PART - B

Medieval India
▪ Rashtrakutas & Imperial Cholas

▪ Ghaznavids:Mahmud of Gazni & Muhammad Ghori

▪ Delhi Sultanate: Slave Dynasty (1206 – 1290)

▪ Delhi Sultanate: Khilji Dynasty (1290 – 1320)

▪ Delhi Sultanate: Tughlaq Dynasty, Sayyids Dynasty,

Lodi Dynasty

▪ Delhi Sultanate administration, art & Culture

▪ Sufism and Bhakti Movement

▪ Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1672)

▪ Mughal Empire

▪ Maratha

▪ Advent of the Europeans in India

 Rashtrakutas & Imperial Cholas

Rashtrakutas

Deccan + Karnataka → 975 AD Mother Tounge → Kannad

Great Kannad Poet → Pampa (Wrote Vikramasena Vijaya &

Capital → Manyakhet Adi Purana)

Dantidurga

▪ Founder of Rashtrakutas kingdom

▪ Defeated Pariharas annexed Malwa
▪ Defeated & Annexed Chalukyas
 Krishana 1

▪ Annexed Chalukyas of Vengi (Eastern Chalukyas)

▪ Built Monolithic Ellora temple Kailasha temple → Dravidian Style
 Amoghavarsha

▪ Ruled for 64 Years → Follower of Jainism

▪ Chief Teacher → Jinasena (Wrote Parshavabudaya)
▪ Wrote 1st Kannada book → Kavirajmarga
▪ Built capital Malkhed (Manyakhet) to its zenith

Krishana 3

▪ Last prominent Rashtrakuta ruler

▪ Built Krishaneshwara Temple at Rameshwaram
▪ After his death Rastrakutas power declined & Chalukya of kalyani took over

Administration of Rashtrakutas

▪ Empire was divided into several provinces called Rashtras under the control of Rashtrapati
▪ Rashtras were further divided into Districts called vishayas, goverened by Vishayapatis
▪ Next subdivision was Bukti (Consiting of 50 – 70 villages ) under charge of Bhogpatis
▪ Each village was headed by village headmen who in turn was helped by village elders called Grama
Mahajana or Grama Mahattara
▪ Law & order was responsibility of Kosta – pala or Kotwal
▪ Hereditary Revenue Officer → Nav Gavundas or Desa Gramakutas

Religion

▪ Vaishnavism & Shaivism prominently flourished

▪ Jainism & Buddhism along with Muslims were welcomed & allowed to preach their faith
▪ Famous Temples → Kailash temple at Ellora, Krishaneshwara temple at Rameshwaram
▪ Famous Caves → Elephanta Caves at Mumbai

Imperial Cholas (900 -1200 AD)

Vijayalaya

▪ Founder of Chola Dynasty

▪ Capital → Tanjore
▪ Built Durga Temple at Tanjore

Rajaraja 1 (Shaivist)

▪ Defeated Cheras (Trivendrum), Pandayas & Annexed Northern Srilanka

▪ Conquered Maldieves & Chalukya of Kalyani (Who succeeded Rashtrakutas)
▪ Built Famous Rajeshwara/Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore (Dravida Style) in 1010 AD

Rajendra 1 (Shaivist)

▪ Defeated southern Srilanka & annexed whole Srilanka

▪ Moved north & Captured till Bengal defeating Mahipala 1; Assumed title of Gangaikonda chola
▪ Conquered Malay Peninsula & converted Bay of Bengal to Chola lake for trading purposes with
China
▪ Found new capital Gangaikondacholapuram at Kaveri & Built famous Gangaikondachola Temple (
Dravida style)
 Administration

▪ Chola Empire was divided into Mandalams or provinces

▪ Mandalams were further divided into Valanadu or Nathus (Number of villages)
▪ Local self-government in villages with mainly two assemblies Ur & Sabha (or Mahasabha)
▪ Ur → General assembly of the village
▪ Mahasabha → Gathering of adult men in Brahamdeya villages called Agraharas

Culture & Religion

▪ Prevalent cast system as Brahamanas & Kshatriyas enjoyed powers

▪ Shaivism & Vaishnavism flourished & a number of temples & Mathas (educational centres) were
built
▪ Shaivism saints were known as Nayanars & Vishnu saints as Alvars
▪ Famous Temples → Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur by Rajraja 1, Airavatesvara Temple at
Darasuram by Rajraja 2, Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikondacholisvaram by Rajendra 1

Dravida was the main style of building temples viz.

▪ 5 -7 story building above Girbhagriha (Chief deity room) → Vimana

Style

▪ Gopurams (Lofty gates)

▪ Mandap (pillars) with big hall for audiences & ceremonies

▪ Ceremonies performed by Devadasis (Women dedicated to God)

▪ Example → Kailashnath temple of Kanchipuram

 Ghaznavids → Mahmud of Gazni & Muhammad Ghori

Ghaznavids (1000 – 1200 AD)

▪ Islam → Founded in Mecca by prophet muhammad (622 AD)

▪ 622 AD → Starting point of Muslim calender
▪ Later, Profet moved to Madina & this Muslim era was called Hijra

▪ Followers of prophet set up an empire known as Caliphate

▪ Umayyads & Abbasids were called Caliphs (Arabs)

Mahmud of Gazni

▪ Around 900 AD, Caliphate declined & Turkish established independent kingdoms

▪ Mahmud of Gazni is said to have made 17 raids to India, mainly aimed at rich temples &
cities of North India

▪ North Indian frontier Hindu Shahi kingdom of Jayapala (Punjab to Kabul) was defeated in
1001 AD

▪ His successor Anandpala also got defeated in battle of Waihind (1008 AD).

