Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2667–2676

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Finite element modeling of hollow and concrete-filled fiber composite tubes

in flexure: Optimization of partial filling and a design method for poles
Amir Fam a,∗ , Je-Kuk Son b
a Canada Research Chair in Innovative and Retrofitted Structures, Department of Civil Engineering, 58 University Ave.,
Ellis Hall, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada, K7L 3N6
b Department of Civil Engineering, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada, K7L 3N6

Received 7 August 2007; received in revised form 11 January 2008; accepted 24 February 2008
Available online 22 April 2008

Abstract

In this paper, the nonlinear finite element model developed and verified in the companion paper [Son J, Fam A. Finite element modeling
of hollow and concrete-filled fiber composite tubes: Part 1 — model development and verification in flexure. Engineering Structures
2008;30(10):2656–66] has been used to study fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) tubular poles partially filled with concrete in flexure. Partial filling
is proposed as a low-cost alternative to using thicker-walled tubes, to enhance flexural strength and stability. The partial concrete fill length is
optimized in cantilever-type mono-poles for tubes with different diameter-to-thickness (D/t) ratios and different laminate structures. It was found
that this optimum length is reduced in any one of the following conditions: as D/t ratio becomes smaller, when fiber angles relative to the
longitudinal axis in angle-ply tubes increases, when longitudinal fiber fraction in cross-ply tubes reduces, and when a laterally distributed load is
applied instead of a point load at the tip. Simple expressions were established to calculate moment capacities of hollow and concrete-filled FRP
tubes. They were then incorporated into a simple design approach developed to predict the optimum concrete fill length, on the basis of that failure
occurs in the concrete-filled and hollow parts simultaneously. A procedure to account for tapered poles is also presented.
c 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Pole; Tube; Composite; Partial concrete fill; Optimization; Local buckling; Finite element

1. Introduction Glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) tubular poles have

Poles used in electric transmission, telecommunication,
distribution and street lighting applications are traditionally
constructed using wood, steel, aluminum or concrete. Due to
environmental concerns with regard to forests, wooden pole
supply may no longer be sufficient for industry demands.
Additionally, their service life is relatively short [14],
mainly due to their limited durability. Chemical treatment
adds protection and extended life, but may raise certain
environmental concerns. Steel poles are quite common in North
America; however, they are more expensive and need corrosion
protection through painting or galvanization. Concrete poles are
also quite common, however, the main disadvantage of these
poles is their heavy weight, which increases transportation and
installation costs, in addition to the negative consequences of
steel-reinforcement corrosion.
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 613 533 6352.
E-mail address: fam@civil.queensu.ca (A. Fam).
been explored and commercialized by a number of companies.
They are significantly lighter in weight than conventional
poles, making them suitable for transportation and installation,
particularly in remote regions. They are also durable, which
gives them a competitive edge in terms of life cycle cost. GFRP
poles were first developed in the 1950s [3] and have been used
in a number of field installations [10].
Flexural behavior of tubular GFRP poles has been explored
by several researchers [6,3,9]. The studies showed that the
behavior is generally linear elastic and that GFRP poles can
provide similar flexural strength and stiffness to wooden and
aluminum poles under the same conditions. Most studies,
however, have pointed out that the poles fail due to local
buckling that follows excessive sectional distortion, referred to
as ‘ovalization’. This in fact is a major disadvantage, as failure
occurs before the full strength of GFRP; a high performance
and a rather expensive material, is fully developed. Ovalization
of long FRP cylindrical tubes was first studied by Keward [8].
A number of analytical studies on the mechanics and buckling

