✶ ➪▲●❊❇❘❆ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲ ✷

✶ ➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧
Pr♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s✿

✶✳✶ ❉❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❜ás✐❝❛s •❈♦♥♠✉t❛t✐✈❛ A ~·B ~ =B ~ ·A ~ ✱ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐✈❛✳

•ˆ✙ · ˆ✙ = 1 = ˆ✚ · ˆ✚ = ˆ❦ · ˆ❦ = 1; ˆ✙ · ˆ✚ = ˆ✙ · ˆ❦ = ... = 0
•❊s❝❛❧❛r ❂ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ s♦❧❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞✳ •❙✐ A ~⊥B ~ ⇒A ~·B ~ =0
~ ~
•A · A = A = A 2 ~ 2
•❱❡❝t♦r ❂ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞❛ ♣♦r✿ ♠ó❞✉❧♦✱ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ② s❡♥t✐❞♦✳ •❈♦♥♦❝✐❞❛s ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s✱ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❝♦♠♦
✭❞❡♠♦str❛r ❡♥ ❝❛s❛✮✿ A ~·B ~ = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz ✳
•❈❛♠♣♦ ❂ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞❛ ❡♥ t♦❞♦ ♦ ❡♥ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦
•▲❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r A ~ ✭♦ ♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥✮ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r
q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ❡s❝❛❧❛r ♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❧❛ ❛❧t✉r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♦❧❛s ♦ ❧❛ ~ · ê✳
✉♥✐t❛r✐♦ ê✱ ❡s✿ Ae = A
❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ✈✐❡♥t♦✳

❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ✶✳
•❙✉♠❛ ❞❡ ✈❡❝t♦r❡s✱ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❣rá✜❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♦tr♦ ✈❡❝t♦r q✉❡ s❡
~=A
S ~+B
~
⋆❉❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❞♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s✱ ❛ ♦tr♦ ✈❡❝t♦r ❝✉②❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥
♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ❝♦♠♦✿
❈♦♥ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s✿
~ ~ ~ ❂B ~ ✰A
~ ❡s ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥♦✱ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❡❧ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛♥♦ ❞❡r❡❝❤❛
•❈♦♥♠✉t❛t✐✈❛✿ ❂ ✰ B
S A
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~✮ ~ ② ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ P = A B sin(θ)✳ ❊❧ ✈❡❝t♦r s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❝♦♠♦✿
•❆s♦❝✐❛t✐✈❛✿ D ❂ A ✰ ✭B ✰ C ✮ ❂ ✭A ✰ B ✰C

ˆ❦
 
 ˆ✙ ˆ✚ 
•❈♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s✳ ❯♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦s s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛s♦❝✐❛r ❛
P~ = A
~×B
~ ≡  Ax

Ay Az


✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s✳ ❉❡ ❡st❡ ♠♦❞♦ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ~
A ❧♦

 Bx

~❂A ~x ✰ A ~y ✰ A
~z By Bz 
♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❝♦♠♦✿ A
❚❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ A ~ = Axˆ✙✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s A~ = Axˆ✙ + Ayˆ✚ + Az ˆ❦✳ Pr♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s✿
❙✐❡♥❞♦ Ax , Ay , Az ✱ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r A~✳ •❆♥t✐❝♦♥♠✉t❛t✐✈❛✿ A ~∧B ~ = −B ~ ∧A~
•❉✐str✐❜✉t✐✈❛ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ ❛ s✉♠❛✿ A ~ ∧ (B
~ + C)
~ =A
~∧B
~ +A
~∧C
~✳
•▲❛ ❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥ ♣♦r ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s s❡rá✿ •ˆ✙ ∧ ˆ✚ = ˆ❦;ˆ✚ ∧ ˆ❦ = ˆ✙; ˆ❦ ∧ ˆ✙ = ˆ✚
Cx = Ax + Bx •❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❡❧ ár❡❛ ❞❡❧ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦❣r❛♠♦
C y = Ay + B y •❉♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦s✱ A|| ~ B ~ ⇒A ~∧B ~ =0
Cz = Az + Bz