▪ In battle of Waihind, Anandpala was supported by Rulers of Kannauj & Rajasthan; as a

result Mahmud got his rule established over almost all over Punjab

Famous Poets Patronized by Mahmud of Gazni

▪ Firdausi → Wrote Shahnamah

▪ Alberuni → Wrote Kitab-i-Hind

Muhammad Ghori
▪ After death of Mahmud, Ghori succeeded to the throne of Ghazni

▪ In 1186, He attacked Punjab & captured it from “Khusro Malik”, annexing it to his dominions

▪ Realizing the urgency of situation, North Indian Hindu princes formed a confederacy under the
command of Prithvi Raj Chauhan

▪ Prithvi raj chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghori in Battle of Tarain, near Delhi in 1191

▪ Again, Muhammad Ghori gathered a vast army & sent message to Prithvi raj chauhan to be a
Muslim & accept his supremacy but Chauhan rejected his terms.

▪ In 1192, in 2nd battle of Tarain , Prithvi raj Chauhan was captured & killed, marking the
establishment of 1st Muslim kingdom rule over Ajmer in India
▪ Muhammad Ghori returned to Ghazni leaving his general Qutubuddin Aibak to make further
conquests in India → Aibak captured Delhi & Meerut and in 1193
▪ Ghori invaded Jayachandra “Ruler of Kannauj” in battle of Chandwar or Ghardawala &
annexed it, setting Turkish rule in North India

Delhi Sultanet

Muslim invasion in India resulted in establishment of Delhi Sultanet (1206 – 1526) which mainly
consisted of 5 different dynasties

Dynasty Prominent Rulers

Slave dynasty Qutubuddin Aibak, Iltutmish, Razia Sultana, Balban

Khilji dynasty Jalaluddin Khalji, Alaunddin Khalji

Tughlaq dynasty Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, Muhammad – Bin – Tughlaq, Firoz Tughlaq

Sayyid dynasty Khirz khan, Alam Shah

Lodi dynasty Bahlol lodi, Sikandar lodi, Ibrahim Lodi

 Delhi Sultanate → Slave Dynasty (1206 – 1290)

Slave dynasty (Mamluk dynasty) was mainly sum up of 3 small dynasties, namely

▪ Qutubi Dynasty (1206 – 1211) → By Qutubuddin Aibak

▪ 1st Ilbari Dynasty (1211 – 1246) → By Iltutmish
▪ 2nd Ilbari Dynasty (1246 – 1290) → By Balban

Qutubuddin Aibak (1206 -1210)

▪ At the death of Muhammad Ghori, Aibak declared his independence & setup his own rule at
Indraprastha, near Delhi
▪ He severed all connections with Ghori kingdom & founded slave dynasty as well as Delhi sultanate
▪ Assumed the title of Sultan & made Lahore his capital
▪ Also known as Lakh bakhsh by Muslim writers due to his charity of 1 lakh coins to them
▪ Patronised great scholar “Hasan Nizami” & started construction of famous Qutub minar named
after famous Sufi saint Khwaja – i – Qutubuddin- Bakthiyar (Minar was later completed by
Iltutmish)
▪ Died Playing Chaugan (Horse polo) in 1210

Iltutmish (1211 – 1236)

▪ Belonged to Ilbari tribe hence his dynasty is named Ilbari dynasty. His half-brothers sold him to
Aibak who made him, his son-in-law & appointed him as ‘Iqtadar of Gwalior’
▪ In 1211, Iltutmish defeated Aram Bakhsh (Son of Aibak) & became sultan
▪ Shifted capital from Lahore to Delhi, Completed Qutub Minar at Delhi & Built Ajmer Sharif
mosque
▪ Introduced Arabic coinage silver taka (175 gm) coin in India which became the basis of modern
rupee
▪ Started a new class of ruling elites of 40 powerful military leaders known as “the 40 nobles” or
Chahalgani
▪ It was under his reign that Mongols under Changez khan raided Central Asia

Razia Sultana (1236 – 1240)

▪ Appointed Abyssinian slave Yakuth as master of royal horses

▪ Discarded female cloths & held court with face unveiled
▪ Altunia, Governor of Bhatinda, revolted against her & captured her as prisoner but later married her
▪ Razia, proceeded to Delhi to regain her control but got defeated & killed
 Balban (1246 – 1287)

▪ Introduced rigorous court discipline & started new customs such as Prostration (Shijada & Paipos
rule) & kissing sultan’s feet to prove his supremacy over nobles
▪ Introduced Persian festival of Navroj to impress the nobles
▪ Spared only the most loyal nobles (Chahalganis) & eliminated all others by one mean or other
▪ Established a separate military department “Diwan – i –Arz” to maintain law & order

Delhi Sultanate → Khilji Dynasty (1290 – 1320)

▪ Founder of Khilji dynasty was Jalaluddin Khilji

▪ killed by his son – in – law Alauddin khilji to claim the throne of Delhi

Alaunddin Khilji (1296 – 1316)

▪ Passed 4 ordinances to be free from rebellions:

▪ Confiscated properties of Nobles

▪ Organised intelligence system to know secret activities of nobles
▪ Public sale of drugs & alcohol was totally stopped
▪ Social gathering & festivities without permission of Sultan was forbidden

▪ Maintained large standing army & paid them in cash

▪ Introduced system of Dagh (Branding of horses ) & Huliya (of soldiers)
▪ Introduced 4 markets in Delhi viz.