c 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

0141-0296/$ - see front matter

doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2008.02.015
2668 A. Fam, J.-K. Son / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2667–2676
(a) Schematic of problem.
Fig. 1. Cantilevered FRP tube partially filled with concrete.
behavior of FRP tubes have been reported and were reviewed
and compared by Noor et al. [12]. Most of the models employ
the Classical Lamination Theory (CLT) of composites [2].
In a companion paper [13], it has been shown that when a
FRP tube is filled with concrete, throughout the full length,
its moment capacity is increased substantially. This was
particularly evident in tubes with large diameter-to-thickness
(D/t) ratios or in tubes with lower stiffness in the hoop
direction than in the longitudinal direction. In this case,
the concrete fill changes failure mode from premature local
buckling to material failure of the tube, which certainly results
in a more efficient use of the FRP material. The concrete fill is
then considered as a low-cost alternative to using thicker-walled
hollow tubes, for increasing flexural strength and stiffness. The
drawback, however, is the drastically increased deadweight of
the member. In a previous study [5], spun (centrifugally)-cast
concrete poles were developed to reduce the weight of the pole
by having a central hole throughout the length of the concrete
core.
2. Research significance
This paper is focused on developing an alternative system
for concrete-filled FRP tubular mono-poles used as light poles,
in sign structures, traffic signals and transmission lines. As the
moment generally varies from zero at the tip of a cantilever-
type mono-pole, to a maximum value at the fixed base,
complete concrete filling along the full length is unnecessary.
The objective of this study then is to optimize the length of
partial concrete fill near the base, using the Finite Element (FE)
model developed and reported in the companion paper [13].
Also, simple expressions of flexural strength are established
for hollow and concrete-filled FRP tubes. These are then
incorporated into a procedure to calculate the optimum concrete
fill length for both [0/90] cross-ply and [+θ/ − θ] angle-ply
GFRP laminates, for cylindrical poles of different D/t ratios.
The study also addresses the effects of tapered poles and a
simulated wind pressure uniform loading.
3. Finite element modeling of partially-filled FRP tubes
3.1. Description of the problem under consideration
This study deals with a prismatic FRP tubular pole, which
is fixed at one end and laterally loaded at the other end, as
(b) Effect of concrete fill length on base moment.
shown in Fig. 1(a). Tapered poles and uniformly applied loads
are addressed at a later section of this paper. The objective
is to establish the optimum length X opt of the concrete fill,
which is defined as the minimum length required to achieve
material failure at the fixed base of the pole (Section B), by
developing the full moment resistance of a concrete-filled tube
(i.e. M B = MFull ). Fig. 1(b) shows a variation of the ultimate
moment at the base, MB , with the concrete fill length-to-total
length (X/L) ratio. If X is smaller than X opt , the pole will fail
within the hollow part, outside the concrete fill (i.e. Section A),
as shown in Fig. 1(b), at a moment M A = MHollow . This would
occur, either due to local buckling or FRP material failure,
depending on D/t ratio and laminate structure of the tube. The
corresponding base moment, MB , would be lower than MFull ,
in this case. On the other hand, if X is larger than X opt , the pole
will reach its potential maximum moment MB = MFull , while
M A is lower than MHollow , and in this case the self-weight of
the pole will be larger than the optimum weight, without any
further gain in flexural strength.
3.2. Parameters studied
The same cantilevered GFRP tube considered in the
parametric study of the companion paper [13] is also studied
here, but with different lengths of the concrete fill. The tube
has a length L of 6 m, an outer diameter D of 300 mm, and is
loaded at one end, with a single lateral load. Three different D/t
ratios of 125, 75 and 40 are considered, along with two types of
laminate structure, namely angle-ply [+θ/ − θ] and cross-ply
[0/90]. In this study, θ is limited to 10◦ , 25◦ and 45◦ and the
fiber ratios of the [0/90] laminate is limited to 3:1 and 1:3. The
concrete fill has 40 MPa and 3.8 MPa compressive and cracking
strengths, respectively, and the mechanical properties of the
GFRP tubes are given in Table 1(b) and 3 of the companion
paper.
In this study, several combinations of laminate structure and
D/t ratios were considered. The length of concrete fill X , for
each combination of D/t and laminate structure, was gradually
increased to produce an X/L ratio ranging from 0 (hollow tube)
to 1 (totally-filled tube), as shown in Tables 1 and 2. Analysis
was also carried out using the program ANSYS [1].
3.3. Results of parametric study
Tables 1 and 2 show the ultimate load Pu for each case
studied as well as the ratio of the ultimate load to the
 A. Fam, J.-K. Son / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2667–2676 2669

Table 1
Summary of parametric study for [0/90] cross-ply laminate

[0/90] Ratio (3:1) [0/90] Ratio (1:3)

