Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization (2022) 16:662–672

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-021-01191-3

ORIGINAL PAPER

A mild and innovative solar drying process to provide high quality

products
Laura Marinoni1   · Annamaria Stellari2 · Tiziana Maria Piera Cattaneo1,3

Received: 17 June 2021 / Accepted: 9 October 2021 / Published online: 19 October 2021
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2021

Abstract
In Developing Countries postharvest loss of fruits is very high due to the perishable nature of fruits, poor postharvest
handling, and lack of cheap and appropriate postharvest technology. Adequate solar drying techniques may be a promising
sustainable technology for transforming local products to obtain foods easily storable at room temperature. Five pilot innova-
tive mild solar drying processes on fruit and vegetable products were carried out at the Research Centre for Engineering and
Food Transformation (Milan, Italy) to verify the influence of the process on some physico-chemical properties of fruits and
their shelf life, for a process scale transposition. Samples were analysed for water activity ­(aw), colorimetric parameters and
VIS spectral profiles. Solar drying allowed the production of dehydrated products with attractive visual characteristics and
microbiologically safe due to low ­aw values. Dried product can be used as both final products ready to direct consumption and
food ingredients in their milled form in fortified foods. The possibility to store the products at room temperature can support
the rural sector of the Developing Countries by reducing food loss, poverty, and improving nutritional status of the population.

Keywords  Mild solar drying · Fruit and vegetable · Water activity · Colour · Shelf life

Introduction mode of heat transfer. The oven drying, microwave, vacuum

Drying process is one of the oldest methods of preserving
food, consisting in the simultaneous application of heat
under controlled conditions and the removal of most of the
water present in food. The main purpose of dehydration is to
extend the food products shelf-life by reducing water activity
­(aw) thus inhibiting microbial growth and enzymatic activ-
ity [1, 2]. In addition to food preservation, drying process
reduce weight and bulk of products leading to a decreased
packaging, handling, and transportation costs [3].
Several drying methods are commercially available, based
on different principle of operation, operating pressure, and
* Laura Marinoni
laura.marinoni@crea.gov.it
1
Research Centre for Engineering and Agro-Food Processing,
Council for Agricultural Research and Economics, Via G.
Venezian, 26, 20133 Milan, Italy
2
Research Centre for Engineering and Agro-Food Processing,
Council for Agricultural Research and Economics, Via
Milano, 43, 24047 Treviglio, BG, Italy
3
DAFNE, Tuscia University, Via S. M. in Gradi, 4,
01100 Viterbo, Italy
and freeze-drying methods are widely used because they
allow a dehydration process under controlled temperature,
humidity, and pressure conditions, often assuring high qual-
ity dried products [3]. However, such methods are expensive,
high-energy demanding and greenhouse gases producing [4,
5].
It is well known that drying may partially or totally affect
the quality of a product. All food products undergo changes
during drying and storage, which inevitably reduces their
quality when compared to the corresponding fresh foods.
Some of the quality changes that may occur in food during
drying include loss of aroma and flavours, changes in colour
and texture, and a decrease in its nutritional value [1, 3].
Colour is the major quality parameter in dehydrated food,
as the first judgment made by consumers on a food quality is
by the physical appearance and colour. Colour of dried fruits
and vegetables are not related to nutritional components con-
centration but can indicate retention of bioactive compounds
such as pigments as carotenoids, flavonoids, phenols, chlo-
rophyll and betalains [6]. The change in food colour after
drying is due to both physical changes in the surface char-
acteristics of food, and chemical or biochemical reactions.

