CONTENT UPDATE: PHYSICS

I. Force and Motion

1. Motion is relative. It occurs when a body undergoes a change in position with respect to a frame of reference.
2. Kinematics refers to the study of the description of motion. Motion can be described in terms of distance,
displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration.
 Distance refers to the total length of the path covered by a body in moving from an initial position to
the final position. It is a scalar quantity.
 Displacement refers to the straight – line distance and the direction from the initial position and the
final position. It is vector quantity.

Displacement = final position-initial position

 Speed refers to how fast a body is moving. It is a scalar quantity.

Speed = distance traveled/ time elapsed

 Velocity refers to how fast the position of the body changes. It is vector quantity.

Velocity = displacement/time elapsed

 Acceleration refers to the rate of change of the velocity of a body with respect to time. It is a vector
quantity.

The velocity of a body can change in three different ways:

1. change in magnitude only
2. change in direction only
3. change in both magnitude and direction

Acceleration =(final velocity-initial velocity)/time elapsed

3. There are two types of motion: linear motion and curvilinear motion.

 Linear motion refers to motion along a straight-line path. (e.g. free fall)
 Curvilinear motion refers to motion along a curved path.
(e.g. projectile motion and circular motion)

4. Free fall is the state of motion of an object under the influence of the earth’s gravity alone. A body thrown in air
slows down as it moves up and speeds up as it moves down. The acceleration due to the earth’s gravity is
2
g=9.8 m/s , downward.
5. Projectile motion is a two-dimensional motion of an object thrown in air, the object thrown in air is know as the
projectile. The path of the projectile is known as its trajectory and it is a parabola. The horizontal component is
motion at constant speed while the vertical component of motion is motion at constant acceleration.
6. Uniform circular motion is motion of a body with constant speed in a circular path. Its velocity is tangent to
the circular path while its acceleration is directed towards the center. This acceleration known as the
centripetal acceleration is tangent to the velocity at all times and is constant only in magnitude but not in
direction.
7. Dynamics is the study of the causes of motion. A change in the state of rest or uniform motion of an object is
brought about by a net force. The SI unit of a force is the Newton.
8. Mass and weight are two different concepts that are often interchanged.

 Mass refers to the amount of matter. It is constant regardless of the location of an object.
 Weight is a force. It refers to the gravitational force of attraction of the earth on an object. It is equal to
the mass of the object multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity.

9. The way forces affect motion is explained by Newton’s Laws of Motion.

 First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)

“An object at rest to the mass of the object in uniform motion along a straight – line tends to maintain
that state of motion unless acted upon by a net external force.
 Second Law of Motion (Law of Acceleration)
The acceleration of a body acted upon by a net external force is:
1. directly proportional to the force (mass is constant)
2. inversely proportional to the mass (constant force)
3. in the same direction as the net force
 Third Law of Motion (Law of Interaction)
“For every action there is always an equal but opposite reaction“
The action – and – reaction forces are:
1. equal in magnitude
2. opposite in direction
3. acting on two different bodies
II. Work, Energy, and Power

1. Energy is the ability to do work. Anything that possesses energy is capable of doing work.
The SI unit of energy is Joule.
2. Two forms of energy:
 Kinetic energy refers to energy associated with motion. Anything that moves possesses kinetic
energy.
2
KE = 1/2mv

 Potential energy refers to the energy with respect to position.

PE = mgh

3. The following are devices that convert energy from one form to another.
 Photocell (photovoltaic cell) converts light into electrical energy.
 Generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
 Motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
 Battery is a direct – current voltage source that converts chemical energy into electrical energy.

4. Work is the transfer of energy to an object when an object moves due to the application of a force. Work is a
scalar quantity. The SI unit of work is Joule. One (1) Joule is equal to one (1) Newton-meter.
5. The amount of work done in moving object is equal to the product of the force applied and the distance the object
is moved in the direction of the force.

Work = force x distance

6. No work is done when:

 a force is applied on a body and it does not move

 an object is held at a constant height above the ground
 an object is moved perpendicular to the direction of the force applied.

7. Power is the rate of doing work. It is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of power is the Watt equal to one (1) joule per
second.