X (mm) X/L Pu (N) Pu /PFull X (mm) X/L Pu (N) Pu /PFull
Case A D/t = 125

0 0 4 472 0.271 0 0 3838 0.404

2188 0.365 7 882 0.477 1787 0.298 6216 0.655
3563 0.594 10 993 0.666 2550 0.425 7800 0.822
4375 0.729 16 080 0.974 3573 0.596 9600 1.012
5188 0.865 16 080 0.974 4787 0.798 9600 1.012
6000 1.0 16 510 1.0 6000 1.0 9490 1.0

Case B D/t = 40

0 0 38 619 0.772 0 0 21 600 0.791

684 0.114 42 000 0.839 627 0.105 24 000 0.879
1026 0.171 44 400 0.887 940 0.157 25 800 0.945
1368 0.228 50 400 1.007 1253 0.209 27 600 1.011
3684 0.614 49 200 0.983 3627 0.605 27 600 1.011
6000 1.0 50 050 1.0 6000 1.0 27 300 1.0

Case C D/t = 75

0 11 670 0.438 0 0 10 140 0.650

1687 0.281 15 114 0.567 1050 0.175 12 240 0.785
2530 0.422 18 860 0.708 1650 0.275 14 160 0.908
3373 0.562 26 880 1.009 2100 0.350 15 600 1.0
4687 0.781 27 300 1.024 4050 0.675 15 600 1.0
6000 1.0 26 650 1.0 6000 1.0 15 600 1.0

Table 2
Summary of parametric study for [+Θ/ − Θ] laminate

Θ = ±10◦ Θ = ±25◦ Θ = ±45◦

X (mm) X/L Pu (N) Pu /PFull X (mm) X/L Pu (N) Pu /PFull X (mm) X/L Pu (N) Pu /PFull
Case D D/t = 125

0 0 3 600 0.198 0 0 3 179 0.252 0 0 2573 0.489

2435 0.406 7 535 0.414 2259 0.377 6 262 0.497 1534 0.256 3789 0.720
3653 0.609 11 148 0.613 3389 0.565 9 192 0.729 2300 0.383 4680 0.889
4813 0.802 18 480 1.015 4487 0.748 12 720 1.009 3068 0.511 5400 1.026
5435 0.906 18 480 1.015 5259 0.877 12 720 1.009 4534 0.756 5280 1.003
6000 1.0 18 200 1.000 6000 1.0 12 610 1.0 6000 1.0 5265 1.0

Case E D/t = 40

0 0 28 812 0.528 0 0 23640 0.664 0 0 10 320 0.722

1454 0.242 39 600 0.725 1009 0.168 28 800 0.809 835 0.139 12 480 0.873
2181 0.364 48 000 0.879 1514 0.252 32 160 0.903 1254 0.209 13 680 0.957
2834 0.472 54 480 0.998 2018 0.336 36 480 1.024 1670 0.278 14 520 1.015
4454 0.742 55 200 1.011 4009 0.668 35 880 1.007 3835 0.639 14 400 1.007
6000 1.0 54 600 1.0 6000 1.0 35 620 1.0 6000 1.0 14 300 1.0

