Professional Documents
Culture Documents
LEVEL: ND II
SEMESTER: 1ST
LIST OF CONTENTS
2
WEEK 4: Power Factor Meter
4.1. Introduction...................................................................................13.
4.2. Electrodynamic power factor meters.........................................13
4.2.1. Principle of operation of electrodynamic power factor meter.15
WEEK 5: Measurement of Power And Power factor
5.1. Introduction...............................................................................................17.
5.2. Power factor...............................................................................................17
5.3. Calculating power factor...........................................................................19
WEEK 6:Wattmeters:
6.1. Introduction 23
6.2. Dynamometer wattmeter...........................................................23
6.2.1. construction 23
6.2.2. Operation 24
6.2.3. Advantages and disadvantages.............................................25
6.2.4. Errors 27-28
6.3. Deflecting torque.......................................................................25
WEEK 7: Power measurement in three phase cct
7.1.
Introduction.......................................................................................................32
7.2. Three wattmeter method...........................................................32.
7.3. Two wattmeter method.............................................................33.
7.3.1. Two wattmeter method balanced load................................36
WEEK 8: One wattmeter method.
8.1. Introduction 39
8.2. Reading of wattmeter....................................................................40
8.2.1. Balanced load lagging power factor.........................................40
8.2.2. Balanced load leading power factor..........................................41
WEEK 9: Instruments selection and specifications.
9.1. Introduction 43
3
9.2. Factors of an instrument selection............................................42-45
WEEK 10: Importance of instruments in industries.
10.1. Introduction............................................................................47
10.2. Importance of measurement in industry................................47
10.3. Pressure measurement............................................................48
10.3.1. Importance of pressure measurement................................49
WEEK 11: Temperature measurement.
11.1. Introduction.............................................................................50
11.2. Types of thermometers............................................................50
11.3. Classification of thermometers..............................................51
11.3.1. Practical thermometers........................................................51
11.3.2. Common thermometers........................................................51
11.4. Importance of temperature measurement................................51
11.5.Level measurement....................................................................52
11.5.1. How to obtain level measurement....................................52
11.5.2. Importance of level measurement......................................53
WEEK 12:Flowrate measurement.
12.1. Introduction................................................................................55
12.1.1. Importance of flowrate measurement....................................55
12.2. Measurement of density............................................................56
12.3. Viscosity measurement............................................................56
12.3.1. Importance of viscosity.........................................................57
WEEK 13: Humidity measurement.
13.1. Introduction............................................................................59
WEEK 14: Electrical electronics instruments.
14.1. Introduction............................................................................61
14.2. Types of electrical instruments................................................61
14.2.1. Indicating instruments........................................................61
14.2.2. Recording instruments........................................................61
4
14.2.3. Controlling instruments....................................................62
14.3. Principles of operation of electrical instruments....................62
WEEK 15: Essentials of indicating instruments.
15.1. Introduction................................................................................63
15.1.1. Deflecting torque................................................................63
15.1.2. Controlling torque................................................................64
15.1.3. Damping torque....................................................................64
5
This Page is Intentionally Left Blank
6
WEEK 1
INTRODUCTION:
The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides
accurate time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of
frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as general
purpose laboratory instrument. The block diagram of cathode ray oscilloscope is shown
in fig 1.1.
(ii)Horizontal amplifier:
The sweep generator output or any signal applied to the horizontal input terminal will
be amplified by the horizontal amplifier and applied to the horizontal deflection plates.
Fig 1.2. Horizontal and vertical amplifier.
(iii)Time base sweep generator:
The linear deflection or sweep of the beam of an oscilloscope horizontally is
accomplished by use of a sweep generator that is incorporated in the oscilloscope circuitry.
The voltage output of such a generator is that of a saw tooth wave as shown in Fig.2.
Application of one cycle of this voltage difference, which increases linearly with time, to the
horizontal plate causes the beam to be deflected linearly with time across the tube face. When
the voltage suddenly falls to zero, as at points (a),(b),(c), etc…, the end of each sweep- the
beam flies back to its initial position. The horizontal deflection of the beam is repeated
periodically, the frequency of this periodicity is adjustable by external controls.
During sweep time (a), the beam is deflected to the right by increasing the amplitude
of the ramp voltage and the fact that the position voltage attracts the negative electrons.
During the retrace fly-back time, the beam returns quickly to left side of the screen, thus
blanking out the beam by means of blanking circuit.
8
WEEK 2
(iv) Triggered sweep:
A trigger circuit is incorporated into the oscilloscope . The trigger circuit may receive
an input from an external source when the trigger selector switch is set to EXT and from a
low amplitude a.c voltage at the line frequency when the switch is set to LINE or from the
vertical amplifier when the switch is set to INT.
When set for internal triggering (INT), the trigger circuit receives it input from the
vertical amplifier. When the vertical input signal is being amplified by the vertical input
signal is being amplified by the vertical amplifier until it reaches a certain level, Then the
trigger circuit provide a pulse to the sweep generator output is synchronized with the signal
that trigger it.