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A mild and innovative solar drying process to provide high quality products 663
The physical appearances of dehydrated fruit may change
significantly due to the shrinkage phenomena and changes
occurring on the surface of foods which alter their reflec-
tivity and therefore their colour [1]. Moreover, the porous
structure of dried products may affect colour descriptors,
especially the lightness of material due to the presence of
air voids and pores [7].
Enzymatic oxidation, Maillard reactions, caramelisation,
and ascorbic acid browning are some of the chemical reac-
tions affecting the product colour that can occur during dry-
ing and storage [1, 3, 8, 9]. Shorter drying times and lower
drying temperatures, as well as blanching or fruit pre-treat-
ments with ascorbic acid or sulfur dioxide, reduce pigment
losses [10]. Enzymatic reactions by phenolases (polyphenol
oxidase, cresolase, catecholase, tyrosinase) cause the brown-
ing of some fruits and vegetables (banana, apple, and potato)
following exposure to the air of phenolic compounds, such
as hydroxybenzenes, which are oxidised to melanin. This is
a significant problem when fruits are peeled and sliced, or
when the peel is damaged during handling [11]. Since unde-
sirable physicochemical reactions also occur during storage,
a crucial aspect is the characteristic of the packaging. Atten-
tion should be paid to the packaging material, that must be
a good barrier against water vapor, O ­ 2, and other volatiles
[12]. The most used materials for the preservation of dried
products are polyethylene or polypropylene films often cou-
pled with aluminum or polyamide, sometimes under vacuum
sealed [12–15]. Recently, modified atmosphere packaging
solutions are also being studied [16].
To increase the shelf life of dried products drastic heat
treatments are needed, which determine a greater reduction
of the a­ w of the product but also lead to significant changes
in colour. In general, to preserve the colour of the dried
product, expensive and energy demanding techniques must
be used, such as freeze-drying [17].
Solar drying is an economical and sustainable alternative
to traditional techniques, being a simple and low-cost tech-
nology, both in terms of initial capital and management. No
skilled labour is required, and large quantities of crops can
be dried, using renewable energy [1]
Nonetheless, solar drying may be a promising sustainable
technology in Developing Countries where postharvest loss
of fruits is very high due to the perishable nature of fruits,
poor postharvest handling, and lack of cheap and appropriate
postharvest technology. African countries, for example, have
a great solar potential and in the last 10 years a great effort
has been made to improve the fruit drying process, moving
from sun drying, susceptible to contamination by dust, rain
and animals, to more efficient solar drying systems [18–21].
For example, Ssemwanga proposed an improved solar dryer
method with an auxiliary solar concentrator plate to enhance
absorption and retention of thermal energy for the drying of
mangoes and pineapples in Tanzania [21]. In Developing
Countries, solar drying of fruits and vegetables is a crucial
activity that greatly provides employment for women; cre-
ates sustainable income-generating schemes; leads to prod-
ucts with improved shelf life and nutritional standards; and
produce value added food items [18].
In this context, a study was carried out by performing
pilot solar drying processes on four fruit and one vegetable
samples. An innovative drying approach was adopted, based
on the use of low cost and efficient material and on a natural
and soft technology, which allows a slow dehydration at low
temperature, always below 50 °C. Such condition is reported
to minimize organoleptic changes during drying and to allow
better retention of colour, vitamins and antioxidant [22, 23].
The aim was to illustrate the performance of the employed
solar dryer and demonstrate its effectiveness in obtaining
high quality dried products. The influence of the process
on some physico-chemical properties of dried samples was
evaluated.
Materials and methods
Drying experiments were performed at the Research Centre
of Engineering and Food Transformation of the Council for
Agricultural Research and Economics (CREA IT, Milan,
Italy) during June and July 2019.
Samples
Fruits and vegetables used in this study were purchased
from a local market. Apple, banana, mango, pineapple,
and zucchini were processed. To prevent physiological and
chemical changes due to respiration process, samples were
stored at 4 ± 1 °C (relative humidity = 40 ± 2%) before the
experimentation.
Prior the drying process, the samples, previously allowed
to acclimate to room temperature, were thoroughly washed
with tap water, dried with paper towels, and weighted to
record the gross weight. All not-edible parts of the fruits
were removed, and the edible weight was recorded. Edible
portions of fruits were cut into slices of uniform thickness
(0.3 cm) with a slicing machine to ensure a uniform drying
and a homogenous final product. The slices were placed on
the drier trays close to each other without overlapping, using
all the available space for the greatest process efficiency, as
shown in Fig. 1.
Drying process
The drying process was performed with Italo ­BASE+ solar
dryer (G-teK srl, Modena, Italy) (Fig. 2a).
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664
Fig. 1  Preparation of apple slices and their positioning on drier trays
Italo ­BASE + is an innovative food-grade solar dryer
for herbs, vegetables, fruit, fish, meat, and other organic
products. It is based on a new sun drying concept which
involves the possibility to operate even at low level of sun
radiation, maintaining good product drying capabilities