•❉❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ♦ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❝♦♠♦ ~ =

|A|
q
A2x + A2y + A2z
✶✳✸ ❙✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✉r✈✐❧í♥❡❛s
⋆❈✐❧í♥❞r✐❝♦
•❱❡❝t♦r ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦ t✐❡♥❡ ❞❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ✉♥♦ ✿ ~ A|
â = A/| ~ ✳ ▲♦ ♥♦t❛r❡♠♦s ❝♦♥ ˆ ❉❡s❝r✐❜✐♠♦s ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❝♦♠♦ P (ρ, ϕ, z)✱ ❞♦♥❞❡✿
•ρ̂ ❂ ✈❡rs♦r ♣❡r♣✳ ❛❧ ❝✐❧✐♥❞r♦ ✭❤❛❝✐❛ ❢✉❡r❛✮✳
•❈♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s r❡❧❛t✐✈❛s✳ •ϕ̂ ❂ ✈❡rs♦r t❣ ❛ ❧❛ ❝✐r❝✉♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ρ✳
•❊❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ✏P✑✱ ✈✐❡♥❡ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r✿ ~r ⇒ (x, y, z) •k̂ ❂ ✈❡rs♦r ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛ ❧♦s ♦tr♦s ❞♦s✳
•❙✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ P ′ ✱ s✉s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s s❡rá♥✿ ~r ′ ⇒ (x′ , y ′ , z ′ )
~ = ~r − ~r ′
•▲❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ P r❡❧❛t✐✈❛ ❛❧ ♣✉♥t♦ P ′ s❡rá✿ R Pr♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s✿
•ˆ✙,ˆ✚, ˆ❦ s✐❡♠♣r❡ t✐❡♥❡♥ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥
❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ✷✳ •ρ̂, ϕ̂ ❝❛♠❜✐❛♥ ❞❡ s❡♥t✐❞♦✳
•❘❛♥❣♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s✿
✶✳✷ Pr♦❞✉❝t♦s ❡s❝❛❧❛r ② ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❞♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s 0≤ρ≤∞
0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2π
⋆❉❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ ❞♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❛ ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❛❞❛ −∞≤z ≤∞
~·B
♣♦r✿ A ~ = A B cos(θ)✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ θ ❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛ A
~②B ~✳
 ✶ ➪▲●❊❇❘❆ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲ ✸

•❘❡❧❛❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s✿ •❘❡❧❛❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡ ✈❡rs♦r❡s✿