▪ For Grains
▪ For cloths, sugar, dry fruits, oil & butter
▪ For horses, slaves & cattle
▪ For miscellaneous commodities

▪ Each market was under the control of a high officer called “Shahna – i – Mandi”
▪ Secret agents “ Munhiyans” were appointed to report functioning of these markets to sultan
▪ Prices were fixed for every commodity & if anyone found cheating, he was measured with harsh
punishment
▪ Alauddin Khilji was 1st sultan of Delhi who ordered measurement of land to collect land revenue in
cash
 Military Campaign

▪ Raided Gujrat in 1299, Queen & a Eunuch “Kafur” were taken to Delhi,
▪ kafur was made Malik Naib (Military commander)
▪ Raided Chittor where Raja Ratan singh fought valiantly but got defeated
▪ Ratan singh’s queen Rani Padmini performed Jauhar (self-immolation) along with other women
(Mentioned in book Padmavat written by Jayasi)
▪ Greatest achievement of Khilji was conquest of Deccan & Far south till Pandya kingdom of
Madurai → By Kafur (slave of Khilji who conquered Devagiri, Warrangal, Hoysala & Madurai)

Art & Culture

▪ Patronized poets like Amir Khusro & Amir Hasan

▪ Built famous gateway known as Alai Darwaja (Entrance of Qutub Minar)
▪ Constructed a new capital at Siri (Delhi)

Delhi Sultanate → Tughlaq Dynasty, Sayyids Dynasty, Lodi Dynasty

Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 – 1414)

▪ Founded by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq

▪ Laid foundation of Tughlaqabad near Delhi
▪ Killed by his own son “Ulugh khan” who ascended throne under the name of Muhammad – bin –
tughlaq in 1325

Muhammad – Bin – Tughlaq (ill-starred Idealist)

▪ Known for his tolerant nature in religious matters & novel experiments
▪ Only sultan who had received a literary, religious & philosophical education
▪ Formed 2nd capital at Devagiri to control south India under the name of Daultabad
▪ He forced royals, people & Sufis to move to Daultabad, but many of them died in rigorous journey
(1500 Km)
▪ After 2 years Sultan abandoned Daultabad & asked them to return to Delhi
▪ Introduced copper coins at par value of silver Tanka but couldn’t prevent forgery, hence stopped
the circulation of token money
▪ Exchanged silver coins for all copper coins circulated in the market which led to vanish of royal
treasury
▪ To overcome financial difficulties, he imposed heavy tax revenue on land, which led to strong
revolt from peasants (as at the same time a strong famine was also ravaging)
▪ Later, Sultan launched a scheme by which “Takkavi loans” (Loan for cultivation) were given to
farmers to buy seeds & to extend cultivation.
▪ A separate department for agriculture “Diwan – i – Kolhi” was established. This experiment was
further continued by Firoz Tughlaq
▪ On Muhammad Bin Tughlaq’s Death, Barani quoted “Finally sultan was freed from people &
people from sultan”. He also called sultan as mixture of opposites.

Firoz Tughlaq

▪ Appointed Khan – i – Jahan Maqbal, a telegu brahmin convert as Wazir of his kingdom to help him
in day to day administration
▪ Collected 1300 Sanskrit manuscripts from Jwalamukhi temple’s library (Himachal Pradesh) & got
them converted into Persian
▪ Revived Iqta system & made it hereditary (Nobles hereditary succession to their properties)
▪ Had largest slaves in his period (Diwan-e-Bandagani)
▪
Industries & Taxes

▪ Levied various taxes → Jiziya on Non-Muslims

▪ Abolished taxes on 28 items as was against the Islamic law
▪ 1st sultan to impose irrigation tax
▪ Developed irrigation network by means of canals & highly encouraged horticulture
▪ Developed royal factories “Karkhanas”, in which thousands of slaves were employed
▪ Introduced a department called Diwan – i – Khairat to take care of Orphans & Widows
▪ Developed free hospitals & Marriage bureaus for poor Muslims

Art & Culture

▪ Formed 300 new towns as Firozabad near Red fort (Delhi), Now known as Firozshah Kotla
▪ Patronized scholars like Barani & Afif
▪ As he was guided by Ulemas, he was intolerant towards Shia Muslims & Sufis
▪ Treated Hindus as 2nd grade citizen

After his death Taimur (Timur) entered Delhi & looted enormous wealth, murdered thousands & left
India in 1399 blowing a death blow to Tughlaq dynasty
 Sayyids (1414 – 1451)

▪ Before departure, Timur appointed Khirz khan as governor of Multan

▪ Khirz Khan captured Delhi & founded Sayyids Dynasty
▪ Last prince of sayyid dynasty, Alam Shah (Weakest Sayyid Prince) handed over throne to Bahlol
lodi & retired to Badaun

Lodis (1451 – 1526)

▪ Lodis who succeeded Sayyids were Afgans with Bahlol lodi as 1st Afgan ruler, while his
predeccessors were all Turks
▪ Succeeded by his Son Sikandar lodi (Greatest of all Lodis) → He destroyed many Hindu temples &
imposed many restrictions on Hindus
▪ Succeeded by Ibrahim Lodi (His son), who was highly arrogant in nature & insulted his nobles
openly. Nobles who ever revolted were put to death.
▪ Greatly displeased by arrogance of Ibrahim Lodi, Daulat khan Lodi invited Babur to invade India,
who marched Delhi & killed Ibrahim Lodi in 1st battle of Panipat