[24].
The process is totally eco-friendly as all the energy nec-
essary to achieve the process is taken only from the sun.
Fig. 2  Solar drier used in the experiments (a); details of the drier components (b)
13
L. Marinoni et al.
A highly innovative feature of the system is related to
the construction materials: the polycarbonate is used for
all the 6 sides, while the aluminium is used for the frame’s
edges (Fig. 2b). Polycarbonate is a cheap material with a
high specific surface area which allows a great recovery
of solar energy.
In general, solar dryers are based on the accumulation
of solar energy for the heat of the air to be subsequently
introduced into the drying chamber [25, 26]. In the dryer
employed in this study, solar energy is directly stored in the
polycarbonate walls and readily used as the heating source.
Furthermore, the system is equipped with a photovoltaic
panel that allows to recover solar energy to only supply the
ventilation system (Fig. 2a). The air is taken from the outside
through the grid on the south side exposed to the sun, is
heated by the collector, and conveyed to the drying chamber
and then expelled by the ventilation unit (two fans) located
at the bottom of the dryer, carrying out a natural dehydration
process (Fig. 2b). The air flow hits the product transversely,
reducing the need to turn the products several times, and
thus obtaining uniform drying. A schematic representation
of the air flow inside the solar drier is shown in Fig. 3).
Being a process exclusively based on solar energy, oper-
ating temperatures never exceed 50 °C. These conditions
are considered 'mild' as they allow to minimize the thermal,
mechanical and oxidative damage as well as the chemical-
biological contaminations that generally characterize the
food preservation or transformation processes [27].
Table 1 reports the technical characteristic of the solar
dryer.
During the drying process, data for the external and inter-
nal air temperature and relative humidity were recorded.
Air temperature was recorded by a digital thermocouple
thermometer XS INSTRUMENTS mod. Temp 3JKT (XS
Instruments, Modena, Italy) and relative humidity was
measured by a digital thermo hygrometer iSNATCH mod.
EE181-L-Air.
A mild and innovative solar drying process to provide high quality products 665
Fig. 3  Scheme of the air flow inside the solar drier. T1-T7: thermal
probes
Table 1  Technical characteristics of the solar drier
Technical characteristics
Size and weight 97 × 151 × 70 cm;80 kg
Solar module 80 × 120 cm
Typical drying temp 40° C
Air volume, nominal 400,00 ­m3/h max
Thermal ­power§ 1.8 KW
Capacity 2.8 ­m2
Power Solar power
§
 Thermal power measured at 1000 W/m2 of sun radiation
The weight loss was monitored by weighting samples
at scheduled times. Data were recorded every 2 h and the
drying process was stopped when the samples reached a
constant weight, considering a difference lower than 1%
between two consecutive weightings. The process lasted
for 2 or 3 days depending on the sample characteristics,
the initial water content, and the climate conditions.
After dehydration, samples were cooled until room
temperature and weighted again.
Portions of 4 or 10 g of each dried sample were pack-
aged in transparent resealable plastic bags and stored at
room temperature (average room temperature: 24 ± 3 °C;
relative humidity: 37 ± 3%) in the dark. This simple and
cheap packaging and storage solution was tested that was
easily achievable without the use of dedicated equip-
ment or expensive materials. The choice was made with
a view for transposing the drying system into poor and
rural areas in Developing Countries.
Physico‑chemical analyses
After the drying process, some physico-chemical analyses
were performed. Samples were collected at different times
(0, 15, 63 and 365 days) to be subjected to water activity
­(aw) measurements and colorimetric analysis.
Water activity measurements
Water activity measurements were performed with the
AquaLab 4TE (METER Group, Inc. USA) benchtop water
activity meter, based on the chilled-mirror dew point tech-
nique [28]. To obtain accurate values, the analysis was
carried out in customized mode: 3 consecutive readings
of the same sample aliquot were performed within a range
of ± 0.005 ­aw, the output value being the average of the 3
readings.
For each sample 3 independent measurements were
performed.
Colorimetric analysis
Colorimetric analyses were performed on dried samples
using a Konica Minolta (Konica Minolta Business Solu-
tions Italia S.p.A., Milan, Italy) CM-2500d colorimeter with
SpectraMagic™ NX colour data software.
The CM-2500d is a portable integrating sphere spectro-
photometer, which allows the simultaneous measurement of
specular component included (SCI) and specular component
excluded (SCE).
L*, a*, b*, h and C* colorimetric data were acquired
together with reflectance spectra in the range of 360–740 nm.
According to the International Colour Standardization
body, L* parameter defines the lightness ranging from 0
(black) to 100 (white); a* defines redness or greenness rang-
ing from − 60 (green) to 60 (red); and b* describes blue-
ness or yellowness ranging from − 60 (blue) to 60 (yellow).
Chroma (C*) indicates the colour saturation, which is pro-
portional to its intensity; for the hue angle (h) an angle of 0°
or 360° indicates a red hue, while angles of 270°, 180° and
90° represent blue, green, and yellow hue respectively [29].
Before the analysis, the instrument was calibrated for the
black in the air, and for the white on the supplied standard
tile.
Three measurements were performed for each sample in
3 different areas of the sample surface.
The total colour difference ΔE was calculated as follow
(1) from the fresh samples, as a measure of the change after
the drying process:
√
ΔE = (L0∗ − L∗ )2 + (a∗0 − a∗ )2 + (b∗0 − b∗ )2 (1)
13

