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WHAT IS AI?
 AI is one of the newest disciplines. It was formally initiated in 1956, when the name
was coined, although at that point work had been under way for about five years.
 It is the development of computer systems that are capable of performing task that
normally require human intelligence, such as decision making, object detection,
solving complex problems and so on.
 The study of intelligence is also one of the oldest disciplines.
 Show the figure: Definitions of artificial intelligence according to eight recent
textbooks are shown in Figure 1.1. These definitions vary along two main dimensions.
The ones on top are concerned with thought processes and reasoning, whereas the
ones on the bottom address behavior. Also, the definitions on the left measure
success in terms of human performance, whereas the ones on the right measure
against an ideal concept of intelligence, which we will call rationality.
 A system is rational if it does the right thing.
ACTING HUMANLY
 The Turing Test - the test he proposed is that the computer should be interrogated by
a human via a teletype, and passes the test if the interrogator cannot tell if there is a
computer or a human at the other end Both human and machine try to act like a
human, and the Judge tries to tell which is which.
 The issue of acting like a human comes up primarily when AI programs have to
interact with people, as when an expert system explains how it came to its diagnosis,
or a natural language processing system has a dialogue with a user. These programs
must behave according to certain normal conventions of human interaction in order
to make themselves understood.
THINKING HUMANLY: THE COGNITIVE MODELLING APPROACH
 What is cognition - the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and
understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.
 If we are going to say that a given program thinks like a human, we must have some
way of determining how humans think.
 We can do this through introspection and psychological experiments.
 Introspection means self-examination, analyzing yourself, looking at your own
personality and actions, and considering your own motivations. An example of
introspection is when you meditate to try to understand your feelings.
 Psychological experiments mean conducting experiments to test hypothesis.
example: The Standford Prison Study
 If the program's input/output and timing behavior matches human behavior, that is
evidence that some of the program's mechanisms may also be operating in humans.
 Programs were not content to have their program correctly solve problems. They
were more concerned with comparing the trace of its reasoning steps to traces of
human subjects solving the same problems.
  The interdisciplinary field of cognitive science brings together computer models from
AI and experimental techniques from psychology to try to construct precise and
testable theories of the workings of the human mind.
THINKING RATIONALLY: THE LAWS OF THOUGHT APPROACH
During the formal development of logic, it shows or provides a precise notation for all
statements about all kinds of things in the world. Program exist that could give a logical
notation and find solution to the problem BUT this logicist approach has one problem since
it is not easy to take informal knowledge such as personal experiences and state it into
formal statements that required logical notation in order to solve it. Second, there isa big
difference between solving a problem “in principle” and solving it in practice
ACTING RATIONALLY
 Rational – reason out with logical explanation
 Inference means - a conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning.
 Making correct inferences is sometimes part of being a rational agent, because one
way to act rationally is to reason logically to the conclusion that a given action will
achieve one's goals, and then to act on that conclusion.
 For example, pulling one's hand off of a hot stove is a reflex action that is more
successful than a slower action taken after careful deliberation.
 One important point to keep in mind: we will see before too long that achieving
perfect rationality—always doing the right thing—is not possible in complicated
environments.
THE FOUNDATIONS OF AI
Although AI itself is a young field,
it has inherited many ideas, viewpoints, and techniques from other disciplines
From over 2000years of tradition in philosophy, theories of reasoning and learning have
emerged, along with the viewpoint that the mind is constituted by the operation of a
physical system. From over 400 years of mathematics, we have formal theories of logic,
probability, decision making, and computation. From psychology, we have the tools with
which to investigate the human mind, and a scientific language within which to express the
resulting theories. From linguistics, we have theories of the structure and meaning of
language. Finally, from computer science, we have the tools with which to make AI a reality.
PSYCHOLOGY
1. ARISTOTLE SYLLOGISM – LOGIC
a. Major Premise, Minor Premise and Conclusion.
Example. Major Premise: All men are mortal, Minor Premise: Socrates is a man,
Conclusion: therefore, Socrates is mortal.
In Mathematical equation, this could be represented as: Major Premise: All A is
B,
Minor Premise: All C is A, Conclusion: Therefore, All C is B.
b. Aristotle did not believe all parts of the mind were governed by logical
processes; he also had a notion of intuitive reason. When we discussed Science
in section three, Aristotle said that science was the ability to get at the truth
about invariable/eternal things by using demonstrable logical processes like
induction and syllogism, starting with things you already know. In order to
 bootstrap this process, you must already know something invariable and
eternal — something that you couldn’t have acquired by Science. Aristotle says
that Intuition is how we get our original “first principles” from which we can
begin using Science to derive the rest of our knowledge about
invariable/eternal facts.