Delhi Sultanate

Administration

▪ Sultans considered themselves as representative of Caliphs (as inscribed on their coins & Khutba
(Prayer)) & were of Islamic origin
▪ Balban considered himself as shadow of god & of divine originality
▪ Iltutmish, Muhammad bin tughlaq & Firoz tughlaq received Mansur or letter of permission from
Caliphs
▪ Sultans were most important administrators & had ultimate authority of the military (Commander
in chief of military)
▪ Greatest post was of Naib who practically enjoyed all the powers of sultan & exercised general
control over all departments

Diwan – i – wazirat ▪ Head of finance department

 ▪ Military department headed by Ariz – i – Mumalik
Diwan – i – Ariz ▪ Responsible for recruiting soldiers & administering military department

Diwan – i – Rasalat ▪ Department of religious affairs headed by chief Sadr

▪ Department of correspondence, dealt with correspondence b/w rulers &

Diwan – i – Insha officials

▪ Head of judicial department of chief Qazi & Muslim sharia law was followed in civil matters
▪ Hindus were governed by their own personal laws & their cases were dispensed by village
panchayats
Local Administration

▪ Provinces were called Iqtas under the charge of nobles

Iqtas ▪ Mainly to maintain law & collect revenue
▪ Later came under the charge of Governors called “Muqtis or Walis”

Shiqs ▪ Iqtas were divided in Shiqs (districts) under Shiqdars

Pargana ▪ Shiqs were further divided into Pargana (no. of villages) headed by Amils

Village headman was known as Mukaddam or chaudhary & Village accountant Patwari

Economy
▪ Land was mainly divided into 3 categories viz.

▪ Iqta land → Land assigned to officials as iqtas instead of payments for their services
▪ Khalisa Land → Land under direct control of sultan
▪ Inam Land → Land assigned / granted to religious leaders or religious institutions

▪ Peasants paid 1/3 or even 1 / 2 of their produce as land revenue along with other taxes
▪ Taxes + frequent famines → Peasants always lived hand to mouth living
▪ Cotton & silk industries flourished in this period along with paper industry
▪ 1 silver Tanka = 48 jitals in Khalji time = 50 jitals in tughlaq time

Social Life

▪ Traditional caste system with Brahamans at the top

▪ Prevalent sati & parda system for women
▪ No intermarriage b/w Turks, Iranian, Afgans & Indian Muslims
▪ Hindus were considered zimmis or protected people for whom they were forced to pay a tax called
Jiziya
▪ In beginning, Jiziya it was collected as a part of land tax but Firoz tughlaq separated it from land
revenue & collected it as a separate tax

Art & Architecture

▪ Quwwat ul islam mosque near Qutub minar was built using materials obtained from destroying
Hindu & Jain temples
▪ Buildings were constructed by combining Arch, Minarets & Dome
▪ Muhammad bin tughlaq built the tomb of Ghiyasuddin tughlaq on a high platform

Music

▪ New music instruments such as Sarangi & Rabab were introduced in this period
▪ Indian classical work Rangdarpan was translated to Persian during Firoz Tughlaq reign
▪ Raja Man Singh (Gwalior) was a great music lover of this period & loved man Kautuhal
▪ Pir Bhodan → famous Sufi Saint of this period
 Amir Khusro (1252 – 1325)

▪ Introduced Ragas like ghora & Sanam

▪ Evolved Qawwali mixing Indian & Iranian music
▪ Invented Sitar & Tabla

Literature

▪ Barani’s “Tariq – i – Firoz – Shahi “ contains history of Tughlaq dynasty

▪ Minhaj Us Siraj wrote “Tabaqat – i – Nasari” contains general history of Muslims dynasty upto
1260
▪ Amir Khusro (famous Persian writer)

▪ Created new style of Persian poetry called Sabaq – i – hind / Indian styled Persian poetry
▪ Wrote Khazain – ul – Fatah about Alaunddin conquests
▪ Wrote Tughlaq nama about the rise of Ghiyasuddin tughlaq

▪ Zia Nakshabi → 1st one to translate Sanskrit stories into Persian (1st one was Tuti nama or book of
parrot)
▪ Rajat Rangini written by Kalhana was also translated to Persian during this period
▪ Chand Bharati → Famous Hindi poet of this time

Sufism and Bhakti Movement

Sufism

▪ Originated in Persia & spread to India by 11th century

▪ 1st Sufi saint was Shaik ismail of Lahore
▪ Most famous Sufi saint of India was Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, who settled in Ajmer which
became centre of his activities
▪ His disciples were called Sufis of Chisti order → Nizamuddin Aulia of Chisti order became a
mighty spiritual force
▪ Sufism stressed on Love & devotion as an effective & only mean of realization of God & attaining
salvation
▪ According to Sufism, Love of God meant love of humanity, They believed service to humanity
equals service of God
▪ Self-discipline was key to gain knowledge of God by perception
▪ Sufism believed in inner purity not in rituals, they believed in brotherhood & in one God (Did not
believe in class division)
▪ According to them, one must have guidance of a Pir or Guru, without whom spiritual development
is impossible
▪ Sufism inculcated a spirit of tolerance among its followers
▪ Sufism emphasized on Meditation, Good action, Repentance of sins, Performance of prayers,
Pilgrimage, Fasting, Charity & Suppression of passions by ascetic practices
▪ When Sufi movement was becoming popular in India, about the same time Bhakti cult was also
gaining strength among Hindus.
▪ The liberal & unorthodox features of Sufism had a profound influence on medieval Bhakti Saints

Bhakti Movement

900 AD → Shankaracharya

▪ Born in Kaladi, Kerala

▪ Followed doctrine of advaita / monoism (Non duality & oneness of God)
▪ Faced reaction against his concept of Nirgunbrahamana (or God without attributes) due to
emergence of idea of Sagunabrahamana (or God with attributes)