x = ρ cos(ϕ) ρ2 = x2 + y 2 r̂ = sin θ cos ϕˆ✙ + sin θ sin ϕˆ✚ + cos θ ˆ❦
y = ρ sin(ϕ) ϕ = arctan(y/x) θ̂ = cos θ cos ϕˆ✙ + cos θ sin ϕˆ✚ − sin θ ˆ❦
z=z ϕ̂ = − sin ϕˆ✙ + cos ϕˆ✚
~r = xˆ✙ + yˆ✚ + z ˆ❦ ~r = ρρ̂ + z ˆ❦
▲❛s ✐♥✈❡rs❛s✿
•❘❡❧❛❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡ ✈❡rs♦r❡s ✭❣rá✜❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡✮✿
ρ̂ = cos(ϕ)ˆ✙ + sin(ϕ)ˆ✚ ˆ✙ = (ˆ✙ · r̂)r̂ + (ˆ✙ · θ̂)θ̂ + (ˆ✙ · ϕ̂)ϕ̂ ˆ✙ = sin θ cos ϕr̂ + cos θ cos ϕθ̂ − sin ϕϕ̂
ϕ̂ = − sin(ϕ)ˆ✙ + cos(ϕ)ˆ✚ ˆ✚ = (ˆ✚ · r̂)r̂ + (ˆ✚ · θ̂)θ̂ + (ˆ✚ · ϕ̂)ϕ̂ ⇒ ˆ✚ = sin θ sin ϕr̂ + cos θ sin ϕθ̂ + cos ϕϕ̂
ˆ❦ = ( ˆ❦ · r̂)r̂ + ( ˆ❦ · θ̂)θ̂ + ( ˆ❦ · ϕ̂)ϕ̂ ˆ❦ = cos θ cos ϕr̂ − sin θθ̂
❆♥❛❧ít✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛♠♦s ❧❛s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✐♥✈❡rs❛s✿
•▲❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r A ~ q✉❡❞❛♥✿ A ~ = Ar r̂ + Aθ θ̂ + Aϕ ϕ̂
ˆ✙ = (ˆ✙ · ρ̂)ρ̂ + (ˆ✙ · ϕ̂)ϕ ˆ✙ = cos ϕρ̂ − sin ϕϕ̂
⇒ •P❛r❛ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✿ ~r = rr̂
ˆ✚ = (ˆ✚ · ρ̂)ρ̂ + (ˆ✚ · ϕ̂)ϕ ˆ✙ = sin ϕρ̂ + cos ϕϕ̂
•❨ s✉ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧✿ d~r = drr̂ + rdθθ̂ + r sin θdϕϕ̂
❉❡ ❧❛s ✜❣✉r❛s✱ s❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛✿ •❯♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥✿ dτ = r2 sin θdr dθ dϕ
•❱❡❝t♦r ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✿ ~r = ρρ̂ + z ˆ❦✿
•❉❡s♣❧❛③❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡s✐♠❛❧✿ d~r = dρρ̂ + ρdϕϕ̂ + dz ˆ❦
•❊❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ár❡❛✿ da = ρdρdϕ
✶✳✹ ●r❛❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r
•❊❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥✿ dτ = dρ ρdϕ dz ❉❛❞❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r f (x, y, z)✱ s❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ s✉ ❣r❛❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❝✉②❛s
❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s s♦♥ ❧❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ♣❛r❝✐❛❧❡s✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝❛rt❡s✐❛♥❛s q✉❡❞❛✿
⋆❊s❢ér✐❝❛s
~ = ∂f ˆ✙ + ∂f ˆ✚ + ∂f ˆ❦
∇f
•❉❡s❝r✐❜✐♠♦s ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❝♦♠♦ P (r, θ, ϕ)✱ ❞♦♥❞❡✿ ∂x ∂y ∂z
r ❂ r❛❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡s❢❡r❛✱ ~ = ∂ ∂ ∂ ˆ
❉♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✉t✐❧✐③❛❞♦ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ∇ ∂xˆ
✙+
∂y ˆ
✚+
∂z ❦
θ ❂ ❛♠♣❧✐t✉❞ ❞❡❧ ❝♦♥♦✱ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ❛③✐♠✉t❛❧
ϕ ❂ ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s✱ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ❧❛t✐t✉❞✐♥❛❧✳
•❙✐ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ P (x, y, z) t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r f (x, y, z)✱ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦
s❡♣❛r❛❞♦ ✉♥ d~r✱ s✉ ✈❛❧♦r ❤❛❜rá ❝❛♠❜✐❛❞♦✿ f + df ✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❞❡❧
•❱❡rs♦r❡s✿
❝❛♠❜✐♦✿
r̂ ❂ ✈❡rs♦r ♣❡r♣✳ ❛ ❧❛ ❡s❢❡r❛ ✭❤❛❝✐❛ ❢✉❡r❛✮✳
θ̂ ❂ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛❧ ❝♦♥♦✳ ∂u ∂u ∂u ~ · d~r
df = dx + dy + dz = ∇f
ϕ̂ ❂ t❣✳ ❛ ❧❛ ❡s❢❡r❛✳ ∂x ∂y ∂z
•❙❡❛ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ P ❝♦♥ f = f1 ② ♥♦s ❞❡s♣❧❛③❛♠♦s s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❡q✐♣♦✲
•❘❛♥❣♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s✿ t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ d~s1 ✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ f ♥♦ ❝❛♠❜✐❛ ⇒ df = 0 ✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦
0≤r≤∞ ∇u ⊥ d~s1 ② ∇u ❡s ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❡q✉✐♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧✳ ❊❧ ❣r❛❞✐❡♥t❡
0≤θ≤π ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ t✐❡♥❡ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❡q✉✐♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧✳
0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2π
•❉❡ ❡st❡ ♠♦❞♦ ✉♥❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❡q✉✐♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧
•❘❡❧❛❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s✿ ~
∇f
x = r sin θ cos ϕ r2 = x2 + y 2 + 2 ✈❡♥❞rá ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r n̂ = |∇f
pz
~ |
y = r sin θ sin ϕ θ = arccos(z/ x2 + y 2 + z 2 )
z = r cos θ ϕ = arctan(y/x) •P❛r❛ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❡❧ ❣r❛❞✐❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s ✭ρ, θ, z ✮✱ t♦♠❛♠♦s
q✉❡ ❡❧ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ f✱ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❝♦♠♦✿