2. Rene Descartes – Dualism: The mind and body are different entities. Matter, spatial –
Body. Mental and non-spatial is the mind. But the mind does impact body. Mind and
body work in parallel level at the same time. Intuition. He held that there is a part of
the mind (or soul or spirit) that is outside of nature, exempt from physical laws. An
alternative to dualism is materialism, which holds that all the world (including the
brain and mind) operates according to physical law.
3. Empiricism - "Nothing is in the understanding, which was not first in the senses”. A
philosophical view that holds the view that knowledge is derived from experience.
John Locke says that all knowledge begins with experience and that the mind is like a
blank sheet (tabula rasa) that the human person fills with ideas as she experiences
the world through her five external senses. Experience in Philosophy specifically and
exclusively referring to sensory experience. Through 5 external senses, there is a
relationship between subject and object.
4. Induction – give fair amount of general information to arrive in specific conclusion.
Using past experience to make future predictions.  is the process of reasoning in
which the premises of an argument support the conclusion, but do not ensure it. or
to formulate laws based on limited observations of recurring phenomenal patterns. 
Example: A billiard ball moves when struck with a cue. For every action, there is an
equal and opposite reaction.
All observed crows are black.
Therefore, all crows are black.
This exemplifies the nature of induction: inducing the universal from the particular.
And clearly the conclusion is not certain. Unless we've seen every crow - and how do
we know that? - maybe there are some rare blue ones.
5. Logical positivism. This doctrine holds that all knowledge can be characterized by
logical theories connected, ultimately, to observation sentences that correspond to
sensory inputs.7
6. The confirmation theory of Rudolf Carnap and Carl Hempel attempted to establish
the nature of the connection between the observation sentences and the more
general theories—in other words, to understand how knowledge can be acquired
from experience.

MATHEMATICS
1. ALGORITHM – An algorithm is a set of instructions that describes how to get
something done. Algorithms are usually built on logic in order to make logical
decision. But logic and algorithm are not the same term. 
Logic is a formal description of your reasoning. Algorithm is a formal description of
steps required to achieve some goal. You could think of a recipe used in cooking as
 some kind of algorithm. Making decision what to cook would be logic. So, you cannot
easily separate the logic and algorithm. Because making the logical decision can
easily involve another series of steps needed to arrive to your conclusion.
In 1879, Gottlob Frege produced a logic that, except for some notational changes,
forms the first-order logic that is used today as the most basic knowledge
representation system.
First-order logic - This is all about representing the language that we know in a way
that the computer can do something with it.
a. It is a collection of formal systems used in mathematics, philosophy, linguistics,
and computer science. First-order logic uses quantified variables over (non-
logical) objects. It allows the use of sentences that contain variables, so that
rather than propositions such as Socrates is a man one can have expressions in
the form X is a man where X is a variable
2. INCOMPLETENESS THEORIMS – Godel states that there can be true statements
about numbers which you can never prove are true. Examples, Prime numbers can go
on forever as what is stated in Euclid’s infinite primes theorem but there are other
statements in prime that we’re not really sure if they are true or not for example, we
have twin primes the 17 and 19, but we don’t know if there are infinitely many of
these primes, and we should prove that it is true but maybe there is not proof, and
this is godel theory. Long before, it is said that any true statement about numbers
should have a proof, logically argue that it is true. But Godel show that mathematics
has limitations, within any systems for mathematics there will be true statements
about numbers that don’t have a proof.
Show in slide: His incompleteness theorem showed that in any language expressive
enough to describe the properties of the natural numbers, there are true
statements that are undecidable: their truth cannot be established by any
algorithm. This fundamental result can also be interpreted as showing that there
are some functions on the integers that cannot be represented by an algorithm—
that is, they cannot be computed.
INCLUDE IN THE SLIDE: A reduction is a general transformation from one class of problems
to another, such that solutions to the first class can be found by reducing them to problems
of the second class and solving the latter problems

3. NP COMPLETENESS - The complexity class of problems of this form is called NP, an

abbreviation for "nondeterministic polynomial time". A problem is said to be NP-hard
if everything in NP can be transformed in polynomial time into it, and a problem is
NP-complete if it is both in NP and NP-hard.
Complexity theory is about grouping problems together based on their difficulty. And
trying to figure out the core of what it makes problems the way they are. Some of the
groups that we’ve looked at in the past where P, NP and EXPTIME. P as easy
problems, NP as might be hard, and EXPTIME are problems that definitely hard. NP
Problems are may or may not hard to solve but are easy to check if the solution is
correct, we called this as unknown difficulty. NP completeness, these problems
represents the essence of the class NP. A problem is an NP Complete if it is the
 hardest problem in NP. We can prove a problem is np complete by demonstrating
that it is both in NP and something called NP hard or at least as hard as any other
problem in NP. P vs NP is bound in NP complete problem.
The P versus NP problem is a major unsolved problem in computer science. It asks
whether every problem whose solution can be quickly verified can also be solved
quickly.
If P=NP then NP Complete problems are in P and if NP complete problems are in P
then P equals NP .By definition any NP complete problems can be used to solve any
problems in NP thus if an NP complete problems is easy all of NP is easy. Conversely
if NP is easy then NP complete problems must be easy since they are part of NP. This
relationship is important because to solve P vs NP we only need to focus on single NP
complete problems as opposed to the giant set as a whole.

