MEDIEVAL INDIAN HISTORY

EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD (600-1200 CE)

NORTH INDIA: RAJPUTANA PERIOD
• After Harshavardhana - Rajputas emerged as a powerful force in
North India.
TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE (750- 1000 CE):
• The period from 750 - 1000 CE saw the rise of three important
empires: Gurjara-Pratihara (Western India) - Palas (Eastern India) -
Rashtrakutas (Deccan).
• The conflict - for control over Kannauj - “tripartite struggle”.
• Kannauj - located on the Ganga trade route - connected to the Silk
route.
GURJARA-PRATIHARA EMPIRE (WESTERN INDIA):
730-1036
• Primarily pastoralists and fighters.
• Founded by Harichandra - south western Rajasthan.
• Gurjara-Pratihara - sculptures, carved panels and open pavilion style temples -
Khajuraho, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Sanskrit Poet & Dramatist Rajasekhara
• Foreign traveller Al-Masudi had visited Pratihara empire.
Bhoja I/ Mihir Bhoja (836-885)
• Greatest ruler of Pratiharas, got victories over Palas and Rashtrakutas.
• Capital at Kannauj.
• Devotee of Vishnu, adopted title ‘Adivaraha’.

Succeeded by Chauhan in Rajputana, Chalukyas or Solanki in Gujarat

and Paramara in Malwa.
THE PALAS OF BENGAL: 750-1150
• Gopala founded Pala dynasty.
• Capital: Munger (Bihar)
• Pala kingdom included Bengal and Bihar
• Mahayana Buddhism and Tantric schools of Buddhism.
• They had close trade contacts and cultural links with South-East Asia.
• Golden period in history of Bengal.
• Elephant cavalry.
• The Palas power were destroyed by the Sena dynasty under
Vijyasena.
IMPORTANT RULERS
Gopala (around 750 CE)
• Khalimpur copper inscription of Dharampala - he founded Pala
dynasty, replacing later Guptas of Magadha and Khadga dynasty.
• Built famous Odantpuri monastery at Bihar, 2nd largest after Nalanda
university.
Dharampala (770-810)
• Founded the Vikramshila University near Bhagalpur, Bihar and built
Somapuri monastery (paharpur, Bihar).
• Revived Nalanda University.
Pala & Pratihara’s Administration:
• The directly administered territories were divided into Bhukti
(province) and Mandala or Visaya (Distrccts)
• The governor of Bhukti was called Uparika & had duty to collect land
revenue and maintain law and order.
• The head of Visaya was Visayapati and had same duties like Uparika
within their territories.
• Samantas were small chieftain, dominated villages
THE RASHTRAKUTAS (DECCAN) (752-973)
• Feudatory of the Chalukyas
• Capital: Manyakheta or Malkhed near Solapur.
• Rashtrakuta fought constantly against the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi
and Pallavas of Kanchi and Pandya of Madurai.
• Krishna III was the last great ruler of Rashtrakutas.
• Tolerant in their religious views and patronised Shaivism, Vaishnavism
and Jainism.
ART AND ARCHITECTURE:
• Dravidian style - Kailasanatha (Shiva) Temple at Ellora in modern
Maharashtra.
• Kashivishvanatha temple - the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in
modern Karnataka- UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
• Apbhramsha poet Svayambhu and his son lived in Rashtrakuta court.
ADMINISTRATION:
• King - head of administration and commander in chief of the armed
forces.
• The king position was hereditary.
• The empires consisted of areas administered directly and areas ruled
by vassals. The latter had autonomy in internal affairs.
• Rashtra (province) and Visaya (Districts) and Bhukti.
• Grama-Mahajana or Grama-Mahattara (village elders).
• Villages also had commitees to manage schools, tanks, temples etc.
SOUTH INDIA:
THE CHOLAS (850 – 1279 AD)
• Tanjore.
• The founder - Vijayalaya - first a feudatory of Pallavas.
• Rajaraja & his son Rajendra I.
• Agrahatta (Persian wheel) - smooth irrigation networks of tanks,
canals, wells and sluices.
ADMINISTRATION OF THE CHOLAS:
• King was assisted by council of minister.
• Perundanam & serundanam were important officials.
• The Empire was divided into:
1. Mandalams (provinces) - Royal princes (in charge)
2. Valanadus - Perinattar
3. Nadus (district) - Nattar
4. Autonomous Villages – 30 wards (members selected by lottery type)
• Uttiramerur Inscriptions - Local self-government was imp feature of
Cholas rule.
• Ur Nattam was residential portion of the city.
• Ur was general assembly of village & Sabha was gathering of adult
men in the Brahmana village – Agrahara (rent free villages with
autonomy).
• Tax - 1/6th of the produce.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF LANDS RIGHTS:
• Karanmai (right to cultivate)
• Mitachi (superior possessive right)
Art & Architecture
• Dravidian type reached its climax.
• Lofty temples & inscribed long inscriptions on the wall narrating their
achievements. They also depict the socio-economic conditions of that
period.
• Kailasanath Temple of Kanchipuram
• Airavatesvara temple
• Gangaicholapuram
• Nataraja temple at Chidambaram
• Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore was built by Rajaraja which was
dedicated to Shiva.
• Dancing bronze figure of Nataraja.
• Bharatanatyam & Kathakali
Literature
• Sivakasintamani -Thiruthakkadevar and Kundalakesi.
• Ramayana – Kamban.
• Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar.
• Telugu version of Mahabharata - Nanniah & completed by Tikkana.
• Pampa, Ponna, & Ranna known are considered 3 gems of Kannada