666 L. Marinoni et al.

where subscript “0” refers to the colour of fresh sample,
while L*; a* and b* indicate colour parameters of dried sam-
ples, respectively [29].
Data processing
Analyses of ­aw and colorimetric parameters were per-
formed in triplicates, and all data were analysed using
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) by using SPSS software
(version 20.0, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Student's t
test was used to compare means of fresh samples and their
corresponding t = 0 dried; one-way ANOVA was used to
compare means of the parameters during the storage. The
means were separated using a Tukey's HSD test, and their
statistical significance was determined at 5% (p < 0.05)
level.
Spectroscopic data processing
Visible (VIS) spectra were analysed by using The
Unscrambler software (v 9.7, Camo, Inondhcim, Nor-
way). To minimize the effect of baseline shifts, Standard
Normal Variate (SNV) pre-processing was applied to the
spectral data. As the best pre-treatment, the second deriva-
tive transformation (Savitzky–Golay method, gap size = 3
data points), was applied to extract the most useful infor-
mation from the spectra.
Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied for
uncovering molecular modifications and samples grouping
during storage.
Results and discussion
Dehydration process
The five solar drying experiments were performed out-
door with mean daily temperature and relative humidity of
34.4 °C and 32%, respectively. The mean drying air tempera-
tures for mango, zucchini, banana, apple, and pineapple were
38, 38, 39.3, 38 and 34.1 °C, respectively. Figure 4 shows,
as an example, the trend of external and internal tempera-
tures and relative humidity (RH%) values during the drying
process of zucchini.
Temperatures were found to be fairly constant during the
process compared to relative humidity. The internal tem-
peratures ranged from 32 to 42 °C and were always higher
than the external ones, which ranged from 30 to 37 °C. The
external relative humidity was the most variable parameter
with maximum values that reached 40% at midday. It is evi-
dent that the external humidity did not affect the process, as
the internal humidity progressively decreased from 37% to
12%. This proved the efficiency of the solar drying system
employed.
Drying yields were different for the different products and
related to the initial moisture content of the samples: 5.3,
12.6, 14, 15 and 21% for zucchini, apple, pineapple, mango,
and banana, respectively.

Water activity measurements

Table 2 shows the mean (n = 3) ­aw values measured on dried

Fig. 4  Trend of external and internal temperatures and RH%  during fruits and vegetables at the end of the drying process (t = 0)
the drying process of zucchini and during the shelf life of all dried products, in verifying

Table 2  Water activity values Product t = 0 t = 15 t = 63 T = 365

of dried fruits and vegetables
at the end of the drying process Mango 0.328 ± 0.007 a
0.376 ± 0.006 b
0.381 ± 0.002b
0.386 ± 0.001b
(t = 0) and during the shelf life
Zucchini 0.290 ± 0.005a 0.405 ± 0.009c 0.397 ± 0.010bc 0.390 ± 0.001b
Banana 0.347 ± 0.007a 0.365 ± 0.003b 0.398 ± 0.002c 0.431 ± 0.001d
Apple 0.329 ± 0.006a 0.370 ± 0.009b 0.365 ± 0.004b 0.370 ± 0.003b
Pineapple 0.347 ± 0.014a 0.351 ± 0.009a 0.386 ± 0.007b 0.392 ± 0.003b

Data are reported as average value of three measurements ± standard deviation

Same letters in each row indicate the means are not statistically different according to analysis of variance
(ANOVA) and Tukey’s (HSD) post hoc test (p < 0.05)