(v) Synchronization:
whatever type of sweep is used, it must be synchronized with the signal being
measured. Synchronization has to be done to obtain a stationary pattern. This requires the
time base to operate at a submultiples frequency of the signal under measurement (signal
applied to Y-plate). See fig. below. If synchronization is not done the pattern is not
10
MEASUREMENT OF VOLTAGES ANDWeek 3
CURRENTS
1.1 Introduction:
The expression for electrostatic deflection shows that the deflection is proportional to the
deflection-plate voltage. Thus the cathode ray tube will measure voltage. It is usual to
calibrate the tube under the given operating conditions by observing the deflection produced
by a known voltage. Direct voltages may be obtained from the static deflection of the spot,
alternating voltages from the length of the line produced when the voltage is applied to Y-
plates when no voltage is applied to X-plates. The length of this line corresponds to the peak
to peak voltage. When dealing with sinusoidal voltages, the rms value is given by dividing
the peak to peak voltage by 2
Laboratory oscillographs frequently incorporate voltage measurement a facility by
including constant gain amplifies and calibrate shift controls. The Y-shift control is adjusted
so that positive peak of the test voltage coincides with some datum line on the screen; the
shift control is then operated until the negative peak coincides with the datum. The movement
of control is arranged to read directly the peak to peak voltage. The value of current can be
obtained by measuring the voltage drop across a known resistance connected in the circuit.
To determine the size of the voltage signal appearing at the output of terminals of the
signal generator, an AC (Alternating current) voltmeter is connected in parallel across the
11
terminals (fig 2.1).The AC voltmeter is designed to read the dc “effective value” of the
voltage. This effective value is known as the” root mean square value” (RMS) value of the
voltage.
The peak or maximum voltage seen on the scope(fig 2.1b) is V m volts and is
represented by the distance from the symmetry line CD to the maximum deflection . The
relationship between the magnitude of the peak voltage displayed on the scope and the
effective or RMS voltage (VRMS) read on the AC voltmeter is
VRMS=0.707Vm (for sine or cosine wave).
Thus
Vm = VRMS/0.707
12
Set the oscillator to 1000HZ. Display the signal on the CRO and measure the signal of
the oscillations. Use the horizontal distance between two points. Set the horizontal again so
that only one complete waveform is displayed. Then reset the horizontal until 5 waves are
seen. Keep the time base control in a calibrated position. Measure the distance (and hence
time) for 5 complete cycles and calculate the frequency from this measurement.
13
POWER FACTOR METERS Week 4
4.1 Introduction
On measuring the current, voltage and power in a.c circuit ,its power factor can be
calculated from the relationship COSØ=p/IV. The method of determining the power factor of
an electric circuit , is however, of low accuracy and is rarely used in practice. It is obviously
desirable to an instantaneous indication of the power factor of an a.c circuit, especially where
this is varying continuously, without having resource to mathematical calculation of the
readings of several instruments. Power factor meters indicate directly , by a single reading ,
the power factor of the circuit to which they are connected. The accuracy obtained with the
use of p.f meters is sufficient for most purpose other than high precision testing.
Power factor meters like wattmeters have a current circuit and a pressure circuit. The
current circuit the current (or definite fraction of this current) in the circuit whose power
factor is to be measured. The pressure circuit is connected across the circuit whose power is
to be measured and is usually split up into two parallel paths, one inductive and the other non-
inductive. The deflection of the instruments depend upon the phase difference between the
main current and current in two paths of the pressure circuit, i.e upon the phase angle or power
factor at the circuit. The deflection is indicated by a pointer.
The moving system of power factor meters is perfectly balanced at equilibrium by
two opposing forces and therefore there is no need for a controlling devices. Hence when a
power factor meter is disconnected from a circuit the pointer remain at its position which is
occupied at the instant of disconnection.
14
4.2 ELECTRODYNAMIC POWER FACTOR
METERS
The most commonly used power factor meter is the electrodynamic (Dynamometer)
type. The construction of dynamometer power factor meter is shown in figure 4.1.
I1
Fixed coil
Fixed coil
Movable coil
I2 Multiplier Load
R
The diagram in fig.5.0 consist of a fixed coil which acts as the current coil. The coil
is split up into two parts and carries the current of the circuit under test. Therefore the
magnetic field produced by this coil is proportional to the main current. Two identical
pressure coil A and B pointed on a spindle constitute the moving system. Pressure in coil A
non-inductive resistance R connected in series with it, and coil B has a highly inductive
choke coil L connected in series with it. The two coils are connected across the voltage of the
circuit. The value of R and L are so adjusted that the two coils carry the same values of
current at normal frequency, i.e R=WL. The circuit through coil A is in phase with the circuit
voltage while that through coil B lags the voltage by nearly 90o
15
4.2.1 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF
ELECTRODYNAMIC POWER FACTOR METER.