∂f ∂f ∂f
f (ρ, ϕ, z) ⇒ df = dρ + dϕ + dz
∂ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
 ✶ ➪▲●❊❇❘❆ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲ ✹

s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ ~ · d~r

df = ∇f ② q✉❡ d~r = dρρ̂ + ρdϕϕ̂ + dz ˆ❦✳ ▲❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s ② ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s ❧❛s
■❣✉❛❧❛♥❞♦ tér♠✐♥♦s ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ s✉♣❡r✐♦r✱ s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❡♥ ❧❛s ❤♦❥❛s ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❝❧❛s❡✳
❡❧ ❣r❛❞✐❡♥t❡ ② ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ~✿
∇
❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r ~ ∧A
∇ ~✱ ❝♦♥ ~ 3 − sin x) ˆ❦✳
A(z
~ = ρ̂ ∂f + ϕ̂ ∂f + ˆ❦ ∂f
∇f ~ = ρ̂ ∂ + ϕ̂ ∂ + ˆ❦ ∂
∇
∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z •❙❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ❧❛♣❧❛❝✐❛♥♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r f (x, y, z) ❛ ❧❛ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛
⋆❖♣❡r❛♥❞♦ ❡♥ ♠♦❞♦ s✐♠✐❧❛r✱ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s q✉❡❞❛✿ ❞❡ s✉ ❣r❛❞✐❡♥t❡✳ P❛r❛ ❧♦s tr❡s s✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s q✉❡ ❡st❛♠♦s ✉s❛♥❞♦
s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❝♦♠♦✿
~ = r̂ ∂f + θ̂ ∂f + ϕ̂ ∂f
∇f ~ = r̂ ∂ + θ̂ ∂ + ϕ̂
∇
∂ !
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ ~ · ∇f
~ = ∇2 f = ∆f = ∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇ + + f (x, y, z)
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
1∂ 1 ∂2u ∂2u
 
∂u
❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡❧ ❣r❛❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ f (x, y, z) = x3 − 2y 2 + xz − z 2 + 1 ∇2 u = ρ 2 2
++ 2
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ
ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
1 ∂ 1 1 ∂2u
   
∂u ∂ ∂u
∇2 u = r 2
+ sin θ + 2 2
✶✳✺ ❉✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛✱ r♦t❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ ② ❧❛♣❧❛❝✐❛♥♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ 2
r ∂r ∂r 2
r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ2
✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ✳ ∇2 f ✱ ❝♦♥ f = x4 z − 3xy 2 − zxy + 1✳
❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ~ y, z) = A(~
A(x, ~ r )✳
~ ~ r) ❝♦♥ •❊❧ ❧❛♣❧❛❝✐❛♥♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ❡s ✉♥ ♥✉❡✈♦ ✈❡❝t♦r q✉❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡✿
•❙✐ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ∇ ❛❝tú❛ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ A(~ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✱ s❡
♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r q✉❡ s❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛✿ ~ · (∇
∇2 A = ∇ ~ · A)
~ −∇
~ ∧ (∇
~ ∧ A)
~
  
~ = ˆ✙ ∂ + ˆ✚ ∂ + ˆ❦ ∂ · ˆ✙Ax + ˆ✚Ay + ˆ❦Az = ∂Ax + ∂Ay + ∂Az •❊♥ ❙❆❑❆■ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛rá♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ❢ór♠✉❧❛s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s út✐❧❡s✳

~ ·A
∇
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
•◗✉❡ ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s q✉❡❞❛✿ ✶✳✻ ➪♥❣✉❧♦ só❧✐❞♦✳
❊❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ ♠❛♥t❡♥✐❞♦ ♣♦r ❞♦s r❡❝t❛s q✉❡ s❡ ❝r✉③❛♥ ❝✉♠♣❧❡✿
 