Power = work/time

8. The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only be converted
from one form to another.
9. Simple machines are devices that can be used to multiply forces or change the direction of the force. In this way,
simple machines make the work easier.
10. The mechanical advantage measures how much force you gain by using a machine rather doing the work
yourself. The bigger the mechanical advantage, the less effort you must apply.

11. The following are the six simple machines:

 A lever is a bar or a board that is free to pivot about a fixed point known as the fulcrum.
Levers are divided into three groups (based on the positions of the fulcrum, effort and resistance):
1. First-class levers (the fulcrum is between the effort and the resistance ) e.g. scissors, see-
saw
2. Second-class levers (the resistance is between the fulcrum and the effort) e.g. bottle
opener, nutcracker
3. Third-class levers (the effort is between the fulcrum and the resistance) e.g. tweezers,
fishing rods
 A pulley is a lever that rotates around a fixed point. It has two functions: to change the direction of
the force and to provide mechanical advantage. If a heavy load is to be lifted with a smaller force,
then the force must be exerted over a larger distance.
 An inclined plane is a slanted surface used to raise objects. A ramp and a flight of stairs are both
examples of inclined planes. It increases the effort distance through which you move an object and
decreases the effort force necessary to move it.
 The wedge is made of two inclined planes. The woodcutter’s wedge, the ax. And the nails are
examples of wedges. In doing work, the material is held fixed and the wedge is pushed through it
 The screw is just a combination of an inclined plane and a cylinder. Each time the screw makes a full
turn, it is moved a definite distance up and down.
 The wheel and axle is a simple machine composed of two circles. The axle is the smaller circle. The
wheel is the larger one. A screwdriver or a steering wheel is a wheel and axle.
12. Efficiency measures how much work a machine puts out compared to the amount of work put in. No machine
can have a greater work output than work input. The work output is always less than the work input because of
the losses in energy due to friction.
III. Impulse and Momentum

1. The momentum of an object is the product of its mass and its velocity. It is a vector quantity whose direction is
2
the same as its velocity. Its SI unit is kgm/s .

momentum=final momentum-initial momentum

2. What changes the momentum of an object is an impulse exerted on that object.

 Impulse is the average force multiplied by the time during which it acts. It is a vector quantity. Its
SI unit is Newton-second.
 The impulse exerted on something is equal to the change in momentum it produces.

Impulse=final momentum-initial momentum

 The change in momentum depends on the force that acts and the length of time it acts.

3. The impulse – momentum relationship explains a variety of situations where the momentum changes. The following
are the there cases by which impulse changes momentum.

 Increasing momentum
 Decreasing momentum over a short time interval
 Decreasing momentum over a long time interval

4. The Law of Conservation of Momentum states that in the absence of an external net force acting on a system,
the total momentum before an event is equal to the total momentum after the event. This event could be
explosion or collision.
5. There are two types of collision: elastic and inelastic collision:

 Elastic collision (both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved)

 Inelastic collision (only momentum is conserved, not kinetic energy)

IV. Heat, Temperature, Internal Energy and the Laws of Thermodynamics

1. Thermodynamics is the study of the processes in which energy is transferred as heat and as work. Specifically,
it deals with the relationship existing among heat, internal energy, and mechanical work.
2. An important factor in the complete understanding of the field of thermodynamics is the knowledge of the three
main concepts: temperature, heat, and internal energy.

 Temperature refers to the relative measure of the hotness or coldness of a body. It is related to the
average translational kinetic energy of the particles making up the body.
 Heat refers to energy transfer associated with a temperature difference between two bodies. The natural
direction of heat transfer is from a body with high temperature to a body with low temperature.
 Internal energy (thermal energy) refers to the amount of energy a body contains. This energy is the
sum of the kinetic energy and potential energies of all the particles making up the body.
3. Thermometer is a device that is used to measure temperature. Examples of thermometer include liquid – in –
tube thermometer (mercury and alcohol thermometers), bimetallic strip, etc.
4. Temperature Scales
 Celsius scale (named after Anders Celsius)
 Fahrenheit scale (named after Gabriel Fahrenheit)
 Kelvin scale (named after Lord Kelvin)