1200 AD → Ramanuja

▪ Born in Sriperumbur, Chennai

▪ Advocated Prabhattimarga (or path of self-surrender) to god
▪ Preached philosophy of vishishtavaida; According to which God is Sagunbrahamana
▪ Taught that God is an inner substance & rest are his attributes, Hence God, Soul & matter are real
▪ According to him, creative process & all objects in creation are real, not illusionary as depicted by
Shankaracharya
 1300 AD → Madhava @ Kannada

▪ Propagated the philosophy of Dvaita, Dualism of Jivatma & Parmatma

▪ According to his philosophy, world is not an illusion but a reality & God, soul & matter are unique
in nature

Nimbarka Propagated Dvaitaadvaita

Preachers of Vaishnavite Bhakti in
Vallabhacharya Propagated Shudhhaadvaita – Pushti marg Telangana region

Surdas Disciple of Vallabhacharya Popularised Krishna cult in North India

Mirabai Great devotee to Krishna Popular in Rajasthan for Krishna Bhajans

Tulsidas Worshiper of Rama Composed Ramcharitmanas in Hindi

Founder of Bhakti movement in Wrote commentary of Bhagvat Gita called

Gnandeva Maharashtra Gnaneswari (Maharashtra Drama)

1400 – 1500 AD → Ramananda, Kabir & Nanak

▪ Great apostles of Bhakti movement → Helped common people to shed old age superstitions
▪ Preached salvation by Bhakti & pure devotion
▪ Did not linked themselves with any particular religious creed
▪ Emphasized on fundamental unity of all religions & never believed in rituals & ceremonies
▪ Condemned polytheism, denounced all type of idolatry & believed in one god
▪ Believed only Bhakti as a mean to attain salvation

Ramanada

▪ Ram worshiper, born at Allahabad & originally follower of Ramanuja

▪ Later he founded his own sect & preached his disciples in Hindi at Banaras & Agra (1 st time in
vernacular language)

He strongly believed in 2 ideals, namely:

▪ Simplification of Worship
▪ Emancipation of people from traditional caste rule
▪

He choosed his disciples from all sections of the society irrespective of any caste viz.

Muslim Weaver (His verses are compiled

Kabir in Bijak by kabirpanthis)
 Raidasa A cobbler

Sena A barber

Sadhana A butcher

Dhanna A Jat farmer

Naraharai A goldsmith

Pipa A Rajput Prince

Kabir

▪ Born near Banaras; Borned to a Brahmin family but brought up by a weaver Muslim family
▪ Was familiar with both Hindu & Muslim teachings
▪ Regarded devotion to God with a pure heart as effective mean to attain salvation
▪ Pure heart, according to Kabir, meant free from cruelty, Dishonesty, hypocrisy & insincerity)
▪ His primary object was to reconcile Hindu & Muslims and establish harmony between them
▪ Emphasized oneness of all religions by describing Hindus & Muslims as Pots of same clay.
▪ To him Ram & Allah, Mandir & Mosque were the same
▪ Denounced idolatry & rituals (Like Pilgrimage, Bathing in holy river, Namaz & Prayers etc.
▪ Laid emphasis on equality of man before God

Guru Nanak (1469)

▪ Born in Talawandi near Lahore, trained in accountancy → Disciple of Kabir

▪ Founder of Sikh religion & was highly practical & ethical → His disciples were known as Sikhs
▪ Denounced caste distinctions & rituals like Pilgrimage, Bathing in holy river, Namaz etc.
▪ Emphasized on giving up selfishness, falsehood & hypocrisy and to live life with truth, Honesty &
Kindness
▪ He composed hymns and sang them to the accompaniment of the ‘Rabab’, a musical instrument.
▪ “Abide pure amidst the impurities of the world” was one of his famous teachings.
▪ Dedicated life to establish harmony b/w Hindu & Muslims
 Chaitanya

▪ Born in Bengal & popularized Kirtan (or musical gatherings) of Krishna cult.
▪ Though he was a Brahman he condemned the caste system and emphasized on the equality of all.
▪ Renounced the world & became ascetic
▪ Believed that through love & devotion, song & dance a devotee can feel the presence of God.

1600 AD (Eknath) → Opposed caste systems & formed many lyrics & Bhajans

Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1672)

▪ Prominent languages → Kannada, Telegu, Sanskrit

▪ Consist of four major dynasties viz.
▪ Sangam Dynasty
▪ Saluva Dynasty
▪ Tulva Dynasty
▪ Aravidu Dynasty
 Sangam Dynasty

▪ Founded by Harihara & Bukka

▪ Greatest Ruler Devaraya 2 → Srirangam Copper Plate inscription ascribed to him

Saluva Dynasty

▪ Founded by Saluva Narsimha

Tulva Dynasty

▪ Founded by Vir Narsimha

▪ Greatest Ruler Krishanadeva Raya

▪ Friendly with Portuguese
▪ Known as Andhra Bhoja
▪ Patronized 8 eminent scholars in his court (Astadiggaja)
▪ Greatest of them was Peddana (Also known as Andhra Kavita Pitamah)

Literature

▪ Pedanna wrote Manucharitam, Harikatha saram (both in Telegu)

▪ Krishanadeva Raya wrote: Amukhamaldaya (Telegu), Jambavti kalyanam + Ushaparinayam

(Sanskrit)