reference ultimate load of the totally-filled tube, Pu /PFull ,
for the two laminate structures studied, [0/90] cross-ply and
[+θ/ − θ] angle-ply, respectively. Figs. 2 and 3 show samples
load–deflection responses, for cases with different X/L ratios
ranging from 0 to 1, for tubes with selected D/t ratios and
laminate structures. Fig. 2(a)–(d) show the responses for the
D/t cases of 125 and 40 of the 3:1 and 1:3 [0/90] laminate,
whereas Fig. 3(a)–(d) show the responses for the D/t cases
of 125 and 40, of the 10◦ and 45◦ [+θ/ − θ] laminates,
respectively.
3.3.1. Optimum concrete fill length X opt
Figs. 2 and 3, and Tables 1 and 2, show that for a certain
range of X/L ratios below 1.0, there is no loss of flexural
strength as the ultimate load is maintained. Within this range,
however, flexural stiffness may not necessarily remain equal
to that of the totally-filled tube case (i.e. to that of X/L =
1.0). Beyond this range, both flexural strength and stiffness are
reduced until the case of X/L = 0 is approached.
This behavior is further illustrated in Fig. 4(a) and (b),
in which the Pu /PFull ratio is plotted against the X/L ratio,
2670 A. Fam, J.-K. Son / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2667–2676
Fig. 2. Load–deflection responses of [0/90] FRP tubes with concrete fill of different lengths.
for different D/t ratios and laminate structures. The general
behavior agrees quite well with the hypothesis illustrated in
Fig. 1(b). The optimum concrete fill length ratio X opt /L can
easily be identified from these figures as the point at which
flexural strength starts to drop. It is also noted that this critical
ratio varies from one case to the other, depending on both,
laminate structure and D/t ratio of the tube.
Fig. 5 shows the variation of X opt /L ratio with the D/t
ratio, for different laminate structures. The figure shows that
the ratio increases as the D/t ratio increases, for all laminate
structures. This suggests that tubes with thinner walls require
longer concrete fill than the thicker-walled tubes, to achieve the
optimum flexural strength. It is also noted that this optimum
ratio is also dependent on laminate structure. For tubes with
larger fraction of fibers in the longitudinal direction in [0/90]
cross-ply laminates or tubes of [+θ/ − θ] angle-ply laminates
with smaller angles relative to the longitudinal direction, the
X opt /L ratio is increased.
3.3.2. Failure modes associated with optimum concrete fill
length X opt
The study showed that the optimum concrete fill length X opt
is associated with failure of the tube at the fixed end (i.e. in
the concrete-filled section, at the maximum moment location,
by achieving MFull ) and in the hollow part of the tube, near
the concrete fill face, at a moment of MHollow , simultaneously.
Failure within the hollow part of the tube may be due to local
buckling of the tube at the compression side, usually for thin-
walled tubes, or due to material failure of the tube at the tension
or compression sides, usually for thick-walled tubes. It is also
important to note that failure mode within the hollow tube
depends not only on the D/t ratio, but also on the laminate
structure of the tube. Local buckling failure typically occurs
at a small distance from the face of the concrete fill, whereas
material failure typically occurs in the tube just at the end face
of concrete.
Fig. 6 shows a sample failure mode for the case of D/t
ratio of 125 and a 3:1 [0/90] cross-ply laminate, when the
concrete fill had the optimum length ratio X opt /L of 0.73. In
this case, the tube failed at the fixed end in tension, as evident
from Tsai–Wu failure criteria with a factor of unity, as shown in
Fig. 6(a). At the same time, the tube failed by local buckling in
the hollow part. Fig. 6(b) shows the z-direction displacement
distribution, which is a reflection of the section ovalization,
while Fig. 6(c) shows a distribution of Von Mises stresses.
Local buckling is generally governed by both ovalization and
stress level. As such, it occurs at a section between the end face
of concrete, where Von Mises stresses are maximum, and the
section of maximum ovalization.
Fig. 7 shows a sample failure mode for the case of D/t ratio
of 40 and a 3:1 [0/90] cross-ply laminate, when the concrete
fill had an optimum length ratio X opt /L of 0.23. In this case,
the tube had material failure on the tension side at both, the
fixed end and in the hollow part, adjacent to the end face of the
 A. Fam, J.-K. Son / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2667–2676
Fig. 3. Load–deflection responses of [±0] FRP tubes with concrete fill of different lengths.
concrete fill. This is evident from Tsai–Wu failure criteria with
a factor of unity at both locations, as shown in Fig. 7.
3.4. Serviceability considerations
In addition to maximizing the strength of the pole, by
optimizing the length of the concrete fill, it is also important
to insure that the amount of deflection under service load
conditions is not excessive and fall within acceptable limits.
In a recent report published by the Transportation Research
Board (NCHRP Report 494, 2003 [11]), it has been stated that
maximum lateral deflections of FRP poles should be limited to
5% of the pole height under a lateral load of 890 N at the tip, to
control stiffness. For the 6 m long poles studied in this paper,
this limit is 300 mm. This deflection limit is shown in Figs. 2
and 3. It is clear from the figures that all the poles studied satisfy
the deflection requirement at the specified load.
4. Simplified design approach
In this section, a simple design methodology is developed to
obtain the optimum concrete fill length in FRP tubular poles of
general D/t ratio and laminate structure. The method addresses
the cases of lateral point load applied at the tip as well as
the case of lateral uniform wind load. The effect of tapering,
which is typical in conventional poles, is also addressed. In the
following sections, material properties of the GFRP tubes used
2671
in the parametric study will be needed. As such, the Classical
Lamination Theory [2] has been used to establish the effective
stress–strain responses of the tubes in the longitudinal direction,
in tension and in compression, as shown in Fig. 8.
4.1. Expression for moment resistance of concrete-filled FRP
Tube, CFFT (MFull )
In order to establish an expression for the moment capacity
of CFFTs, all the cases studied in the parametric study and
discussed in the companion paper [13] were considered. Since
the tubes had different D/t ratios and different laminate
structures, a reinforcement index parameter ω is introduced
to represent the different reinforcement ratios and material
strengths, as given by Eq. (1):
4t f ut
ω= (1)
D f c0
where the term (4t/D) is the reinforcement ratio, defined as
the ratio of cross-sectional areas of the tube and concrete
core. f ut is the tensile strength of the tube in the longitudinal
direction, which is given in Fig. 8, and f c0 is the concrete
compressive strength, which is 40 MPa in this study. For all
the cases considered in the parametric study, the normalized
moment capacities M Full are plotted versus the respective
reinforcement indices, ω, as shown in Fig. 9, where M Full
is the moment capacity of the CFFT, MFull , normalized with
2672 A. Fam, J.-K. Son / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2667–2676