0 0 0
Normal boiling point of water 100 212 373.15
(at 1 atm pressure)

0 0 0
Normal freezing point of water 0 32 273.15
(at 1 atm pressure)

Celsius Fahrenheit Kelvin

The following equations can be used to convert the temperature measurements from one scale to
another:

TF = 9/5(TC) + 32 TC = 5/9(TF - 32) TK = TC + 273.15

0
(At absolute zero (0K or -273.15 C), the lowest possible temperature, a system of particles has its minimum
possible total energy)

5. Thermal expansion refers to changes in the dimensions of body that is associated with changes in
temperature. Matter tends to expand when heated and contract when cooled.
 in terms of the extent of expansion for comparable pressure and change in temperature:
 solids < liquids < gases

 water is highly unusual in that it contracts as it warms from 0 C to 4 C and its solid from (ice) is less
0 0

dense than its liquid form.

6. Some applications of thermal expansion:

 Choosing of materials to be used as dental fillings
 Thermal expansion joints in concrete roads and railroad tracks

7. Heat and temperature are related. When a material absorbs heat, its particles move faster. The translational
kinetic energy of the particles increases and the temperature rises. When a material loses heat to its
surroundings, its particles move more slowly, and the temperature of the material falls.

8. The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

Both mechanical work and heat are means of transferring energy from one body to another. Hence, 4.186
0 0
J of work could raise the temperature of 1 gram of water from 14.5 C to 15.5 C.
9. Units of heat:
 Calorie (cal) – the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 14.5 C to
0
0
15.5 C. The food calorie (Cal) is equal to 1 kcal.
 British Thermal Unit (Btu) n- the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water
0 0
from 63 F to 64 F.
 Joule (J) – the SI unit of heat, based on the mechanical equivalent of heat.

10. Conversion factors for different units of heat:

1 cal = 4.186 J (the mechanical equivalent of heat)
1 cal = 1 kcal = 4186 J (the food calorie)
1 Btu = 252 cal = 1055 J

11. Calorimetry refers to the quatitative measurement of heat exchange. A calorimeter is an instrument used to
measure changes in thermal energy that operates based on the law of heat exchange. According to the Law of
Exchange, in a system, the amount of heat lost is equal to the amount of heat gained.

12. When heat transfer results to a change in temperature, heat is quantified by the equation:

Heat (absorbed or released)=(mass)x(specific heat)x(change in temperature)

(if heat is absorbed, the temperature of the body increases; if heat is released, the temperature decreases)

13. Specific heat refers to the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by 1
degree. It is also a measure of thermal inertia, the resistance of a substance to any changes in its temperature.
Water, with a much higher specific heat than other common substances, is difficult to heat up or cool down. The
0
SI unit of specific heat is J/kgC
14. When heat transfer does not result to a change in temperature, a phase change has occurred.
15. Phase is a term used to describe a specific state of matter (solid, liquid, or gas)
16. The Three Phases of Matter:
 solid phase – the particles are held together by attractive forces or bonds; consequently, it has definite
shape and volume.
 liquid phase – the particles are loosely bound by attractive forces so they can move freely; consequently,
a liquid has definite volume but no definite shape because it assumes the shape of its container.
 gaseous phase – the particles interact weakly and are separated by relatively large distances; thus, a
gas has no definite shape and volume.

In terms of compressibility: solids < liquids < gases

17. Phase change refers to the transition from one phase to another that occurs at a constant temperature. At a
given pressure, phase changes occur at a definite temperature accompanied by the absorption or emission of
heat.
18. The diagram below illustrate the different phase changes that substances can undergo:

19. When heat transfer does not result to a change in temperature, heat is quantified by the equation:
 heat (absorbed of released) = (mass) x (latent heat)

 LF (latent heat of fusion) refers to the amount of heat (absorbed or released) needed to melt or freeze a
unit of a substance.