Architecture by Krishanadeva Raya

▪ Vitthalswami & Hazara ramswami temple @ vijayanagar @ Hamphi

▪ Built city Nagalapuram in memory of her queen Nagaladevi

 Points of Prominence (Vijayanagar Empire)

▪ Sangam Dynasty → Saivite with Chief Deity – Virupaksha

▪ Other Dynasties → Vaisnavite (Saluva, Tuluva & Aravidu) mainly follower of Ramanujam
▪ Tolerant towards other religions → Borbosa referred to Religious freedom to everyone
▪ Madurvijayam → Written by Ganagadevi for Kumarkampana’s expedition of Madurai
▪ Abdul Razzak (Persian traveler) gave an account of Vijayanagar Empire

Vijaynagar empire was divided in to Mandalams (Headed by Mandaleshwara / nayaks), which

was further divided into Nadus, which was further divided into Sthalas & finally into Gramas

Empire —- Mandalams —– Nadus —– Sthalas —– Grama

▪ Land revenue was 1/6th of the produce

▪ Gold coin → Varaha
▪ Port → Connanore (Malabar Coast)

Foreign Travelers

▪ Ibn Batuta → Moroccan

▪ Nicolo-de-Conti → Venetian
▪ Abdul Razzak → Persian
▪ Domingos Paes → Portuguese

Temple Building Style of Vijayanagar Empire

▪ Vesara style of temple architecture → Tall gopurams with large kalyanmandapam along with
pillars
▪ Example → Vradhraja & Ekam Parantha temple @ Kanchipuram
▪ Famous Elephant chariot architecture belongs to Hampi Ruins
Mughal Empire
 Babur (1526 – 1530)

▪ Mughal Empire was founded by Babar

▪ 1st battle of Panipat (21st April 1526)

▪ B/w Babur & Ibrahim Lodi

▪ Lodi was Killed
▪ Babur occupied Delhi

▪ Babar sent his son Humayu to seize Agra; & Claimed himself “ Emperor of Hindustan”
▪ Battle of Khanua (Near Agra → 1527)
▪ Babur V/S Rana Sanga of Mewar
▪ Babur won the battle & assumed the title of Ghazi

▪ Babur wrote his memoirs in “Tuzuk – i – Baburi in Turki language & died in 1530

Humayu (1530 – 1540)

▪ Eldest son of Babur; means fortunate but was most unfortunate ruler of Mughal empire
▪ Gave Kabul & Kandhar to Kamran; Sambhal to Aksari & Alwar to Hindal (All 3 his brothers)

Humayun → Busy fighting with Afgans (Sher khan / Sher shah) in east, got the news that Bahadur
shah of Gujrat was advancing towards Delhi → Hence made treaty with Sher shah
Humayu captured Gujrat from Bahadur shah & made Aksari its governor, but soon Bahadur shah
recovered it from Aksari who fled from their

Battle of Chausa (1539)

▪ Between Humayu & Sher Shah

▪ Sher Shah destroyed Mughal army
▪ Humayu fled from there

Battle of Kannauj or Bilgram (1540)

▪ Between Humayu & Sher Shah
▪ Brothers’ dint supported Humayu, hence he fought alone
▪ Humayu was thoroughly defeated by Sher shah
▪ Result → Humayu became exile for next 15 years

Sur interregnum (1540 – 1555)

▪ Founded by Sher Shah; became ruler of Delhi in 1540

▪ Formed 4 ministries for central administration viz.

▪ Diwan – i – Wazirat → Headed by Wazir (Incharge of finance & revenue)

▪ Diwan – i – Ariz → Headed by Military Incharge
▪ Diwan – i – Rasalat → Headed by Foreign minister
▪ Diwan – i – Insha → Headed by Communication minister

Administration

▪ Sher Shah empire was divided in 47 Sarkars with

▪ Chief Shiqdar to maintain law & order in each sarkar
▪ Chief Munsif as Judge in each Sarkar

▪ Each Sarkar was divided into Parganas with each pargana consisted of

▪ Shiqdars → Military officer

▪ Amin → Land revenue officer
▪ Fotedar → Treasurer
▪ Karkuns → Accountant

Architecture

▪ Introduced new silver coins called ‘Dam’ which were in circulation till 1835
▪ Laid foundation of 4 important highways & constituted rest houses alongside highways viz.

▪ Sonargaon to Sind
 ▪ Agra to Burhampur
▪ Jodhpur to Chittor
▪ Lahore to Multan

▪ Built a new city on banks of river Yamuna near Delhi (Purana quila & its mosque are remains of
the same)
▪ Built Mausoleum at Sasaram → Considered one of the masterpiece of Indian Architecture
▪ Patronized Malik Muhammad Jayasi who wrote famous Hindi work Padmavat during his reign

Humayun (1555 – 1556)

▪ Humayun defeated Afgans in 1555

▪ Died in 1556 after falling from the staircase of his library

Akbar (1556 – 1605)

▪ During 1st five years of Akbars reign, Bairam khan acted as his regent & consolidated Mughal
empire
▪ 2nd battle of Panipat

▪ Between Akbar & Hemu (Commander of Afgans)

▪ Akbar emerged victorious with the help of Bairam Khan

▪ Akbar married Rajput princess Jodha, daughter of Raja Bhairomal of Amber

▪ This marriage became a turning point in the history of Mughals, as Rajputs supported them now
▪ Many Rajputs like Raja Man singh & Raja Bhagwan Das were given senior position in Akbar’s
court
▪ Battle of Haldighati, 1576