Fig. 4. Variation of flexural strength of FRP tubes with length of concrete fill.

respect to the diameter D and concrete strength f c0 (i.e. M Full =

MFull /(D 3 f c0 )). The behavior shows a distinct trend, which is
best fitted with the following equation:

M Full = 0.0045ω0.815 . (2)

In order to validate this normalized response, the experimental
moment capacity results reported by Fam [4] are normalized
and plotted in the same figure. The results are of nine concrete-
filled GFRP tubes tested in flexure and covered a wide range
of variables. The diameter D ranged from 89 to 942 mm and
the tube thickness t ranged from 2.05 to 8.93 mm. The tubes
also varied substantially in their laminate structures, which
resulted in longitudinal tensile strengths f ut ranging from 209
to 725 MPa. The concrete strength f c0 ranged from 33 to
67 MPa. Fig. 9 shows that the nine experimental data points Fig. 5. Variation of optimum concrete fill length with D/t ratio and laminate
are generally in very good agreement with the trend of Eq. (2), structure.
which was established using the parametric study results
mechanics from the expression: MHollow−S = f u I /y,
where
obtained from the FE model.
the moment of inertia I of a hollow tube is π t D 3 /8 , y is
0.5D and f u is the smallest of the longitudinal tensile and
4.2. Expression for moment resistance of hollow FRP tube
compressive strengths. This expression can then be reduced to
(MHollow )
the following form:
Hollow FRP tubes may fail in flexure due to local buckling MHollow−S = 0.79t D 2 f u . (3)
or due to material failure in tension or compression, depending
on D/t ratio and laminate structure. The moment capacity The moment capacity based on local buckling, MHollow−B ,
based on material strength, MHollow−S , is calculated using basic of a circular FRP hollow tube in bending can be calculated
 A. Fam, J.-K. Son / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2667–2676 2673

where D and t are the diameter and wall thickness of the

tube. E is the effective modulus in the longitudinal direction
of the tube and can be obtained from Fig. 8. D yy is the
circumferential bending stiffness of the tube, calculated using
classical lamination theory [2] and values are given in Table 3.
For a typical FRP hollow tube, both MHollow−B and
MHollow−S need to be calculated and the final moment capacity
of the tube MHollow is considered the lower of the two values.
The moment capacities predicted using this method for all
the hollow tubes considered in the parametric study in the
companion paper [13] have been compared to those obtained
using the FE model, as shown in Fig. 10. Also, the moment
capacities of hollow tube specimens A25 and 3 tested by
Ibrahim [7] and Beam 2A tested by Fam [4], which were used
to validate the FE model in the companion paper, have been
predicted using this method and are compared to the FE model
results in the same figure. In general, reasonable agreement is
observed, given the complex nature of local buckling failure of
circular tubes in bending.