LF (water) = 334 J/g = 80 cal/g

 LV (latent heat of vaporization) refers to the amount of heat (absorbed or released) needed to vaporize
or condense a unit of a substance

LV (water) = 2260 J/g = 540 cal/g

20. There are three ways by which heat can be transferred: conduction, convection, and radiation.
21. Conduction refers to the transfer and distribution of thermal energy that takes place within certain materials and
from one material to another when in contact.
 Metals are good conductors because they contain free electrons which contribute to the transfer of
thermal energy.
 Poor conductors, such as wood, cork, polystyrene, and most liquids and gases, are good insulators.
22. Convection refers to the transfer of thermal energy through the mass movement of particles over considerable
distances.
 Convection occurs in all fluids (liquids and gases)
 Winds result from convection currents that stir the atmosphere.
23. Radiation refers to the transfer of thermal energy by means of electromagnetic waves that can propagate in
empty space at a speed of light.
 A good absorber of radiation is a poor reflector of radiation, including visible light, and thus appears black.
 Good absorbers of radiation are also good emitters.
 According to Newton’s Law of Cooling, the rate of cooling or warming of an object is proportional to the
temperature difference between the object and its surroundings.
24. The different gas laws apply to real gases at low pressure and high temperature.
 Boyle’s Law (volume varies inversely with the absolute pressure for the same number of moles and
constant temperature)

P1V1 = P2V2

 Charles’ Law (volume varies directly with absolute temperature for the same number of moles and
constant pressure)

V1/T1 = V2/T2
 Gay – Lussac’s Law (absolute pressure varies directly with the absolute temperature for the same
number of moles and constant volume)

P1/T1 = P2/T2

25. The kinetic – molecular theory views an ideal gas to be composed of particles with negligible sizes moving in
random directions at high speeds without any forces of interaction exerted among them.
 The higher the temperature, the faster the particles are moving on average.
 For the same temperature, different gases have the same average translational kinetic energy. However,
those light particles move faster than heavy particles.
26. The triple point refers to a particular temperature and pressure at which the gas, liquid and solid phases of a
0 -3
substance can coexist. The triple point temperature of water is 0.01 C and its triple point pressure is 6.03 x 10
atm.
  For a pressure above the triple point, a solid substance melts upon the absorption of heat. More heat
absorbed raises the temperature of the liquid and then it vaporizes.
 For a pressure below the triple point, a solid substance upon the absorption of heat sublimes, that is, it is
directly converted into the gaseous phase.

27. A thermodynamic system refers to a system that can interact with the environment by exchanging energy by
means of heat transfer and mechanical work.
28. The following sign convention for work and heat is used in thermodynamics:
 Work done on the system (energy enters the system) W>0
 Work done by the system (energy leaves the system) W<0
 Heat absorbed by the system (energy enters the system) Q>0
 Heat released by the system (energy leaves the system) Q<0
29. The following are the four different thermodynamic processes:
 Isobaric process occurs at constant pressure. When the system expands, the temperature increases
just enough to keep the pressure constant.
 Isochoric process occurs at constant volume. When the substance absorbs heat, its temperature and
pressure increases.
 Isothermal process occurs at constant temperature. When the system expands, the pressure
decreases.
 Adiabatic process occurs without heat transfer into or out of the system. When the system expands,
both its pressure and temperature drop.
30. The Laws of Thermodynamics
 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics (deals with the concept and thermal equilibrium)
“If systems A and B are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system C, then A and C are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.”
 The First Law of Thermodynamics (deals with the law of conservation of energy)
“The heat added to a system equals the sum of the increase in internal energy plus the external
work done by the system.”
 The Second Law of Thermodynamics (deals with the direction of thermodynamic processes)
(1) Heat does not spontaneously flow from a cold object to a hot object.
(2) No machine can be completely efficient in converting heat into work.
(3) Natural processes tend to move toward a state of greater disorder or entropy.
31. A heat engine is capable of converting some of the absorbed heat at a certain temperature into a mechanical
work while expelling the rest at a lower temperature.
32. Some heat engines use the four-stroke internal combustion cycle which includes the intake stroke,
compression stroke, power stroke, and exhaust stroke.
33. Diesel engines are more efficient than gasoline engine because of the higher compression ratio of the later.
Unlike gasoline engines, diesel engines do not have spark plugs but require a fuel injector.
34. A refrigerator is capable of absorbing heat at a certain temperature and expelling a greater amount of heat at a
higher temperature because of the work done on it. It uses a refrigeration fluid that is easy to vaporize.