When the load power factor is unity (COS Ø=1); current is in phase with the voltage.
Then I1 is in phase with the voltage. Then I 1 is in phase with I where as I 2 lags behind by
90o.Consequently, a torque will act on coil A which will set its plane perpendicular to the
common magnet axis of fixed coils (F A + FB) i.e. corresponding to the pointer position of
unity p.f. However, there will be no torque acting on coil B. When load power factor is zero,
current (I) lags behind voltage (v) by 90o and I2 will be in phase with I where as I1 will be 90o
out phase. As a result, there will be no torque on coil A but that acting on coil B will bring its
plane perpendicular to the common magnetic axis F 1 and F2. For intermediate values of
power factor, the deflection of the pointer correspond to the load power factor angle Ø or to
COS Ø, if the instrument has been calibrated to read the power factor directly.
For reliable readings the instrument has to be calibrated at the frequency of the supply
on which is to be used. At any other frequency, the reactance of L will be change so that the
magnitude and the phase of current through coil B will be incorrect and that will lead to
serious errors in the instrument readings.
QUESTIONS
1. Draw a simplified diagram for a power factor meter.
2. Briefly explain the principles of operation of it.
16
MEASUREMENT OF POWERANDPOWERWeek 5
FACTOR
5.1 Introduction:
Power in a d.c circuit is calculated by multiplying current and voltage (P =I X V) but
the power in an a.c circuit depends on the phase relationship between current and voltage is
taken into consideration by using a power factor in the calculation of a.c power.
V
P.F = cos
I
90 2700
For the case of sinusoidal waves the power factor of a circuit is said to be leading or
lagging according to whether the current in the circuit leads or lag the applied voltage.
From equation ( 2) above , the power(P=IVCOSØ) in watts is often referred to as the
17
true power. We can also determine true power in a circuit by measuring it with a
wattmeter. A wattmeter is constructed so that it takes into account any phase
difference between current voltage.
Sometimes it is as important to apparent power in a circuit as it is to know the true
power. The “apparent power” is the power that appears to be present when the voltage and
current in a circuit are measured separately. The apparent power, then is the product the of
the voltage and current regardless of the phase angle Ø. Apparent power is calculated by the
formular P=IV
watts. When we look closely at the formular for apparent power and true power
P=IVCOSØ and Papp =IV.
We notice that, the only difference between the two is that the true power includes
COSØ term. Combining these two formulars yields COS Ø = P/Papp
This relationship makes it relatively easy to determine COSØ and thus the phase
relationship between current and voltage. All we need to know is the crrent, the voltage and
the true power.
Example 1
An electric motor draws 18A of current from a 240V source. A wattmeter connected to
the current indicates 3024W. what is the power factor of the circuit.
Solution:
power factor = p/Aapp Papp =IV =18 X 240 =4320VA
Power factor = 3024/4320 = 0.7. Therefore the power factor is 0.7 or 70%
18
R Z
XL
Impedance triangle
Apparent power
(P)
(Papp)
XL
Reactive power triangle (IAR)
Example 2:
A coil having a resistance of 7ohms and an inductance of 31.8MHis connected to
230V, 50HZ supply. Calculate (i)the circuit current (ii)phase angle (iii)power factor
(iv)power consumed
Solution:
XL = 2nFL =2πx50x31.8x10-3 =10ohms Z2= R2+XL2 =72+102 =12.2ohms
(i)I = V/Z =230/12.2 =18.85A
(II)Ø =Tan-1XL/R = tan-110/7 = 550 lag
(iii)power factor (pf) = cosØ = cos55 = 0.573 lag
19
(iv)P=IV COSØ =230 X 18.85 X 0.573 =2484.24W
Example 3:
A 230v , 50HZ a.c supply to a coil of 0.06H inductance and 2.5Ω resistance
connected in series with a 6.8 µf capacitor. Calculate (i) impedance (ii) current (iii) phase
angle between current and voltage (iv) power factor (v) power consumed.
Solution:
XL =2nFL =2π X 50 X 0.06 =18.84Ω
XC =1/2nFC = 106 /2π X 50 X 6.8 =468Ω
X = XL - XC =18.18 -468 =-449.16Ω
(i)√R2 + X2 = √2.52 + -449..162 = 449.2Ω
(II)I =V/Z =230/449.2 =0.512A
(III)Ø =Tan-1X/R = tan-1 -449.16/2.5 =-89.70
The negative sign with Ø shows that current is leading the voltage.
(iv)power factor = cosØ = R/Z = 2.5/449.2 = 0.0056 lead
(v)P= IV COSØ = 230 X 0.152 X 0.0056 = 0.66W.