13
A mild and innovative solar drying process to provide high quality products 667
the efficiency of the process to ensure the hygienic quality of
the final products and the maintenance of the residual water
contents within safety values.
The statistical analysis (ANOVA) was carried out for each
type of preparation, as a function of the storage time.
All the samples showed ­aw values lower than 0.4 at t = 0.
Mango samples values were in accordance with Link et al.
[30] who found a­ w values of 0.353 for samples subjected to
air drying process at 60 °C. Zucchini samples showed the
lowest ­aw value (0.290) while the fresh product generally has
the highest water content (more than 93% [31]) compared
to the other fruit.
Banana and pineapple samples showed the highest ­aw val-
ues (0.347). Banana data were in accordance with Hofsetz
and Lopes [32] who reported water activity values ranging
from 0.409 to 0.345 after several high temperature and short
time drying stage combined with a 70 °C air drying process
on sliced banana samples. The starchy nature of the product
may has affected the evaporation of water from the food
matrix, making its removal more difficult. Haqbeen et al.
[33] found similar results for osmo-dehydrated pineapple
slices, showing values ranging from 0.328 and 0.423.
Apples ­aw values were slightly higher compared to those
found by De-la Fuente et al. [34] resulted lower than 0.26
after an instant decompression controlled vacuum dehy-
dration process, while Aktas et al. [15] reported ­aw values
higher than 0.4 for apples dried in hot air dryer at 50 °C.
Although the applied process was characterized by mild
conditions, comparable and sometimes even lower ­aw values
were achieved compared to literature data referring to more
expensive and stronger processes at higher temperatures. In
our experiments, all ­aw values were found to be within the
microbiological safety zone, set from 0.2 to 0.6 ­aw values
[35]. This range guarantees the food protection from any
microbiological contamination because these low values
of free water prevent the proliferation of almost all bacte-
ria, yeasts, and moulds. Our values confirmed the products
safety.
During the shelf life, a general increase in the ­aw value
was detectable with different trends among the products.
Zucchini regained the greatest amount of moisture in the first
2–3 weeks of storage, but the phenomenon slowed down in
the following months. Fruit samples, in general, exhibited a
similar behaviour, but with smaller ­aw increases compared
to zucchini samples. This difference could be related to
the higher water content of zucchini compared to the other
fruits, which allowed them to dry out more easily but also to
regain moisture more quickly during the shelf life. Banana
showed significant differences in a­ w values among all the
four checkpoints while pineapple resulted the most stable
product.
In general, our results are consistent with Cichowska
and Kowalska [14] who reported ­aw values around 0.35
for apples subjected to a more severe convective drying at
70 °C, after both 7 and 12 months of conservation in plastic
polyethylene bags under vacuum at 25 °C.
Although the perishability of dried fruits is very low
since their respiration rates are very low (< 1 mg ­CO2/kg·h
at 5 °C) compared to their fresh counterparts, due to the
reduced water content and the living status of the tissues,
product spoilage could always occur. Due to their active sur-
face, dried fruits and vegetables are very sensitive to humid-
ity and oxidation during their storage [12]. The packaging
characteristics and the storage method are of great impor-
tance during the dried fruits and vegetables conservation in
preventing undesirable physicochemical reactions that may
compromise the quality of the product. In the present work,
small transparent resealable plastic bags were chosen in view
of a possible use of dried products as “on the go” snacks.
Although the samples were not vacuum packed, the adopted
process allowed to maintain low and rather constant ­aw val-
ues, ensuring the microbiological safety.
Water activity variations during storage of dried products
were also evaluated on portions of samples milled immedi-
ately after the drying process and stored under the same con-
ditions. Very similar trends were observed compared to the
sliced samples, indicating a good shelf life even for such a
preparation to be used as a food ingredient (data not shown).
Colorimetric analysis
Table 3 shows the colorimetric parameters of fresh and dried
samples at t = 0 and during the shelf life.
The total colour differences ΔE from the fresh samples
were used to evaluate the overall impact of the drying pro-
cess on the colour of the product. The fresh samples colour
was used as reference and larger ΔE denotes greater colour
change from the fresh material.
L* is a crucial parameter for drying as it is generally the
first quality attribute that consumers evaluate for the accept-
ance of a product [36]. High L* values are mainly associ-
ated to non-enzymatic browning reactions which can occur
between reducing sugars and amino acids. Ascorbic acid,
dehydroascorbic acid and other degradation products from
ascorbic-acid oxidation can be ascribable to Maillard-type
browning reactions as well [37].
In general, brightness tended to decrease significantly
after the drying process. However, the measured L* values
remained quite high, indicating, together with low ΔE val-
ues, the mildness of the adopted drying treatment.
It was interesting to note that fresh apple and pineap-
ple samples showed negative values of a* while the dried
counterparts were located at positive values in the colour
space. Zucchini was the only one preparation maintaining a
tendency towards the green axis (with negative a* values)
even after the process.
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668 L. Marinoni et al.

Table 3  Colorimetric parameters of fresh and dried fruits and vegetables at the end of the drying process (t = 0) and during the shelf life
Product t (days) L* a* b* h C* ΔE