V. Electricity and Magnetism

1. The fundamental entity in electricity is the electric charge. The SI unit of electric charge is the coulomb. Electric
charge is scalar quantity.
2. There are two kinds of electric charge: positive and negative.
3. All ordinary matter is made of proton, neutrons, and electrons. The positive protons and the neutral neutrons
are bound in the nucleus by the strong nuclear force. The negative electrons surround the nucleus at
distances much greater than the nuclear size. The electrons are attracted to the nucleus by the electric force.
4. Electric charges have two fundamental properties.
 Charge Conservation – The algebraic sum of all the electric charges in any closed system is constant. A
single electric charge can neither be created nor destroyed but can be transferred from one body to
another.
 Charge Quantization – The charge of a body is always a whole number multiple of the elementary
-19
charge e = ± 1.602x10 C.
5. A body could either be positively charged, negatively charged, or electrically neutral.
 A body is electrically neutral if its net electric charge is equal to zero. This means that the number of
protons it has is equal to the number of electrons.
 A body is positively charged if its net electric charge is positive. This means that the number of proton is
greater than the number of electrons. This is brought about by the loss of electrons.
 A body is negatively charged if its net electric charge is negative. This means that the number of protons
is less than the number of electrons. This is brought about by the gain in electrons.
6. Materials could either be conductors, insulators, or semiconductors.
 Conductors are materials that permit electric charges to move easily through them.
 Insulators are materials that permit electric charges to move less readily through them.
7. Semiconductors are materials with characteristics intermediate between that of a conductor and an insulator.
8. Electrification is the process of producing an electrically charged object.
 Charging by Friction
Insulators are charged through friction. Two neutral insulators are rubbed against each other. After the
charging process, the insulators acquire opposite signs of charges.
 Charging by Conduction
Conductors can be charged through contact. When a neutral object is brought into contact with a
charged object, the neutral object acquires the same sign of charge.
 Charging by Induction
Conductors can be charged through induction. When a charged object is brought close to a neutral
conductor, electrons may be attracted or repelled depending on the
9. Electric charges exert action – and – reaction forces on one another. If the charges are of the same sign, they
repel and if they are of opposite signs they attract. A charged body can attract but not repel a neutral body.

10. Coulomb’s Law is the basic law of interaction for point electric charges. It states that the force of interaction
(either attractive or repulsive) is directly proportional to the product of the charges and is inversely proportional
to the square of their separation distance. In equation form:

9 2 2
Where k = 9.0 x 10 Nm /kg

11. An electric charge is surrounded by region known as the electric field. Electric charges interact with one
another through their electric fields.
12. Electric field is a force per unit charge. Its SI unit is Newton per coulomb. It is a vector quantity.
electric field due to a single charge
13. Electric field lines provide a graphical representation of an electric field. They are drawn so that electric field
lines emerge from positive charges and enter negative charges.
14. A charged particle possesses electric potential energy by virtue of its position in an electric field region.
Electric potential energy is a scalar quantity.

electric potential of two point charges

15. The electric potential at any point in space is defined as the electric potential energy per unit charge. It is a
scalar quantity.

V=K electric potential due to a single charge

16. The difference in electric potential of any two points is known as potential difference or voltage.
17. A capacitor is a device that stores both electric charge and electric energy. It consists of a pair of conductors
separated by an insulating material or vacuum.
18. The capacitance is a quantity that describes the ability of a capacitor to store electric charge and energy. The
SI unit of capacitance is the farad equal to coulomb per volt.
19. An electric circuit is a closed conducting path where electric charges can flow. It consists of a load, source,
and connecting wires. An electric circuit can be analyzed in terms of current, resistance, and voltage.
20. Electric current is the flow of electricity charge that occurs when there is a potential difference across the ends
of a conductor. It is amount of charge flowing through a specified cross-sectional area pre unit time.

I = Q/t the SI unit of electric current is the ampere 1A = 1 C/s

21. Electric current is conventionally described in terms of the flow of positive charges even when the actual charge
carriers are negative.
22. Direct current (DC) is electric current in which the charges flows in one direction only; electrons in an alternating
current (AC) alternate their direction of flow.

 Batteries produce direct current. Power utilities produce alternating current.