I reactive
IT = 0.572A
20
WATT METERS Week 6
6.1 Introduction:
A wattmeter as its name implies , measures electric power given to or developed by
an electric apparatus or circuit. A wattmeter is hardly ever required in a dc ciacuit because
power (p =IV) can be easily determined from voltmeter and ammeter readings. However, in
ac circuit, such a computation is generally speaking impossible. It is because in an ac circuit ,
power (p = IV COSØ) depends not only on voltage and current but also on the phase shift
between them. Therefore, a wattmeter is necessary for ac power measurement . The
“wattmeter” is an indicating type instruments, generally used for power measurement of the
electrical circuit. There are two principal type of wattmeters VIZ:
6.2.1 Construction:
When dynamometer instrument is used as a wattmeter, the fixed coil are connected in
series with the load and carry the load current( I 1) while the moving coil is connected across
the load through a series multiplier Rand carries a current (I 2 ) proportional to the load
voltage as shown in fig 6.1. The fixed coil (or coils) is called the current coil and the movable
coil is known as
21
I1
Fixed coil
Fixed coil
Movable coil
I2 Multiplier Load
R
potential coil. The controlling coil is provided by two spiral spring which also serve the
additional purpose of leading current into out of the moving coil. Air friction damping is
provided in such instruments. A pointer is attached to the movable coil.
6.2.2 Operation:
When the wattmeter is connected in the circuit to measure power (see fig 6.1), the
current coil carries the load current and potential coil carries current proportional to the load
voltage. Due to currents in the coils, mechanical force exists between them. The result is that
movable coil moves the pointer over the scale. The pointer comes to rest at a position where
deflecting torque is equal to controlling torque. Reversal of current reverses currents in both
the fixed coils and the movable coil so that the direction of deflecting torque remains
unchanged . Hence, such instruments can be used for the measurement of d.c as well as a.c
power.
22
Since I2 is directly proportional to v, therefore deflecting torque, Td a VI1 a load power.
(ii)Consider that the wattmeter is connected in a.c circuit to measure power .
Suppose
at any instant , current through the load is I and voltage across the load is V.
Current
I1 coil
Potential coil
V
R
Load
I2
V = VM Sin8
I =IM sin(8-Ø)
Instantaneous deflecting torque a VI
The pointer cannot follow the rapid changes in the instantaneous power owing to the
large inertia of the moving system. Hence the instruments indicates the mean
oType equation here.r average power.
Therefore, average deflecting torque , Td a average of VI over a cycle.
2n
Td α 1/2πf vNSin8 x INSin(8 — Ø)d8
0
2n VNINSin8 sin(8 — Ø) d8
a 1/2πf 0
2n
a VmIm/2πf sin8 sin(8 — Ø) d8
0
2n
a VmIm/2πf COSØ — COS(28 — Ø)d8
0
23
a VmIm/4π[8COSØ — sin (28 — Ø)/2]
24
a Vm/√2 · Im/√2
COSØ a=VI COSØ
@Td a load power
Thus weather the instrument is used to measure dc or ac power, deflecting torque is
proportional to load power (true power).
Since the instrument is spring controlled, Tc a 8
In the steady position of deflection Td = Tc
@ 8 a load power. Hence such instruments have uniform scale.
6.4.1 Disadvantages:
(i) At low power factors, the inductance of the potential coils causes serious errors
unless special precautions are taken to reduce this effect.
(ii) The readings of the instrument may be affected by strong magnetic fields. In order
to prevent it, the instrument is shielded from the external magnetic fields by enclosing it with
a soft-iron case.
6.4.2 Errors:
Following the errors of dynamometer wattmeter.
(i) The inductance of the moving (or voltage)coil causes errors, which cam be avoided
to some extent by connecting a high non-inductive resistance in series with the coil.
(ii) Errors due to voltage drop in the circuit.
(iii)Errors due to current taken by the voltage coil.
(iv)Errors due to capacitance in potential coil circuit.
(v)Errors due to stray fields.
25
(vi)Errors due to eddy currents.
Example 1:
A dynamometer type wattmeter with its voltage coil connected across the load sides reads
192w. The load voltage is 208v and the resistance of the potential coil circuit is 3825Ω,
calculate (i)True load power (ii) percentage errorto wattmeter connection.
Solution:
Wattmeter reading =192w
Power taken by potential circuit =V2/R
=2082/3825 = 11.3w
(i)True load power = 192 – 11.3 = 180. 7w
(ii)percentage error = 192 – 180.7/180.7 x 100 = 6.25%
Example 2:
A dynamometer type wattmeter with its voltage coil connected across the load side of the
instrument reads 250w. If the load voltage is 200v, what power is being taken by load? The
voltage coil branch has a resistance of 2000Ω.
Solution:
Power consumed by voltage coil is =V2/R
2002/2000
@Power being taken by load = 250 – 20 = 230w
Example 3:
The resistance of the two coils of a wattmeter are 0.01Ωand 1000Ω respectively and both are
non-inductive. The load is taken a current of 20A at 200V and 0.8 p.f lagging. Show the two
ways in which the voltage coil can connected and find the error in the reading of the meter in
each case.