Fresh mango 77.10 ± 1.94* 3.63 ± 1.20 52.12 ± 1.54* 86.00 ± 1.39* 52.25 ± 1.49*

Mango 0 72.74 ± 0.12*, b 3.93 ± 0.19a 56.74 ± 1.39*, c 90.93 ± 0.16*, d 56.75 ± 1.38*, c 6
15 75.02 ± 3.93b 4.03 ± 1.80a 47.28 ± 3.01b 85.21 ± 1.93c 47.47 ± 3.13b
63 71.43 ± 1.95ab 4.78 ± 0.85a 43.23 ± 1.76ab 81.56 ± 0.98b 44.51 ± 1.77ab
365 67.29 ± 2.96a 8.77 ± 0.21b 40.92 ± 1.50a 77.90 ± 0.50a 41.85 ± 1.47a
Fresh zucchini 85.96 ± 2.11* − 6.30 ± 1.14 30.66 ± 6.39 101.66 ± 0.33 31.29 ± 6.49
Zucchini 0 80.63 ± 1.97*, b − 5.41 ± 1.46a 24.40 ± 2.43a 102.51 ± 3.21b 25.02 ± 2.46a 8
15 82.95 ± 1.34b − 4.45 ± 0.41a 24.67 ± 2.17ab 97.16 ± 6.23b 24.95 ± 1.95a
63 79.80 ± 1.53b − 3.52 ± 0.86a 25.24 ± 1.79ab 97.08 ± 1.67b 25.68 ± 1.91a
365 68.13 ± 1.28a 4.88 ± 0.43b 29.38 ± 0.78b 80.57 ± 0.90a 29.78 ± 0.75a
Fresh banana 73.70 ± 1.82* 1.08 ± 0.40* 32.13 ± 1.16* 88.09 ± 0.64* 32.15 ± 1.18*
Banana 0 63.24 ± 3.44*, a 4.60 ± 0.68*, a 27.48 ± 0.33*, a 80.49 ± 1.36*, b 27.87 ± 0.37*, a 12
15 56.21 ± 4.09a 5.72 ± 2.52ab 26.93 ± 4.06a 77.70 ± 5.76b 27.63 ± 3.86a
63 55.12 ± 4.59a 8.03 ± 1.22ab 26.77 ± 2.14a 73.80 ± 2.68ab 27.50 ± 2.10a
365 53.38 ± 5.62a 9.62 ± 1.27b 24.14 ± 3.02a 68.19 ± 2.96a 26.01 ± 3.01a
Fresh apple 80.51 ± 1.17* − 6.96 ± 0.98* 24.79 ± 2.60* 105.65 ± 0.57* 25.75 ± 2.78*
Apple 0 72.33 ± 0.96*, a 7.79 ± 0.12*, ab 35.96 ± 1.46*, b 77.76 ± 0.66*, ab 36.79 ± 1.40*, b 20
15 71.30 ± 2.96a 9.18 ± 1.89b 36.81 ± 3.01b 75.46 ± 1.63a 38.38 ± 3.38b
63 71.81 ± 1.21a 8.12 ± 0.60ab 35.41 ± 2.23ab 76.64 ± 0.84a 36.48 ± 2.36ab
365 78.32 ± 0.24b 5.53 ± 0.60a 30.08 ± 1.86a 79.70 ± 0.61b 30.46 ± 1.89a
Fresh pineapple 78.45 ± 2.60 − 2.77 ± 0.47* 49.68 ± 5.10 93.27 ± 0.85 49.76 ± 5.08
Pineapple 0 71.80 ± 4.78b 8.26 ± 2.94*, a 52.53 ± 5.34a 84.92 ± 6.33a 52.98 ± 5.84a 13
15 69.35 ± 4.12b 10.06 ± 2.08a 53.42 ± 5.12a 83.72 ± 5.83a 51.22 ± 5.21a
63 64.19 ± 1.85b 10.91 ± 1.87a 53.41 ± 2.13a 82.92 ± 3.02a 50.36 ± 2.13a
365 54.88 ± 2.15a 12.11 ± 1.99a 49.54 ± 1.35a 78.25 ± 2.36a 49.03 ± 2.34a

Data are reported as average value of three measurements ± standard deviation

*In each column indicates the means are statistically different according to t test (p < 0.05)
Same letters indicate the means are not statistically different according to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s post hoc test (p < 0.05)

The brightness value L* of mango decreased with drying,
as reported in literature after the application of different dry-
ing conditions [8, 38, 39].
The a* values did not change significantly as reported by
Chong et al. [8], who found very similar values for mango
dried with four different methods. The b* and C* param-
eters increased with drying, indicating a product with a more
intense yellow colour. Literature data about b* parameter are
rather discordant. Dereje and Abera [38] and Mugodo [39]
reported a decrease in the yellow parameter of mango after
drying, while Chong et al. [8] did not observe significant
changes.
The found total colour change (ΔE = 6), which is a com-
bination of L*, a* and b* values, indicated that drying had
a little impact on the mango colour. Literature data reported
very variable values depending on the drying conditions.
Dereje and Abera [38] and Mugodo [39] reported higher
ΔE value (20 and 11 respectively) for solar dried mango,
while Chong et al. [8] found ΔE value very close to our for
heat pump drying method at 35 °C (ΔE = 8.66). The Authors
attributed the low ΔE of dried mango compared to other
fruits to its native ascorbic acid content. Ascorbic acid can
prevent enzyme discolouration of fruit by reducing polyphe-
nol oxidase activity which is associated with the conversion
of phenolic compounds to quinones.
Zucchini were also little affected by the heat treat-
ment, showing a low ΔE value (ΔE = 8). The colorimet-
ric parameters were not statistically different from the
fresh sample, except for brightness. As expected, the L*
parameter was higher in the fresh sample. Cuccurullo et al.
[40] used a raw material with colorimetric characteristics
very close to our (L* = 86; a* = − 5; b* = 30), but obtained
a significant decrease of L* and a* and a high ΔE (35)
after a microwave treatment of zucchini slices at 65 °C.
Thus, despite the very similar characteristics of the start-
ing point, in our study the quality of the final product was
better maintained compared to the more drastic and expen-
sive treatment applied by Cuccurullo.
The fresh banana showed all colour parameters signifi-
cantly different from the dried counterparts. In particular,