 Alternating current allows low-cost, high voltage energy transmission across great distances, with safe
low-voltage use by the consumer.
23. The electromotive force or voltage of a source refers to the potential difference between the positive and
negative terminals. It also refers to the amount of energy that the source supplies per unit of change. The SI unit
of the emf or voltage is the volt which is equal to joule per coulomb.
24. The resistance is a measure of the opposition of a material to the motion of charge carriers through it. The SI
unit of resistance is the ohm equal to volt per ampere.
  Conductors have low resistance while insulators have high resistance
 An increased temperature or a longer wire increases resistance
 A thicker wire decreases resistance

25. Ohm’s Law states that the amount of current is directly proportional to the voltage and is inversely proportional
to the resistance.

where I (current), V (voltage), R (resistance)

26. Electric Power, the rate at which electrical energy is converted into other forms of energy, is equal to the
product of current and voltage. Its SI unit is the watt but it is commonly expressed in kilowatts.
2 2
Electric power = current x voltage = (current) x resistance = (voltage) / resistance

Energy consumption is conveniently expressed in kilowatt-hour (kWh)

27. Resistors are used in many electrical devices to control current. They may be connected to one another
forming a network that could either be series or parallel.
28. In a series circuit, electric devices from a single pathway for electron flow.
 A break anywhere in the path stops the electron flow in the entire circuit.
 The total resistance is equal to the sum of individual resistances along the current path.
 The current is equal to the voltage divided by the total resistance.
 The voltage drop across each device is proportional to its resistance.
 The sum of the voltage drops across the resistance of the individual devices is equal to the total voltage.
29. In a parallel circuit, electric devices form branches, each of which provides a separate path for the flow of the
electrons.
 Each device connects the same two points of the circuit; the voltage is the same across each device.
 The amount of current in each branch is inversely proportional to the resistance of the branch.
 The total current is equal to the sum of the currents in the branches.
30. In a circuit with several resistors, the equivalent resistance is the value of the single resistor that would comprise
the same load to the battery or power source.
 For resistors in series, the equivalent resistance is the sum of their values.
 For resistors in parallel, the equivalent resistance is less than the value of any individual resistor.
31. Lines carrying an unsafe amount of current are overloaded.
 To prevent overloading, fuses or circuit breakers are inserted in lines that provide power. Excessive
current will “blow out” the fuse or “trip” the circuit breaker, stopping the current.
 A short circuit is often caused by faulty wire insulation.
32. An ammeter is a device for measuring current. An ideal ammeter has zero resistance. Ammeters are connected
in series with the circuit element carrying the current to be measured.
33. A voltmeter is a device for measuring voltage. An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance. Voltmeters are
connected in parallel with circuit element experiencing the potential difference to be measured.
34. The fundamental nature of all magnetic effects is the interaction of moving charges.
35. The most familiar aspect of magnetism is the interaction of permanent magnets.
36. A magnet has two poles, north and south. The North Pole is that end which points towards the geographic north
of the earth when the magnet is freely suspended.
37. A magnet sets a magnetic field in the region surrounding it. This magnetic field can exert magnetic forces on
moving charges. The SI unit of magnetic field is the tesla (T)
38. The magnetic field of magnets is actually associated with the motion of electric charges.
 In magnetic substances such as iron, the magnetic fields created by spinning electrons do not cancel one
another out; large cluster of magnetic atoms align to form magnetic domains.
 In nonmagnetic substances, electron pairs within the atoms spin in opposite directions; there is no net
magnetic field.
39. A magnetic field can be represented graphically by magnetic field lines. At each point a magnetic field line is
tangent to the direction of the magnetic field at that point. The direction of the magnetic field at that point is the
same as the direction being pointed by a magnetic compass. Where the filed lines are closer together, the field
magnitude is large. In magnets, the magnetic field lines leave the North Pole and enter the South Pole. The
magnetic field is also strongest at the poles of the magnet.
40. An electric current produces a magnetic field.
 Bending a current – carrying wire into coils intensifies the magnetic field.
 Placing a piece of iron into a current – carrying coil creates an electromagnet.
41. An electromagnet is a current – carrying coil of wire with many loops. This coil behaves just like a permanent
magnet. When this current – carrying coil is brought close to a suspended bar magnet, of end of the coil repels
the north pole of the magnet. The other end of the coil attracts the north pole of the magnet. Thus, an
electromagnet has a north pole and a south pole and is itself a magnet.
42. The strength of the field of an electromagnet depends on amount of current, number of loops, and nature of the
core.