4.3. Expression for the optimum concrete fill length (X opt )

In the following sections a simple technique is developed

to establish the optimum length of the concrete fill in a FRP
tube, for both prismatic and tapered tubes, as a function of the
moment capacities of the hollow and concrete-filled sections,
MHollow and MFull , respectively.

4.3.1. End point load

Fig. 11(a) shows a prismatic tubular pole under a lateral end
load, along with the corresponding triangular bending moment
diagram. The optimum length of concrete fill X opt would be
that which results in achieving MFull at the fixed end (point 1),
simultaneously with MHollow in the hollow part, in the vicinity
of the end face of the concrete fill. If the moment capacity of the
Fig. 6. The 3:1 [0/90] tune with D/t = 125 and optimum length of concrete
fill [X opt /L = 0.73] at failure. hollow part is governed by local buckling (i.e. MHollow−B ), then
this will occur at section ‘a’, which is assumed at a distance
equal to the diameter D from the end face of the concrete
fill (point 2). If it is governed by FRP material strength (i.e.
MHollow−S ), then this will occur at section ‘b’, just at the end
face of the concrete fill. From the geometry of the moment
diagram, the following expressions are established for X opt :
 
MHollow−B
X opt = L 1 − −D
MFull
(local buckling of the hollow part) (5)
 
MHollow−S
X opt = L 1 −
MFull
(material failure of the hollow part) (6)
MFull , MHollow−S , and MHollow−B can be calculated using Eqs.
Fig. 7. The 3:1 [0/90] tube with D/t = 40 and X opt /L = 0.23 at failure.
(2)–(4), respectively.
Eqs. (5) and (6) have been used to calculate X opt for the
using the expression proposed by Keward [8], which is reduced different cases considered in this study and results are compared
to the form given in the following equation: to those obtained from the FE analysis in Fig. 12. The X opt
obtained from FE analysis is essentially the smallest value
corresponding to Pu /PFull equal to 1.0 in Tables 1 and 2 or
p
MHollow−B = 1.71D D yy Et (4)
2674 A. Fam, J.-K. Son / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2667–2676

Table 3
Circumferential bending stiffness D yy of hollow GFRP tubes

[0/90] laminate [+θ/ − θ ] laminate

D/t = 125 D/t = 40 D/t = 75 D/t = 125 D/t = 40
t = 2.4 mm t = 7.5 mm t = 4 mm t = 2.4 mm t = 7.5 mm
Laminate 3:1 1:1 1:3 3:1 1:1 1:3 3:1 1:3 10◦ 25◦ 35◦ 45◦ 75◦ 10◦ 25◦ 35◦ 45◦ 75◦
D yy (kN m) 0.030 0.033 0.044 0.903 1.021 1.341 0.137 0.203 0.009 0.011 0.014 0.019 0.040 0.282 0.326 0.416 0.571 1.224

Fig. 8. Stress–strain curves of GFRP tubes in the longitudinal direction.

in Fig. 4. Fig. 12 shows that the simplified method provides

a reasonable estimate of X opt in general. However, it tends to
underestimate values when the difference between MFull and
MHollow is small (i.e. for some cases of tubes with small D/t
ratios).

4.3.2. Uniform wind pressure

Poles are typically subjected to wind loading, which may be
assumed as a uniform pressure along the length of a prismatic
pole. Fig. 11(b) shows a pole under uniform load, along with the
corresponding second-order parabolic moment diagram. From
the geometry of the moment diagram, the following expressions
are established for X opt :
s !
Fig. 9. variation of normalized moment capacity of CFFT with reinforcement MHollow−B
X opt = L 1 − −D
index. MFull
(local buckling of the hollow part) (7)
s !
MHollow−S
X opt = L 1 −
MFull
(material failure of the hollow part). (8)
From the geometry of the moment diagrams in Fig. 11((a)
and (b)) and also by comparing Eqs. (5) and (6) to (7) and (8),
it is interesting to note that the optimum length of concrete fill
in a pole under a uniform load is smaller than that in a pole
under an end concentrated load.