Solution:
Load power = IVCOSØ = 200 X 20 X 0.8 = 3200W
(I) Consider the connection shown below
Power loss in current coil = I2 RC = 202 X 0.01 = 4W
@ Wattmeter reading = 3200 + = 3204w
26
Percentage error = 40/3200 x 100 = 1.25%
The figure below shows the two ways of connecting the voltage coil of the wattmeter.
QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by wattmeter.
2. Mention the two measure types of wattmeter.
3. Draw and explain the construction of dynamometer wattmeter.
27
POWERMEASUREMENT CIRCUIT
IN THREEPHASEWeek 7
7.1 Introduction:
The following methods are available for measuring power in a 3-phase load (STAR
OR DELTA CONNECTED).
7.2 THREE- WATTMETER METHOD
In this method , three watt meters connected in such away that each has its current
coil in one line and its potential coil between that line and some common point. The algebraic
sum of the readings of the three wattmeters give the total power consumed whether the load
is balanced or not. If neutral wire is available, the common point should be at the neutral
wire.
L3
L1
W20Y
L2
0B
28
W1
R
L1
L1
L3 L2
B W2
Y
W3
It can be shown mathematically that algebraic sum of their readings gives the total power
consumed whether the load is balanced or not i.e Total power = w 1 + w2 +w3
7.3 TWO-WATTMETER METHOD
In this method, the current coils of the two watt wattmeters are connected in any two
lines and the potential coil of each joined to the third line. The algebraic sum of their readings
gives the total power consumed whether the load is balance or not. If the neutral wire is
available, it should carry no current or else the neutral of the load should be isolated from the
neutral of the source.
R 0R
IR L 1
L3 L1
IB Iy
B Y 0Y
0B
29
R 0R
IRL1
L3 L1
IB Iy
B Y 0Y
0B
It can be proved that the sum of the instantaneous power indicated by W 1 and W2
gives the instantaneous power absorbed by the three loads L 1, L2 and L3. The star connected
load is considered in the following discussion , although it can equally applied to a delta
connection load because a delta connected load can always be replaced by an equivalent Y-
connected load.
Now before we consider the current through and p.d across each wattmeter, it may be
pointed out that it is important to take the direction of the voltage through the circuit is the
same as that taken for the current when establishing the reading of the two wattmeter.
Instantaneous current through WL = Ir
Instantaneous p.d across W1 = eRB = eR - eB
Instantaneous power read by w1 = Ir(eR - eB )
Instantaneous current through w2 = iY
Instantaneous p.d across w2 = eYB = eY – eB
Instantaneous power read by w2 = Iy(eY –eB)
@ W1 + W2 = iR(eR – eB) + iY(eY – eB)
=iReR – iReB + iYey - iyeB
IReR + iYeY – Eb (iR + Iy)
Now iR + iY + iB = 0.........................................................................................kirchoff’s
point law
@ iR + iY = —Ib
W1 + W2 = iReR + iYeY + iBeB = P1 + P2 + P3
30
Where p1 is the power absorbed by load L1
P2 is that absorbed by load L2
P3 is absorbed by load L3
W1 + W2 = Total power absorbed
This proof is true whether the load is balanced or unbalanced. If the load is Y
connected, then it should have no neutral connection (i.e.3-Ø , 3-wire connected) and if it has
a neutral connection (i.e. 3- Ø, 4-wire connected), then it should be exactly balanced so that
in each case there is no neutral current iN, otherwise kirchoff’s point law will give iN + iR +
iY + iB = 0.
30
=VLIL(2COS30oCOSØ)= √3 VLILCOSØ = the total power in the three phase
load
Hence the sum of the two wattmeter readings give the total power consumption in the
three phase load.
Example
A three phase generator has 15000V and 400Aat 0.9 power factor. Find the power in
kilowatt if it is star Y connected.
Solution
P= √3 VLILCOSØ
QUESTIONS
1. Draw a simplified diagram for a three phase wattmeter two elements. Label the parts.
2. Three phase induction motor operating at 415V and draw a current of 8A at power
factor of 0.85. Find
a. The power consumed in kilowatts.
b. The apparent power in KVA
3. Find the line current of a three phase star connected balanced load, if the operating
voltage is 2400Vwith 400KW at 0.9 power factor.
31
ONE WATTMETER METHOD Week 8
8.1 Introduction:
The method can be used only when load is balanced, the power in any phase can be
measured by a single wattmeter. The total circuit power can be measured by a single
wattmeter. The total circuit power is given by multiplying the wattmeter reading by three.
This method can only be used if the load is balanced. For the shown in fig. below, the current
coil is connected in one of the lines and one two lines. The phasor diagram is shown in fig,
below.
32
Fig. 8.1.1 phasor diagram of one wattmeter method.
33
8.2.2 Balanced Load Leading Power Factor
In the above discussion, lagging angles are taken positive. Now we will see how
wattmeter reading are changed if the power factor becomes leading.