43. Electromagnetic induction refers to the creation of an induced emf whenever there is a changing magnetic field
near a conductor.
 According to Faraday’s Law, the induced voltage in a coil is proportional to the product of the number of
loops and the rate at which the magnetic field within the loops changes.
 A generator uses electromagnetic induction to convert mechanical energy to electrical energy.
  A transformer uses electromagnetic induction to induce a voltage in the secondary that is different from
that in the primary coil.
44. Electromagnetic induction may be described in terms of fields.
 A changing magnetic field induces an electric field. (Faraday’s Law)
 A changing electric field induces a magnetic field. (Ampere’s Law)
 Electromagnetic waves are composed of vibrating electric and magnetic fields that regenerate each
other.
 All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed, the speed of light.

VI. Waves: Sound and Light

1. Vibration is a wiggle in time. A vibration cannot exist in one instant, but needs time to move back and forth. A
wave, on the other hand, is a wiggle in space and time. A wave cannot exist in one place but must extend from
one place to another.
2. Wave is a disturbance that transfers energy but not matter as it propagates from one place to another. The matter
or space through which a wave travels is called a medium.
3. Wave could either be transverse or longitudinal.
4. In a transverse wave, the medium moves at right angles to the direction in which the wave travels.
 The crest is the highest point while the trough is the lowest point in a transverse wave.
 Electromagnetic waves, such as light and radio waves, are transverse.
5. The following are the terms used to describe waves:
 Wavelength is the distance between successive identical parts of the wave. This could be the distance
between two successive crests or two successive troughs.
 The period of a wave is the time it takes for one complete back-and-forth vibration.
 Frequency refers to the numbers of crests or troughs, which pass as a point per unit time. It is the
reciprocal of the period. The SI unit of frequency is 1/s or hertz.
 Amplitude is the maximum displacement of a particle from its equilibrium position. It is the distance from
a point halfway between the crest and trough straight up to the crest or down to the trough. The larger the
amplitude of a wave, the more energy it has.
 The wave speed is equal to the product of the wavelength and the frequency of the wave.

wave speed = wavelength x frequency

6. The following are the different wave properties:

 Reflection refers to the bouncing back of a wave when it hits a barrier.
 Refraction is the bending of waves as they enter another medium at an angle. This is associated with a
change in the direction and sped of the wave.
 Diffraction is the bending of waves around small openings and around edges odf barriers.
 Interference is the overlapping of waves. It is the combined effects of two or more waves coming
together.
7. Interference patterns occur when waves from different sources arrive at the same point at the same time.
 In constructive interference, crest overlaps crest, or trough overlaps trough.
 In destructive interference, a crest overlaps trough.
 In a standing wave, points of complete destructive interference at which the medium does not move)
remain at the same location.
8. Sound waves are produced by the vibration of material objects. A disturbance in the form of a longitudinal wave
travels away the vibrating source.
9. Sound waves consist of travelling pulses of high – pressure zones, or compressions, alternation with pulses of
low – pressure zones, or rarefactions.
10. Sound can travel through gases, liquids, and solids, but not through a vacuum. Sound travels fastest through very
elastic materials such as steel.

11. The following are the characteristics of sound waves:

 Pitch is the highness or lowness of sound that the ear hears. It depends on frequency. The higher the
frequency of the vibrating object, the higher the pitch.

infrasonic sound (frequency below 20 Hz)

ultrasonic sound (frequency above 20000 Hz)