▪ Between Akbar and Maharana Pratap of Mewar

▪ Mughals under the leadership of Raja Man singh defeated Rana Pratap of Mewar
▪ Akbar was very tolerant towards religious policies → abolished pilgrim tax & later Jiziya
▪ He formed a strong alliance b/w Mughals & Rajputs which ensured peace in Rajasthan & Northern
India

Akbars’ Religious Touch

▪ Early contact with Sufi saints

▪ Teachings from his teacher Abdul Latif
▪ His marriage with Rajput princess
▪ His association with intellectual giant like Shaikh Mubarak & his 2 sons – Abul Faizi & Abul Fazal
▪ After marrying Jodha Bai, he abolished pilgrimage tax & Jiziga
▪ Allowed his Hindu wife to worship her own God
▪ He was a pious Muslim in his early life but later became a skeptic one
▪ Constructed Ibadat khana (house of worship where scholars from all religion meet to discuss
religious policies) at his new capital Fatehpur sikri
▪ Invited learned scholars from all religions to discuss religious policies
▪ Disliked the interference of Muslim Ulemas in political matters
▪ In 1579, He issued infallibility decree & asserted his religious powers
▪ In 1582, he promulgated a new religion “Din – i – Ilahi” or divine faith in one god
▪ Din – i – Ilahi contained good points of all the religions & uphold no dogma
▪ Din – i – Ilahi mainly aimed to bridge gap b/w all religions (Only 15 followers joined including
Birbal)

Akbars’ Land Revenue system

▪ Land revenue system of Akbar was known as Zabti / Bandobast system

▪ Further modified by Raja Todarmal, now known as Dahsala system which included

▪ Measurement of land
▪ Revenue fixed on average yield of last 10 years
▪ Land divided into four categories viz.

Polaj Cultivated every year

Parauti Cultivated every 2 years

Chachar Cultivated every 3 – 4 years

Banjar Cultivated every 5 years

Mansabdari system of Akbar

▪ Under this system, every officer was assigned a Rank (Mansab)

▪ Lowest officer got 10 coins & highest officers (Nobles) got 5000 coins for their services
▪ Includes all public services except Judiciary
▪ Ranks were divided into 2 categories, namely

▪ Zat → Described the personal status of a person

▪ Sawar → Number of cavalry man a person is required to maintain
 Jahangir (1605 – 1627)

▪ Prince Salim succeeded the throne with the title Jahangir (Conqueror of the world)
▪ Witness rebellions from his son Khusaro, but was defeated & imprisoned
▪ Beheaded 5th Sikh Guru Arjun dev
▪ In 1611, Married Mehrunnisa (Nurjaha → Light of the world)
▪ Wrote his Autobiography → Tuzuk – i – Jahagiri

Shahjaha (1627 – 1658)

▪ Married Mumtaj (Banu Begum)

▪ Conquered Deccan (Bijapur & Golkunda and put it under the leadership of his son Aurangzeb)
▪ Later, Aurangzeb killed his 3 brothers & confined Shahjaha to female apartments in Agra fort
▪ Though Aurangzeb never ill-treated Shahjaha

Aurangzeb (1658 – 1707)

▪ Assumed the title Alamgir (or World Conqueror)

▪ To contain Marathas (Shivaji), he attacked Golkunda & Bijapur (Deccan Shias)
▪ Though Aurangzeb defeated them but it removed the only boundary b/w Marathas & Mughals
▪ According to JN Sarkar, Deccan ulcer ruined Aurangzeb
 Religious Policies of Aurangzeb

▪ Very orthodox & staunch Muslim; tried to change India into an Islamic state
▪ Created separate departments to enforce moral codes called ‘Muhtasib’

▪ Prohibited drinking, cultivation & use of Bhang & drugs

▪ Forbid music in Mughal court, Dismissed royal astrologers & astronomers
▪ Discontinued practice of Jharoka darshan
▪ Discontinued celebration of Dussehra

▪ Destroyed Hindu temples & banned construction of them

▪ Reimposed Jiziya & pilgrimage tax (in 1679)
▪ Stopped celebration of Muharram (Not tolerant towards other Muslim sects)
▪ Was against Sikhs & executed 9th Sikh Guru Teg Bahadur, which resulted transformation of sikhs
into warring community

His religious policies turned Rajputs, Sikhs, Marathas, Jats & Satnamis against him & hence became
the sole reason for decline of Mughal Empire
Personality & Character of Aurangzeb
▪ Very simple in dressing & food; Very disciplined & industrious
▪ Earned money for personal expenses by copying Quran & selling those copies
▪ Did not consume wine, learned & proficient in Arabic & Persian language
▪ Lover of books, strict follower of Islam
▪ Daily Namaz for 5 times & strictly observed Ramzan
▪ Overall an orthodox Muslim intolerant to other religions

“After Aurangzeb’s death Nadir shah looted Delhi & imprisoned new Mughal emperor in 1739″

Architecture under Mughals

Emperor Monument Place

Agra fort using Red Stone Agra

Panch Mahal – build on the pattern of a Buddhist

Vihara Fatehpur Sikri

Jama masjid with gateway Buland Darwaza – On

Gujrat’s victory Fatehpur Sikri

Akbar Humayu Tomb – Precursor of Tajmahal Delhi

Shalimar Bagh Srinagar

Akbar’s Tomb Sikandara near Agra

Jahangir Itimaddaulah Tomb (Pietra dura style by Nurjaha) Agra

Red Fort Delhi

Jama Masjid using Red stone Delhi

Moti Masjid Agra

Under Red Fort

Diwan – i – am (Delhi)

Under Red Fort

Diwan – i – Khas (Delhi)