For Ø = + 60(lag), W2 is zero. But for Ø = —60°(lead). W1 is zero so, we find that for
angles of lead, the reading of the two wattmeter are inter-changed. Hence, for a leading
power factor
W1 = VLIL COS(30° + Ø)
W2 =VLILCOS(30° — Ø)
@W1 + W2 =VLILCOSØ
W1 –W2 = -VLIL sinØ
Then tanØ = — 3 M1 –M2
√ M1+M2
Example 1
A 220V has a full load output of 10hp, the power factor being 0.8. Full load efficiency
82%. Find the reading on each of the two wattmeter connected to measure the input.
Solution
Output = 10 x 746 = 7460W
Input = 7460/0.82 = 9100W
QUESTIONS
1. Draw a simplified diagram of one wattmeter method.
2. Derive an expression for the balanced load lagging power factor meter
34
INSTRUMENTS SELECTION AND SPECIFICATION Week 9
9.1 Introduction:
The considerations for selecting an instrument may be regarded as falling into two
categories: either an engineer is selecting the most suitable instrument from those within a
department or establishment to perform a particular measurement, or he is undertaking the
purchase of a new instrument to perform a particular measurement and possibly at the same
time extend the measurement capabilities of the department or establishment in which he
works. Many of the criteria in selecting an instrument are the same, whether an engineer is
selecting an instrument off the shelf or purchasing new equipment.
The general criteria for selecting an instrument may be summarized by the following
factors, which although it will be more suitable when considering a moderately sophisticated
instrument, could prove valuable as a guide in selecting the right instrument on every
occasion.
35
(b) Accuracy:
This is the closeness in which an instrument approaches the true of the quantity being
measured.
(i) what is the accuracy required in the measurement?
(ii) Is the same accuracy required over the entire range of measurement?
(iii)What is the maximum tolerance acceptable?
(iv)Is the resolution of the instrument consistent with its specified errors?
(c) Response:
This is when the quantity being measured changes with time.
(i)What response time is required?
(ii)What bandwidth is required?
(III)For a.c instruments, to what aspect of the waveform should the instrument respond i.e
peak, mean or r.m.s values?
(iv)For auto range (for example d.v.m) instruments must include the time for range and
polarity changes.
(d) Stability:
(i) what is the maximum acceptable time between calibration?
(ii)Is the instrument to be operated unattended for a long period.
(iii)Is there a built in calibration system?
(e) Reliability:
(i) What is the required reliability?
(ii) What will be the consequences of failure , and will a standby instrument be required?
(iii)What are the maintenance requirements and will any special equipment be required?
(iv)Are there any cost limitations on the choice of instrument?
(f) Sensitivity:
(i) Is the quantity being measured floating or has it one side earthed?
(ii)Are there likely to be stray electromagnetic or electrostatic fields?
(iii)What are the required common mode and normal mode rejection ration ratio?
On the completion of the above factors for a particular application, the derived specifications
for the desired instrument may not be possible in practical terms, and a compromise between
that which is available within an organization, or can be afforded, will have to be adopted.
If a new instrument is to be purchased , it is essentially to ensure that a “right” instrument is
being purchased. This is particularly relevant, if the instrument is for a permanent installation
although it may be considered as good practice to purchased to a slightly higher
36
specifications if proposed instrument is for used in a laboratory where the measurement
requirement may change with experience and time.
QUESTIONs
1. List the important factors in selecting an instruments
2. Explain the following,
(i) Range
(ii) Accuracy
(iii) Response
(iv) Sensitivity
(v) reliability
37
IMPORTANCE OF INSTRUMENTS IN INDUSTRIES Week 10
10.1 INTRODUCTION:
Measurement can be defined as finding the size, unit, standard, device or system used for
obtaining action taken for a purpose. Many instruments have been invented to measure the
following importance of instrument listed below, with different advantages and
disadvantages. Instruments are of different ranges and cost all vary by several orders of
magnitude from one instrument design to the next.
1 Instrumentation plays a significant role in both gathering information from the field
and changing field parameters, and as such are a key part of control loops.
2 Instrumentation can be used to measure certain field parameters (physical values):
such as pressure, either differential or static, flow.
3 In addition to measuring field parameters, information is also responsible for
providing the ability to modify some field parameters.
38
predicts measurement with great accuracy. Measurement is also essential in industry,
commerce, engineering, construction, manufacturing, pharmaceutical production, and
electronics. The following factors are also important of measurement in an industry.
(a) Pressure
(b)Temperature
(C)Level
(d)Flow rate
(e)Density
(f)Viscosity
(g)Humidity
39
QUESTIONS
1. Explain the importance of instruments in industries.
2. List the important measurement in industries.
40
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT Week 11
11.1 Introduction:
Temperature is a physical quantity which determines the direction of flow of heat
when two bodies are placed in contact. It can be defined as that which measures the degree of
hotness or coldness of a body. A thermometer is an instrument used to measure the
temperature of a body. For it to be used as temperature measuring instrument:
(i) It must posses certain physical quantities that will be to change continuously with
temperature and
(ii) Its physical nature must not change as a result of an increase in temperature.