4.3.3. Effect of tapered poles

Conventional utility and light poles are typically tapered.
This, in fact would affect the optimum length of the concrete
Fig. 10. Moment capacity of hollow tubes using FEA versus proposed method. fill, X opt . First, the applied wind load would be trapezoidal
 A. Fam, J.-K. Son / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2667–2676 2675

Fig. 11. Simplified design approach of prismatic and tapered poles under different loads.

as a result of the variable diameter of the pole, as shown in

Fig. 11(c). Second, the pole will no longer have a constant
MFull , MHollow−S or MHollow−B , since these moment capacities
are directly a function of the variable diameter D. In this case,
a simple expression as those given in Eqs. (5)–(8) may not be
easy to obtain. Instead, the following general procedure may be
used to obtain X opt :
1. The MFull distribution along the length of the pole is
established, as shown in Fig. 11(c), using Eq. (2), which is a
power function.
2. The moment diagram, for the applied loading type
(trapezoidal loading for example), is then established and
increased gradually until it becomes in contact with the MFull Fig. 12. Optimum length of partial concrete fill predicted using simplified
diagram at any point. This may not necessarily occur at method.
the fixed base, as in the case of prismatic poles shown in
5. Summary and conclusions
Fig. 11(a and b), but may possibly occur at a point, slightly
above the fixed base, as shown in Fig. 11(c), and referred to
In this paper, a FE model established and verified in a
as point 1.
companion paper has been used to investigate partial concrete
3. Once the moment diagram is established based on the
filling of cantilever-type FRP tubular poles. The objective is to
criteria given in step 2, both the MHollow−S and MHollow−B
maximize flexural strength, while minimizing the dead weight
distributions along the full length are established, using Eqs.
of the pole. Tubes with different D/t ratios and different
(3) and (4), which are second order and linear, respectively.
laminate structures have been analyzed in flexure by varying
The two diagrams may possibly intersect at a point ‘i’,
the length of the concrete fill. Also the effects of type of
shown in Fig. 11(c), due to the variable diameter of the
lateral loading and taper have been addressed. A simplified
tube. In this case, the smaller of the two moments governs
approach has been developed to establish the optimum concrete
and is considered MHollow . This means that a certain part
fill length. The following conclusions are drawn:
of the hollow section could be governed by local buckling,
whereas the rest of the hollow section would be governed 1. There is an optimum length of partial concrete fill in
by material failure. When the MHollow curve intersects the cantilever-type FRP tubular poles. This length would result
applied moment diagram, a critical point defining X opt is in achieving maximum flexural strength at a minimum dead
established. Fig. 11(c) assumes that the local buckling curve weight. However, flexural stiffness at this optimum length
controls at the intersection point, point 2, which corresponds may not be the maximum achievable stiffness.
to section ‘a’ of the pole. In this case X opt would be 2. The optimum length of the partial concrete fill increases as
measured from the fixed base, up to a section at a distance the D/t ratio increases (i.e. in thinner-walled tubes). It also
D below section ‘a’. Fig. 11(d), on the other hand, assumes increases as the angle of fibers relative to the longitudinal
the other scenario, in which the material failure curve of the axis in angle-ply laminates reduces or as the fiber fraction in
hollow tube governs at the intersection point, point 3. This the longitudinal direction in cross-ply laminates increases.
would correspond to section ‘b’ of the pole and X opt would 3. When the optimum concrete fill length is provided, the pole
be measured from the fixed base to section ‘b’. would fail due to material failure of the tube within the
2676 A. Fam, J.-K. Son / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2667–2676
concrete-filled part at or near the fixed base and due to failure
of the hollow part, at or shortly above the end of the concrete
fill, simultaneously. Failure of the hollow part of the tube
may be due to local buckling or material failure, depending
on D/t ratio and laminate structure.
4. The optimum concrete fill length is highly dependent on
loading condition and degree of taper of the pole. It is
generally shorter for a cantilevered pole under uniform
lateral pressure, compared to one subjected to a lateral point
load at the free end.
5. A simple method has been proposed to establish the
optimum concrete fill length for any FRP prismatic or
tapered tube of general D/t ratio and laminate structure.
The method employs simple equations based on the results
of the parametric study reported in the companion paper
and analytical expressions, which have been verified using
experimental data and showed very good agreement.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the Korea Research Foundation
Grant funded by the Korean Government (MOEHRD) (KRF-
2005-214-D00367).
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