∂ ϕ̂ ∂ ∂
~ ·A
∇ ~ = ρ̂ + + ˆ❦ · (Aρ ρ̂ + Aϕ ϕ̂ + Az ˆ❦)
∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z l1 l2
= ⇒ á♥❣✉❧♦ ❡♥ r❛❞✐❛♥t❡s
∂Aρ Aρ 1 ∂Aϕ ∂Az 1∂ 1 ∂Aϕ ∂Az r1 r2
= + + + = (ρAρ ) + +
∂ρ ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z ❙✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝✐r❝✉♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ 2π r❛❞✳

❉♦♥❞❡ ❧❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❡s ❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛ ♠ás ❝♦♠ú♠♠❡♥t❡✳ ❙✐ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ ❞❡ á♥❣✉❧♦ ✷❉ ❧♦ ❡①t❡♥❞❡♠♦s ❛ ✸❉✿

•❊♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s✿

S1 S2
= 2 = Ω (❡st❡r❡♦r❛❞✐❛♥❡s✱ sr)
~ = 1 ∂ (r2 Ar ) + 1
~ ·A
∇
∂
(sin θAθ ) +
1 ∂Aϕ r12 r2
r2 ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ ❙✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ só❧✐❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡s❢❡r❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛ 4π sr✳

❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r ~ ·A
∇ ~✱ ❝♦♥ ~ = (3x2 − y)ˆ✙ + 2xzˆ✚ + (z − y) ˆ❦✳
A ❊❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ só❧✐❞♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛r ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡s❢❡r❛ ❝♦♥
❡❧ ❝♦♥♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡✿

•❙✐ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ~
∇ ❛❝tú❛ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ s♦❜r❡ ~✱
A s❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛
r♦t❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ q✉❡✱ ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝❛rt❡s✐❛♥❛s s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❝♦♠♦✿ ✶✳✼ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ●❛✉ss ♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛

 ˆ✙ ˆ✚ ˆ❦ 
 ⋆❉❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❡❧ ✢✉❥♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❙ ❝♦♠♦✿
~ ~
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 

∇ ∧ A =  ∂x
Z Z
 A
∂y ∂z  ~
ΦS (A) = ~
A · d~a = ~ · n̂da
A
x Ay Az  S S
 ✶ ➪▲●❊❇❘❆ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲ ✺