13
A mild and innovative solar drying process to provide high quality products 669
the dried product was less bright, and the colour tended
to orange yellow, indicating that browning reactions
occurred. Maskan [41] found similar trend of colour
changes for hot air-dried banana samples at 60 °C: they
reported a decrease in L* and an increase of a* parameters.
They also reported higher ΔE (18.6–31) for different treat-
ments; only hot air drying followed by a microwave finish
drying process gave a low ΔE (9.9), close to our finding
(12).
The chromatic characteristics of apple samples were also
greatly influenced by the heat treatment. Brightness and hue
decreased dramatically after heat treatment while a*, b* and
C* values increased. The red–green chromaticity increased
considerably, changing from negative values towards green
to positive ones. These colour changes resulted in a rather
high ΔE value of 20. Similarly, Aktas et al. [15] reported a
ΔE of 24.03 for Granny Smith apples subjected to hot air
drying at 60 °C, while Chong et al. [8] found ΔE values
from 15 to 26 after applying several combined drying tech-
niques. The colour change of apple slices during drying is
ascribable to both enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning,
mainly due to their high sugar content [8, 42]. Enzymatic
browning occurs in apples after cutting as a result of interac-
tions between polyphenol oxidases and phenolic compounds
and the use of high temperatures in the early drying stages is
an efficient method of inactivating enzymes and preventing
decomposition reactions [42]. Our results are in agreement
with those reported by Mariscal and Bouchon [37]. They
found most important changes in colour when analysing
L* and a* coordinates for apple frying process. Similarly,
Krokida et al. [10, 43] reported significant increase in both
redness and yellowness parameters after several drying treat-
ments at different temperatures, but they also found that dry-
ing did not influence the L* parameter.
For pineapple, an influence of the drying process was
detectable on the brightness and a* parameters. L* param-
eter decreased significantly with drying, while a* values
highly increased. The reduction of L* together with the
increase of a* values indicated a loss of luminosity and the
formation of some compounds deriving from non-enzymatic
browning reactions (Maillard reaction). Yellowness and
chroma parameters did not change significantly. Ramallo
and Mascheroni [44] found a* and b* values of pineapple
slightly increased during drying at 45° and 60 °C, while no
significant L* value modifications were detected.
The storage influence was investigated by comparing the
means of the stored samples through the ANOVA and Tuk-
ey’s post hoc test. In general, an overall decrease of luminos-
ity and an upward trend in the a* parameter were observed,
most likely due to the formation of brown pigments [41,
45]. This trend was mainly observed for mango and zucchini
samples. Non-enzymatic browning in zucchini is primarily
caused by degradation of ascorbic acid, which is a precursor
of the Maillard reaction [46].
Apple samples resulted rather stable for the first two
months of storage. At the end of the shelf life, lightness
increased together with a partial discolouration of the sam-
ples, with a decrease of a*, b* and h parameters. Similar
results were found by Rizzolo et al. [47] for air-dried apple
rings, showing constant colorimetric parameters in the first
three months of storage and an increase of L* together with
a decrease of a* and b*. Similarly, Aktas et al. [15] found
an increase of luminosity in the last 6 months of storage,
associated to an increase of the water activity values for
apple samples dried at 50–70 °C. Despite the mild heat treat-
ment applied in the present study, the obtained dried apples
showed a stability of the colorimetric parameters compara-
ble to products dried with traditional techniques, character-
ised by a high economic and environmental impact.
Colorimetric parameters of banana and pineapple sam-
ples resulted rather stable during the shelf life, indicating a
good aptitude of these products to be processed. Constant
values of colorimetric parameters suggested very low losses
of nutritional constituents with positive effects on health in
using dried products both as snacks and food ingredients.
The good stability of the colorimetric parameters
obtained in these drying processes is due to the character-
istics of the innovative mild drying system. This process
allowed a rather slow dehydration at low temperatures,
always below 45 °C. The process is designed to be started
in the morning, operating at higher temperatures during the
sunny daytime hours. Conversely, during the night, with the
decrease of the plant ventilation, partial natural rehydration
of the product can occur. This phenomenon ensures the for-
mation and maintenance of a surface film of moisture that
prevents excessive overheating of the product surface in the
subsequent hours of dehydration, resulting in a lower surface
non-enzymatic browning reaction. When the sun has again
influence on the fan speed, the film of moisture is gradually
removed and the internal moisture can move again to the
surface with a consequent minimisation of colour degrada-
tion [48]. The Authors observed a gradual rate of colour
change for banana and guava samples when a step-down in
drying air temperature occurred, with a consequent sufficient
tempering time allowed. They suggested the use of the high
temperature if the ­aw remains high and then the reduction of
the air temperature when the critical zone of the product ­aw
is passed. The tempering of the product at lower tempera-
ture and moisture content reduces thermal effect and allows
internal moisture to diffuse to the product surface, forming
a protective layer which minimises Maillard reactions [48].
13

