑐𝑓 + 𝑑ℎ) − ( 𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏ℎ)( 𝑐𝑒 + 𝑑𝑔)

= 𝑎𝑒𝑐𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔𝑐𝑓 + 𝑎𝑒𝑑ℎ + 𝑏𝑔𝑑ℎ − 𝑎𝑓𝑐𝑒 − 𝑏ℎ𝑐𝑒 − 𝑎𝑓𝑑𝑔 − 𝑏ℎ𝑑𝑔

= 𝑏𝑔𝑐𝑓 + 𝑎𝑒𝑑ℎ − 𝑏ℎ𝑐𝑒 − 𝑎𝑓𝑑𝑔

= −𝑏𝑐(𝑒ℎ − 𝑔𝑓) + 𝑎𝑑(𝑒ℎ − 𝑔𝑓)

= (𝑒ℎ − 𝑔𝑓)(𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐) ≠ 0

⟹(𝑎𝑒 + 𝑏𝑔)( 𝑐𝑓 + 𝑑ℎ)-( 𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏ℎ)( 𝑐𝑒 + 𝑑𝑔) ≠ 0

We can easily check

MUHAMMAD USMAN +92-311-6545143 5 | Page

Hence 𝐺𝐿( 2 ℝ) is group w .r .t multiplication

Note that𝐺𝐿( 2 ℝ) w.r.t multiplication is not Abelian group because

SPECIAL LINEAR GROUP

SET OF RESIDUE CLASS MODULO n

If n is prime then ℤ𝑛 \{0̅} is group under multiplication

MUHAMMAD USMAN +92-311-6545143 6 | Page

2̅. 3̅ = 0̅ ∉ ℤ6 \{0̅} not closed

We can see above table

MUHAMMAD USMAN +92-311-6545143 7 | Page

MUHAMMAD USMAN +92-311-6545143 8 | Page

MUHAMMAD USMAN +92-311-6545143 9 | Page

6̅ +9̅ =0̅ 6̅ is additive inverse of 9̅ in ℤ15.

MCQ: the multiplicative inverse of 3̅ in ℤ7.

Q1- Find Order of all element of Z5 w.r.t multiplication.

Q2- Find additive and multiplicative inverse of all element of Z 7.

Q3- Find Additive Inverse of All element of Z 15.

𝑺𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑

𝑼(𝑮) = 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐺

Example 𝑈(ℤ) = {±1}

No. of element in ℤ which has multiplicative inverse are 2.

𝑈(ℝ) = ℝ\{0}, 𝑈(ℚ) = ℚ\{0}, 𝑈 (ℂ) = ℂ\{0}

MUHAMMAD USMAN +92-311-6545143 10 | P a g e

ℤ2 = {0̅, 1̅} ⇒ 𝑈(2) = {1̅}

ℤ3 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅} ⇒ 𝑈(3) = {1̅, 2̅}

ℤ4 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅} ⇒ 𝑈(4) = {1̅, 3̅}

ℤ6 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅} ⇒ 𝑈(6) = {1̅, 5̅}

→ 𝑼(𝑮)𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