 Loudness is the magnitude of the sensation produced in the ear by the sound. It is measured in decibels.
Intensity is the rate at which sound energy flows through a unit area. An increase in the intensity of sound
causes a louder sound.
 Quality refers to the number of overtones or harmonics.
12. The following are the properties of sound waves:
 Echo is a reflected sound.
 Reverberation is a repetition of echoes or persistence of sound after emission.
 The change in the direction of sound wave is called diffraction.
 Sound can bend around corners and this is called diffraction.
 Two waves of the same frequency combine or interfere to produce beats. These rapid changes in
loudness can occur when two tones very close in frequency are heard at the same time.
 Resonance occurs when the frequency of two objects are the same. It also occurs when the frequency of
one is a multiple of the frequency of the sound. When an object is forced to vibrate at one of its own
natural frequencies, resonance occurs and the sound becomes louder.
13. Concepts about the nature of light:
 Corpuscular or particle theory (main proponent is Isaac Newton)
 Wave theory (main proponent is Christian Huygens)
 Dual nature of light (as it propagates light behaves like a wave but when it interacts with matter it
behaves like a particle)
14. Light has a speed of 300 000 km/s in a vacuum, and lower average speeds in matter.
15. Light is energy that travels in electromagnetic waves within a certain range of ffrequencies.
 Light is produced by vibrating electric charges in atoms.
 Light passes though materials whose atoms absorb the energy and immediately reemit it as light. These
materials are transparent.
 Light doesn’t pass through materials when the energy is changed to random kinetic energy of the atoms.
These materials are opaque.
16. White light is a combination of light of all visible frequencies. Black is the absence of light; objects that appear
black absorb all visible frequencies.
17. The color of an object is due to the color of the light it reflects (if opaque) or transmits (if transparent). Light is
absorbed when its frequency matches a natural vibration frequency of electrons in the material illuminated by the
light.
18. Scattering of violet and blue frequencies of sunlight in all directions is what gives the sky its blue color. When
sunlight travels a long path through the atmosphere, as at dawn or sunset, only the lower frequencies of light are
transmitted; the higher frequencies are scattered out.
19. Dispersion is the separation of white light by a prism into bands of colors.
20. Diffraction is the bending of light as it passes through an obstruction such as a small slit.
21. Interference is the overlapping of light waves. The beautiful colors of soap bubbles or on thin film of oil are
explained by the interference of light.
22. In reflection, a wave reaches the boundary between two media and bounce3s back into the first medium.
 At a boundary, usually part of a wave is reflected and part passes into the second medium.
 According to the law of reflection, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
 A plane mirror forms a virtual image of an object; the image appears to be as far in the back of the mirror
as the object is in front of it, and is the same size as the object.
 Light that falls on a rough surface is reflected diffusely. This is diffuse reflection.

23. In refraction, a wave reaches a boundary between two media and changes direction as it passes obliquely into
the second medium.\
 Refraction is caused by a difference in the speed of a wave in the two media.
 The speed of light in a material depends on frequency, causing the different colors that make up white
light to refract differently and spread out to form a visible spectrum.
 In total internal reflection, an incident wave on a boundary is at an angle such that none of the wave
can be refracted, so only reflection occurs.
 A mirage is caused by the refraction of light waves making objects that are far away appear to be nearby,
floating in air, or upside down.
24. Lenses are curved pieces of glass or plastic that form image by the refraction of light waves. A lens refracts
parallel rays so that they cross – or appear to cross – at a focal point.
25. A picture formed by a lens is called an image.
 A real image appears upside down and can be focused on a screen.
 A virtual image appears right side up and cannot be focused on a screen.
26. The focal length of a lens is the distance from its center to its focal point.
27. A converging lens (convex lens) is thicker in the middle; it focuses light waves to a common point.
28. A diverging lens (concave lens) is thinner in the middle; it spreads light rays apart so they seem to come from
the same point.
 It always forms virtual, reduced images.
 It is known for the wide angle view it provides.
29. The human eye refracts light and focuses it on the retina (with the help of corrective lenses if necessary).
 The lens of the eye forms images on the retina, which are real, inverted and smaller.
 Muscles in the eye change in the thickness of the lens so objects nearby and far can be seen clearly.
30. Nearsighted individuals have eyeballs that are unable to see far objects clearly because the image is formed in
front of the retina. Eyeglasses with concave lenses correct nearsightedness.
31. Farsighted individuals have eyeballs that are unable to see near objects clearly because the image is formed
behind the retina. Eyeglasses with convex lens correct farsightedness.