❉♦♥❞❡✿ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛ ② ❡❧ r♦t❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦✱ ést❡ q✉❡❞❛ ❞❡✲
•n̂ ✈❡rs♦r ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❛ ❝❛❞❛ d~a✱ s❡ t♦♠❛ ❤❛❝✐❛ ❢✉❡r❛ t❡r♠✐♥❛❞♦✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛r❡♠♦s ❛ ést♦s ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛s ❢✉❡♥t❡s ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦✳
•❙✐ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❡s ♣❧❛♥❛✱ ❤❡♠♦s ❞❡ ❞❡✜♥✐r ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ r❡❝♦rr❡♠♦s ~ · F~ (~r) = d(~r) ❋✉❡♥t❡ ❡s❝❛❧❛r
•∇
s✉ ❝♦♥t♦r♥♦ ② ❡❧ ✈❡rs♦r n̂ t❡♥❞rí❛ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛♥♦ ~ × F~ (~r) = ~h(~r) ❋✉❡♥t❡ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧
•∇
❞❡r❡❝❤❛✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞ér❡s❡ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❝✉♠♣❧✐❡♥❞♦✿
•▲❛s ❢✉❡♥t❡s ❞❡ F~ ✭~r✮ ❡stá♥ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ✜♥✐t♦ ❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ✜♥✐t❛✳
⋆❊♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞ér❡s❡ ✉♥ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥✱ V✱ ❡♥❝❡rr❛❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ S✳ •F~ ✭~r✮ ⇒ 0 ♠ás rá♣✐❞♦ q✉❡ r−1 ❝✉❛♥❞♦ x → ∞✳
❊❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ●❛✉ss ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡✿
I Z ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱ F~ ✭~r✮ q✉❡❞❛ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♣t♦✳ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥✿
~ · d~a =
A ~ · Adτ
∇ ~ ~ ~ ~ ∧ ~g (~r)
S V
F (~r) = −∇f (~r) + ∇
❞♦♥❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s f ② g s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉❡♥t❡s d ② ~ h✿
❉♦♥❞❡ ❧❛s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s s❡ ❡✈❛❧ú❛♥ s♦❜r❡ t♦❞❛ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ✏❙✑ ② ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ ❡❧
✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ V✳ ❖❥♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ sí♠❜♦❧♦ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❝❡rr❛❞❛✳ 1
Z ′
d(~r )
f (~r) = dτ ′ ~ ′ · F~ (~r ′ )
d(~r ′ ) = ∇
4π V ′ |~r − ~r ′ |
❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ✽✱ ✾✱ ✶✸✱ ✶✻
~h(~r ′ )
~ = 1
Z
dτ ′ ~h(~r ′ ) = ∇
~ ′ ∧ F~ (~r ′ )
✶✳✽ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❙t♦❦❡s ♦ ❞❡❧ r♦t❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ ~g (R)
4π V′ |~r − ~r ′ |
⋆❉❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❧❛ ❝✐r❝✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ~ ✭①✱②✱③✮
A s♦❜r❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ L✿ ❞♦♥❞❡✿
•❊❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ~r ❞♦♥❞❡ s❡ ❡✈❛❧ú❛ ❡❧ F~ ✱ r❡❝✐❜❡ ❡❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ♣✉♥t♦ ❝❛♠♣♦✳
•❊❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ~r ′ s❡ ❡✈❛❧ú❛♥ ❧❛s ❢✉❡♥t❡s✱ s❡ s✉❡❧❡ ❧❧❛♠❛r ♣✉♥t♦ ❢✉❡♥t❡✳
Z
~ =
CL (A) ~ · d~ℓ
A
L •s❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛ ❛ t♦❞♦ ❡❧ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❞♦♥❞❡ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❢✉❡♥t❡s✱ ❞❛❞❛s ♣♦r ~r ′ ✳
❞♦♥❞❡ ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦ ❡s♣❡❝✐✜❝❛r ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ✜♥❛❧ ❡ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧✱ ❛sí ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ❝❛♠✐♥♦✳ •❊❧ tér♠✐♥♦ ❞❡❧ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞♦r r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❢✉❡♥t❡s
② ❝❛♠♣♦✳
⋆❊♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦ ❈♦♥s✐❞ér❡s❡ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ S ❞❡❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ L✱ ❡❧ •❙✐ ❤❛② ❢✉❡♥t❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥✜♥✐t♦✱ ❡st❡ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ♥♦ s❡s ✈á❧✐❞♦ ✭s❡ ✈❡rá ❡♥ ❊▼✷✮✳
t❡♦r❡♠❛
I
❞❡ ❙t♦❦❡sZ ❞✐❝❡✿
~ · d~ℓ =
A ~ ∧A
∇ ~ · d~a
L S

•❙✐ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈♦✱ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♥♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ L ②✱ ♣❛r❛

✉♥❛ ❝✉r✈❛ ❝❡rr❛❞❛ t❡♥❞❡r❡♠♦s✿
I
~ · d~ℓ = 0 ⇒ ∇
A ~ ∧A
~=0
L

♣♦r t❛♥t♦ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈♦ ❂ ✐rr♦t❛❝✐♦♥❛❧✳

❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ✶✵✱ ✶✹

✶✳✾ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❍❡❧♠❤♦❧t③

◆♦ s❡ ❞❡♠♦str❛rá ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛✱ ❧♦ ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛r❡♠♦s ② ✉t✐❧✐③❛r❡♠♦s ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r
❝❛♠♣♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦s✳ ❊❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ tr❛t❛ ❧❛ ❝✉❡st✐ó♥ ❞❡ q✉é ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥
❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧✳ ▲❛ r❡s♣✉❡st❛ ❡s q✉❡ s✐ s❡
❝♦♥♦❝❡♥ ❧❛ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛ ② ❡❧ r♦t❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡♥ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛
r❡❣✐ó♥ ✜♥✐t❛✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛rs❡ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ✉♥í✈♦❝❛ ❡♥
t♦❞♦ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