11.3.2Common Thermometers:
These are thermometers that use the expansion of a liquid to indicate temperature
rise. Example are liquid-in-glass thermometers: mercury-in-glass thermometer, maximum
and minimum thermometers.
41
11.4 Importance of temperature measurement
The existence of the different types of thermometer comes from taking advantage of the
responsiveness of certain physical properties to change in temperature. Areas used of such
physical properties to slight change in temperature are in:
(i) Expansion of liquid due to increase in temperature e.g. liquid in glass
thermometer.
(ii) Expansion of gas volume at constant pressure e.g. gas thermometer.
(iii) Change in electric resistance of a metal such as platinum e.g. resistance
thermometer.
(iv) Change in electric current generated by a thermocouple e.g. thermoelectric
thermometer.
(v) Difference in expansion of the two metals that make up a bimetallic strip, e.g.
bimetallic thermometer.
42
sensor and the surface level. Through constant updating of received signals, the
microprocessor calculate average values to measure liquid level.
With a continuous sensor, the microprocessor converts the average value to an analog
4 to 20MA signal linear with the liquid level. When the echo from the level does not return to
the sensor within 8 seconds, the output signal from the system drops below 4MA, indicating a
low level condition or empty pipe. With a point sensor, the microprocessor compares the
average value with BCD switch setting and energizes an output relay for either high or low
level indication. A signal loss exceeding 8 second de-energizes the relays and restores their
original states. The electronics incorporate a half second delay that minimizes surface
turbulence effects.
With the wide variety of approaches to level measurement and as many as 163
suppliers offering one or more types of level measuring instrument, identifying the right one
for your application can be difficult. In recent years, technologist that capitalized on
microprocessor developments have stood out from the pack. For example, the tried true
technique of measuring the head of a liquid has gained new life thanks to “smart” differential
pressure (DP) transmitters.
QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by temperature measurement?
2. State the classes of thermometers.
3. How can we obtain level measurement?
43
FLOWRATE MEASUREMENT Week 12
12.1 Introduction:
Increasing industrialization and population growth has caused tremendous
contamination of surface water during the last decades. As a consequence, the laws regarding
environmental protection have been tightened in many countries. To fulfill this regulations
means increasing the number and the efficiency of waste water treatment plants. Today is
necessary to use ongoing treatment processes and control them by means of measurement and
control systems. In service monitoring has become more extensive and diverse. Waste water
treatment not only includes operating. Supervising, servicing and repairing equipment, it also
involves the key topics of operational flow, monitoring and controlling, measuring,
analyzing, recording and evaluating. This ensures that the key processes, the reduction of
hydrocarbons, of nitrate, ammonium and phosphates and carried out in a most efficient way
in a large as well as in small treatment plants.
The driving factor in today’s investment in waste water treatment most be cost
reduction. The only way to maintain high standards while reducing costs is to invest in highly
sophisticated measurement and process control technology, ideally from a supplier offering
the whole basket of instrument.
44
12.3 Viscosity measurement
The viscosity of the coating fluid is important rheological property, which will be
accurately measured, and controlled during the development of the product and in
manufacturing. This will insure optimum quality and a reproducible cost effective
manufacturing process.
A fluid is defined as substance that undergoes irreversible deformation when subject
to a steady state shear or tensile stress. The viscosity is a parameter to characterize this
deformation and is a measure of the resistance of the solution to flow under mechanical
stress. High viscosity solution will deform and flow rapidly with a minimum of force. For
example, water has a low viscosity and will flow readily out of glass under normal gravity
forces, whereas molasses, a high viscosity material, will take a long time to flow from a glass.
Why is it important to understand viscosity? Because viscosity is central to the
performance of lubricated machinery, such as your car.
If you use high- viscosity engine oil in your car, the oil puddles in your driveway will
be smaller, but your engine will run hotter and it probably won’t start on a cold
winter morning.
If you use low viscosity engine oil in your car, the position rings may wear out in a
few thousand miles, the crankshaft bearings may seize and the puddles in your drive
will amaze your neighbors!
As we said, the simplest definition of viscosity is resistance to flow. Sir Isaac Newton
defined it as “the resistance that arises from lack of slipperiness in a fluid.” Cold maple syrup
is thick and not slippery, but cold water is thin and slippery.
The importance of characterizing the viscosity behavior over a wider range of shear rates is
that there are a wide variety of shear rates in the coating and ancillary processes process.
Therefore, the behavior needs to determined to insure compatibility.
45
-Level of coating after application.
Routing measurements of viscosity prior to coating should be part of the normal
quality control determine the source of the problem.
QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by density measurement?