Shahjaha Nishat Bagh (By Asif khan, Brother of Nurjaha) Srinagar

 Pinjore Garden Lahore

Aurangzeb Moti Masjid with white marble Delhi

Painting & Music

▪ Akbarnama was the main theme of Mughal paintings

▪ Hamznama was the most important work of Mughals time consisting 1200 paintings
▪ Tansen (From gwalior) was a great musician in Akbar’s court

Literature

▪ Abul Fazal → Ain – i – Akbari , Akbarnama (Persian Language)

▪ Abul Faizi → Converted Mahabharata into Persian language (Leading poet of Akbar’s Court)
▪ Abdul Hamid Lahori → Padshah Nama (Shahjaha’s Court)
▪ Inayat Khan → Shahjaha Naha (Shahjaha’s Court)
▪ Dara Shikoh (Eldest son of Shahjaha) → Converted Bhagvat Gita & Upanishads into Persian

Trivia

▪ During 17th century, two new crops “Tobacco & Maize” were added
▪ Potato & Chili came later in 18th century
▪ Ghee & oils were cheaper; Salts & sugar were more expensive

Maratha

Shivaji (1627 – 1680)

▪ Born at Shivner (Father → Shahji Bhosale, Mother → Jija Bai)

▪ Inherited Jagir of Poona from his father in 1637
▪ Continuous fight with Aurangzeb
▪ Shaishta khan captured Poona but Shivaji reclaimed it
▪ Aurangzeb sent Raja jai Singh of Amber, who besieged Purander fort → Treaty of Purander, 1665
▪ Treaty of Purander → Shivaji surrendered 23 / 35 forts to Mughals & said to be loyal to Mughal
empire
▪ In 1674, Shivaji recaptured all his lost territory & crowned himself at Raigarh assuming the title of
Chhtrapati

Administration

▪ King was pivot at the center, led by COM’s called “Astapradhan”

▪ Peshwa → Finance & General administrator (Later became PM)

▪ Amatya → Accountant General
▪ Sar – i – Naubat / Senapati → Military commander
▪ Waqnavis → Intelligence & Household affairs
▪ Sachiv → Correspondence
▪ Sumanta → Master of ceremonies
▪ Nyayadhish → Justice Chief
▪ Pandit Rao → Charities & Religious admin

▪ Appointed his own revenue official “Karkuns” diminishing the power of existing Deshmukhs &
Kulkarnis

Taxes

▪ From neighboring kingdoms of Mughals & Deccan

▪ Chauth → 1 / 4 of the land revenue to Marathas (for not attacking them & keeping safe)
▪ Deshmukhis → levy of 1/10 on lands Marathas claimed hereditary rights (Maratha land)
 Peshwas (1713 – 1818)

▪ Balaji Vishvanath → Under Maratha ruler Shahu

▪ Baji Rao → Under Maratha ruler Shahu
▪ Balaji Baji Rao → Became king & ruler of Marathas (Shahu Died)

Agreement with Mughals

▪ Balaji Bajirao came into agreement with Mughals in 1752

▪ Protection of Mughals in exchange of revenue (Chauth) from Northern provinces

3rd Battle of Panipat

▪ Ahmed shah Abdali vs Balaji Bajirao

▪ When Ahmed shah Abdali invaded India, Marathas fought for Mughals
▪ Balaji Bajirao got defeated & died in 3rd battle of Panipat

Advent of the Europeans in India

Portuguese

▪ Vasco-de-Gama reached Calicut via cape of good hope in 1498

▪ Was warmly welcomed by Zamorin (Ruler of Calicut)
▪ Francis – De – Almeida → 1st Portuguese governor in India
▪ In 1510, Albuquerque became governor → Captured Goa from the ruler of Bijapur
▪ Goa became capital of Portuguese settlements in India
▪ Built fort at Calicut & encouraged his countrymen to marry Indian girls
▪ Albuquerque died in 1515 leaving Portuguese as strongest Naval power in India

Dutch (Netherlands)

▪ In 1602, Dutch East India company came to India

▪ Subsequently they won over Portuguese & emerged as most dominant European trade power
▪ Pulicat was their main center in India, later replaced by Nagapattinam
▪ 1650 (17th century), English began to emerge as big colonial power in India.
▪ Anglo Dutch rivalry lasted for 70 years, during which Dutch lost their settlements to British one by
one
 British

▪ English east India Company was established in 1600

▪ Charter for the same was issued by Queen Elizabeth of England
▪ Captain Hawkins of England arrived at royal court of Jahangir in 1609 seeking permission to
establish England trade center at Surat, but was refused by Jahangir due to Portuguese pressure
▪ Later in 1613, Jahangir issued a farman (permission letter) to English to establish their trade center
hence British established their 1st trading factory at Surat in 1613
▪ In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe came to India as ambassador of James 1 (King of England) & obtained
permission from Jahangir to settle English trading factories in different parts of India
▪ Bombay, Madras & Calcutta became 3 presidency towns of English settlements in India by 1700
with capital Calcutta
 French

▪ French east India Company was formed in 1664 establishing their 1st factory at Surat → by Francis
Caron
▪ Francis Martin founded Pondicherry in 1673 & became 1st governor of Pondicherry
▪ Henceforth Pondicherry became headquarter of French possessions in India

In beginning of 18th century, English & French were competing for their supremacy in India, Mainly
in Karnatic & Bengal region. After 3 Karnatic wars, finally French were crushed & limited to
Pondicherry

Dane (Denmark Settlements)

▪ Settled at Tranquebar & Serampore (Headquater) in Bengal
▪ Failed to strengthen themselves in India
▪ Sold all their settlements to British in 1845