A mathematical expression that involves N’s and N2s and N’s raised to other powers
is called a polynomial, and that’s what the “P” in “P = NP” stands for. P is the set of
problems whose solution times are proportional to polynomials involving N's.

4. DECISION THEORY - Decision theory (or the theory of choice) is the study of the
reasoning underlying an agent's choices. Decision theory can be broken into two
branches: normative decision theory, which gives advice on how to make the best
decisions, given a set of uncertain beliefs and a set of values; and descriptive decision
theory, which analyzes how existing, possibly irrational agents actually make
decisions.
PSYCHOLOGY
1. BEHAVIORISM - John Watson (1878-1958) aid Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949)
rebelled against this subjectivism, rejecting any theory involving mental processes on
the grounds that introspection could not provide reliable evidence. Behaviorists
insisted on studying only objective measures of the percepts (or stimulus) given to an
animal and its resulting actions (or response). Mental constructs such as knowledge,
beliefs, goals, md reasoning steps were dismissed as unscientific "folk psychology."
A psychological theory that claims all mental states can be reduced to statements
of observable behaviors. In learning theory, the claim is all learning is based on a
stimulus-response relationship.
Note: A theory or doctrine that emphasizes the subjective elements in experience.
Any of various theories holding that the only valid standard of judgment is that of the
individual. For example, ethical subjectivism holds that individual conscience is the
only appropriate standard for moral judgment.
Behaviorist believe that people don’t have free will our surrounding and
environment determine our behavior. We all act depending on our environment
Example: motivation by giving reward and punishment. An example of behaviorism is
when teachers reward their class or certain students with a party or special treat at
the end of the week for good behavior throughout the week. The same concept is
used with punishments. The teacher can take away certain privileges if the student
misbehaves.
 2. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY - A mental model is an explanation of someone's thought
process about how something works in the real world. It is a representation of the
surrounding world, the relationships between its various parts and a person's
intuitive perception about his or her own acts and their consequences. Mental
models can help shape behavior and set an approach to solving problems (akin to a
personal algorithm) and doing tasks.
Example: Making a judgment about something based on information you received
that your brain processes.
An agent designed this way can, for example, plan a long trip by considering various
possible routes, comparing them, and choosing the best one, all before starting the
journey. Since the 1960s, the information-processing view has dominated
psychology.

COMPUTER ENGINEERING – Development of Machines (timeline)

1. The first operational modern computer was the Heath Robinson,10 built in 1940 by
Alan Turing's team for the single purpose of deciphering German messages.
2. When Robinson proved to be too slow, Colossus was built from vacuum tubes. It was
completed in 1943, and by the end of the war, ten Colossus machines were in
everyday use.
3. The first operational programmable computer was the Z-3, the invention of Konrad
Zuse in Germany in 1941.
4. 1945 developed Plankalkul, the first high-level programming language.
5. the first electronic computer, the ABC, was assembled by John Atanasoff and his
graduate student Clifford Berry between 1940 and 1942 at Iowa State University
6. Two other computer projects were started as secret military research: the Mark I, If,
and III computers were developed at Harvard by a team under Howard Aiken
7. ENIAC was developed at the University of Pennsylvania by a team including John
Mauchly and John Eckert. ENIAC was the first general-purpose, electronic, digital
computer.
8. the EDVAC, followed John Von Neumann's suggestion to use a stored program, so
that technicians would not have to scurry about changing patch cords to run a new
program.
9. the most critical breakthrough was the IBM 701, built in 1952 by Nathaniel Rochester
and his group.
Each generation of computer hardware has brought an increase in speed and
capacity, and a decrease in price. Computer engineering has been remarkably
successful, regularly doubling performance every two years, with no immediate end
in sight for this rate of increase. Massively parallel machines promise to add several
more zeros to the overall throughput achievable.
LINGUISTICS
 Chomsky showed how the behaviorist theory did not address the notion of creativity
in language—it did not explain how a child could understand and make up sentences
 that he or she had never heard before. Chomsky's theory—based on syntactic models
going back to the Indian linguist Panini (c. 350 B.C.)—could explain this, and unlike
previous theories, it was formal enough that it could in principle be programmed.
 knowledge representation (the study of how to put knowledge into a form that a
computer can reason with) was tied to language and informed by research in
linguistics, which was connected in turn to decades of work on the philosophical
analysis of language.
 Modern linguistics and AI were "born" at about the same time, so linguistics does not
play a large foundational role in the growth of AI. Instead, the two grew up together,
intersecting in a hybrid field called computational linguistics or natural language
processing, which concentrates on the problem of language use.
 This means that understanding language requires an understanding of the subject
matter and context, not just an understanding of the structure of sentences.
 Computational linguistics is used in instant machine translation, speech recognition
(SR) systems, text-to-speech (TTS) synthesizers, interactive voice response (IVR)
systems, search engines, text editors and language instruction materials.