2. What are the importance of viscosity in industry?
46
HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT Week 13
13.1 INTRODUCTION:
Humidity measurement instruments and transducers test absolute humidity, relative
humidity, or dew point in air. The range humidity measurement instruments operator in is
typically from 0 to 100% humidity. They are sometimes combined with other sensing devices
such as temperature sensors.
Humidity measurement instruments and sensors can sense a number of different
factors. Absolute humidity, expressed as grams of water vapor per cubic meter volume of air,
regardless of the air’s temperature. Relative humidity (RH), express as percent, also measures
water vapor, but also relative to the temperature of the air. The dew point temperature , which
provides a measure of the actual amount of water vapor in the air, is the temperature to which
the air must be cooled in for that air to be saturated and dew to form. Because of the
intertwining of atmospheric measurements, humidity measurement instruments are
sometimes equipped with pressure and temperature sensors as well. Three main application s
for humidity measurement are judging moisture in gas or air, bulk solids or powders, or else
if fuels or other liquids.
There are many technologies for humidity measurement instruments. Capacitive or
dielectric instruments have a material that absorbs moisture, which changes it dielectric
properties and enhance its capacitance. Chilled mirror technology uses a mirror that is chilled
to the point that moisture starts to condense on it. The temperature is the dew point. With
electrolytic technology, moisture is proportional to the current needed to electrolyze it from a
desiccant. For resistivity or impedance style sensors, a material absorbs moisture , which
changes its resistivity or impedance. In strain gauge instruments, a material absorbs water,
expands and is measured with a strain gauge. Psychrometers, often called wet/dry bulbs,
measure relative humidity by gauging the temperature difference between two thermometers,
one wet and one dry.
One critical specification for these devices is the humidity for moisture range to be
measured or else the dew point range. Humidity and moisture accuracy is expressed in terms
of percentage of measurement. The dew point accuracy, since this is a temperature reading,
express as a variance in temperature output.
Outputs from humidity measurement instruments can be analog current, voltage, or
frequency ; digital, including computer signals; or a switch of alarm. They can have analog,
47
digital or video type displays and can have a number of different form factors. They can be
PCB-amount devices, standard sensors or transducers, or a simple gauge or indicator. They
can also be various types of instruments, whether handheld, bench top or mounted.
In addition to pressure and temperature compensation, humidity measurement
instruments can have a number of features to make them more useful or easier to use. These
can include data logging, event triggering, self testing, self calibration, and battery power.
QUESTION
Explain the importance of humidity measurement in an industry.
48
Week 14
ELECTRICAL/ELECT.INSTRUMENTS
14.1 Introduction:
Electrical energy is being used in the manufacture of many commodities. In order to
ensure quality and efficiency, it is important that we should be able to measure accurately the
electrical quantities involved. The instruments used to measure electrical quantities (e.g.
current, voltage power, energy etc.) are called electrical instruments. These instruments are
generally made after the electrical quantity to be measured. Thus the instruments which
measure which measure current, voltage, power and energy are called ammeter, voltmeter,
wattmeter and energy meter respectively. The accuracy, convenience and reliability of
electrical instruments.
49
These are instruments used to control a varying system at a fixed value or range. The
instruments serve as a component of an automatic control system.
(ii)Dynamometer type
3. Electromagnetic induction ………. Induction type instruments
4. Thermal effect ………. Hot wire instruments
5. Chemical effect ………. Electrolytic instruments
6. Electrostatic effect ………. Electrostatic instruments
QUESTIONS
1. List and explain the three major classes of instruments.
2. Explain the principles of operation of an electrical instruments.
50
3.
15.1 Introduction:
An indicating instrument essentially consists of moving system pivoted in jewel
bearings. A pointer is attached to the moving system which indicates on a graduated scale,
the value of electrical quantity being measured. In order to ensure proper operation of
indicating instruments, the following three torques are required:
(i) Deflecting (or operating) torque
(ii) Controlling (or restoring) torque
(iii) Damping torque
The deflecting torque is produced by utilizing the various effects of electric current or
voltage and causes the moving system (and hence the pointer) to move from zero position.
The controlling torque is provided by spring or gravity and opposes the deflecting torque.
The pointer comes to rest at a position where these two opposing torque are equal. The
damping torque is provided by air friction or eddy currents. It ensures that the pointer comes
to the final position without oscillations, thus enabling accurate and quick readings to be
taken.
51
(or voltage or power) to be measured. This necessitates to provide some form of controlling
or opposing torque (Tc). This controlling torque should oppose the deflecting torque and
should increase with the deflection of the moving system. The pointer will be brought to rest
at a position where the two opposing torque are equal i.e. Td = Tc. The controlling torque
performs two functions:
(i) It increase with the deflection of the moving system so that the final position of
the pointer on the scale will be according to the magnitude of current (or voltage
or power) to be measured.
(ii) It brings the pointer back to zero position when the deflecting torque is removed.
If it were not provided, the pointer once deflected would not return to zero
position removing the deflecting torque.
QUESTIONS
1. What are the essentials of indicating instruments? Hence explain at least two.
52