670
Fig. 5  Second derivative of SNV pre-treated VIS spectra of fresh products (a) and t = 0 dried samples (b)
Colour spectra
Figure 5 shows the second derivative of SNV pre-treated
VIS spectra respectively of fresh and t = 0 samples.
After the pre-processing treatments both the baseline off-
set and baseline slopes differences between the spectra were
removed, the absorption peaks became sharper, allowing a
more precise identification of the absorption peaks.
In the VIS range from 360 to 740 nm it is possible to
identify 3 characteristic zones for the absorption of specific
constituents. Carotenoids and xanthophylls absorb with three
peak maxima in the wavelength range from 420 to 503 nm:
the beta-carotene pigment has a yellow to orange-red colour
and a strong absorption around 475 nm while the xantho-
phylls, lutein and violaxanthin, show an absorbance peak
around 435 nm. Anthocyanin group absorb in the region
from 530 to 550 nm, while chlorophyll A shows two peak
maxima at 434 and 670 nm [49]. The VIS absorbance is
Fig. 6  Second derivative of SNV pre-treated VIS spectra of Mango (a) and Zucchini (b) samples
13
L. Marinoni et al.
proportional to the concentration of the different chemi-
cal components. Despite the nutritional factors are gener-
ally present as micro-constituents, the specific wavelengths
reported above correspond to peaks of maximum absorb-
ance, curve inflections or maximum slope in the raw spectra
of the different products.
According to the intensity of these absorption peaks,
fresh zucchini and apple samples had the highest content of
chlorophyll, which turns in a more greenish colour. Mango,
banana and pineapple samples showed high content of carot-
enoids (Fig. 5a). After the drying process, a reduction of the
absorption bands ascribable to carotenoids and chlorophyll
(only for apples) was observed (Fig. 5b). Carotenoids are
oxidized upon exposure to light and oxygen and are reported
as being sensitive to drying techniques [50]. For example,
carotene content of vegetables has been reported to decrease
by 80% if processing is done without blanching [51]. The
green colour of vegetables is determined by a mixture of
A mild and innovative solar drying process to provide high quality products 671
Fig. 7  PCA score plot of the second-derivative VIS spectra of dried
samples
chlorophyll A and chlorophyll B, whose colour is directly
related to the retention of magnesium in the pigment mol-
ecules. During heat treatments, chlorophyll loses the magne-
sium and converts to pheophytin or pheophorbide changing
the colour from brilliant green to olive green/ grey brown.
Pheophorbide can be further metabolised to colourless com-
pounds [50, 51].
The ­2nd derivative VIS spectra of dried mango and zuc-
chini showed high variations in the spectral regions related
to carotenoids and chlorophyll absorption during the shelf
life (Fig. 6). The absorption peaks at 480 and 670 nm greatly
reduced indicating carotenoids degradation and a loss of
greenish colour of the sample, respectively.
Mango and banana spectra showed a similar but less
marked behaviour (data not shown).
Figure 7 shows the score plot of the PCA analysis of the
second-derivative VIS spectra of dried samples. The first
two components explained the 77% of the total variance and
the distribution of the samples in the orthogonal space was
mainly due to the spectral absorption of carotenoids and
chlorophyll.
A clear separation between zucchini t = 0 and t = 15 and
all the other samples was observed along the PC1. The spa-
tial arrangement of the other samples was specific for each
product.
Zucchini samples were distributed along the PC1 moving
from negative values for 0-, 15- and 63-days samples to posi-
tive values at the end of the shelf life, indicating a decrease
in the chlorophyll content with the storage time increas-
ing. Mango and banana samples were distributed along the
PC2 according to the spectral contribution of carotenoids
while apple and pineapple samples were grouped together,
supporting the minimal storage impact on their spectral
characteristics.
Conclusions
The solar drying process proposed in this work represents
an innovative and eco-sustainable technique for processing
several agricultural products. Due to the low exercise tem-
peratures and the peculiar temperatures/humidity trends, the
process allowed to obtain dehydrated products with accept-
able visual characteristics and microbiologically safe. Their
low ­aw values made them suitable for storage at room tem-
perature without the need of a vacuum sealed packaging up
to one year maintaining appreciable sensory characteristics.
In this way also the packaging costs may have lower inci-
dence on the total costs (harvest, process, transport, trading,
selling) of dried products. Such products could be used both
as final products for direct consumption and as food ingre-
dients in their milled form in fortified foods as nutraceutical
and fibres source.
In this context, solar drying could be a promising sus-
tainable and eco-friendly solution, for reducing food loss
and increasing the shelf life of seasonal fruit and vegetables
especially in Developing Countries, and/or for re-using part
of fresh surplus.
The presented dehydration plant is characterised by sim-
ple design, low energetic needs, and low environmental
impact. The implementation of such flexible and sustain-
able transformation systems for the use and re-use of natural
products as differentiated sources of nutraceuticals could
support the rural sector by reducing poverty and improving
nutrition.
Further experiments are planned to modify the storage
conditions of the dried products in accordance with the
weather conditions of Sub-Saharian Countries.
Funding  This research was partially supported by G-teK s.r.l., Via
G.Puccini 10 Carpi (Modena)—Italy.
Data availability  Data will be made available on reasonable request.
Code availability  Not applicable.
Declarations 
Conflict of interest  The authors declare no competing interests.
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