literature lived in the 10th century.
THE DELHI SULTANATE (1206-1526AD)
Five dynasties ruled in Delhi:
1. Mamluk (1206-1290 CE)
2. Khilji (1290-1320 CE)
3. Tughlaq (1320-1413 CE)
4. Saiyyad (1414-1451 CE)
5. Lodhis (1451-1526 CE)
1. SLAVE DYNASTY (1206-1290 AD)
1. Qutub-ud-din Aibak Founded Slave dynasty
2. Mamluk Dynasty - real founder of Muslim rule in India.
Qutub-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210):
• Slave of M. Ghori.
• Lahore - capital.
• ‘Lakh Baksh’ or giver of lakhs as he gave a lot of liberal donations.
• Aibak issued coins in gold, silver, billon and copper.
ART & ARCHITECTURE
• 2 Mosques:
1. Quwwat-ul-Islam (Delhi).
2. Arhai din ka Jhonpara (Ajmer)
• Qutub Minar dedicated to Sufi Saint, Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakthiyar
Kaki - later completed by Iltutmish.
Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1210-1236):
• Ilbari tribe - Ilbari dynasty.
• Real consolidator of Turkish rule in India and also Delhi.
• Shifted capital from Lahore to Delhi.
• Introduced Arabic coinage into India.
• He Started Iqktadari system.
• Completed the construction of Qutub Minar which was started by
Aibak.
• Turkan-i-chahalgani - A new class of ruling elite of 40 powerful
military leaders, “The Forty”.
Razia Sultan (1236-40):
• 1st and only female Muslim ruler of medieval India.
• Discarded female apparel and purdah, adopted male attire, went for
hunting.
Balban (1266-1287):
• Ulugh khan - main architects of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Sultan was God’s shadow on earth (Zil-i-Ilahi) and recipient of divine
grace (Nibyabati-Khudai).
• He broke the power of the Forty.
• Introduced Persian festival Nawrouz.
• Called himself Nasir-amir-ul-momin (Caliph’s right-hand man).
Administration
• Separated Diwan-i-wizarat (Finance Department) from the Diwan-i-
Arz (Military Department).
• He followed policy of blood & iron.
• Indian Muslims-> not given important posts.
• Appointed spies to monitor nobles.
• Introduced sijada (prostration) and paibos (kissing the Sultan’s feet).
2. Khilji DYNASTY (1290-1320 AD)
• Khilji nobles headed by Jalaldduin, overthrew the incompetent
successors of Balban in 1290 & Established Khilji dynasty.
• This event is called ‘Dynastic Revolution’ of 1290
Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316 CE):
• Awarded harsh punishment who opposed him.
• Hold on nobles – He prohibited to hold festivals, marriage without
permission of him, banned wines & intoxicants to avoid social
gathering, reorganized spy services (Barids).
• “Kingship knows no kinship”.
• Malik Kafur was his slave – general. He led a series of expeditions in
the southern part of India, against the Yadavas (1308), Kakatiyas
(1310), Hoysalas (1311) etc.
• In 1303, Allauddin defeated Raja Ratan Singh of Chittor, including
Rani Padmini other Rajput women performed Jauhar (self-immolation)
which is written in the book 'Padmavath' by Jayasi.
3. TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320-1414 AD)
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325):
• Founder of Tughlaq dynasty.
• Took title: Ghazi
• 1st Sultan to start Irrigation.
• Tughlaqabad near Delhi.
• Amir Khusrau famous work “Tughlaq Nama” deals with the rise of
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
Mohammad Bin Tughlaq (1325-1351):
• Zenith of the Delhi Sultanate but also saw the beginning of
disintegration.
• He defeated Mongols.
• Official on the basis of merit.
• Advanced secular policies.
• Ibn-Batuta (native of Morocco) was his contemporary of Muhammad
Tughlaq and was his envoy to China.
• He Built fort of Adilabad and the city of Jahanpanah.
• Vijayanagara emerged
Muhammad Tughlaq’s Experiments:
• Transferred capital from Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatadab). Shifted back
after 2 years because of lack of water supply.
• Token Currency - Issued bronze coins at par with the value of the
silver tanka coins. He had also introduced the copper currency system.
• He launched Khorasan project to counter the threat of Chinses
incursions – Failed.
• Quarachi expedition – launched in Kumaon hills to counter the threat
of Chinses incursions – failed.
• Diwan-i-kohi a separated department to extend cultivation by giving
loans to cultivators (takkavi loans) – Failed - corrupt officials
Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388):
• heredity to the army & nobility.
• iqta system revived - was made hereditary.
• To appease theologians, Firoz took following decisions:
• Prohibited practice of Muslim women going out to worship.
• Gave concessions to theologians
• Made jizya a separate tax. Earlier it was part of land revenue. Only children,
women, disabled exempted.
• Erased wall paintings in his palace
• He constructed and improved several canals.
• hospitals for poor called – Dar-ul-shifa.
• Set up new departments:
• Diwan -i- Khairat - to make provisions for marriages of poor girls.
• Diwan -i- Bandagan – Department for slaves
• Imposed Jizya (religious tax on the Hindus
• He was first Sultan to impose Sharb (irrigation tax).
4. SAIYYAD DYNASTY (1414-1450 AD)
Khizr Khan (1414-1421):
• He captured Delhi and founded the Sayyid dynasty in 1414.
• Saiyyad’s ruled Delhi for the shortest period (only 37 years) among
the Delhi Sultans.
5. LODHI DYNASTY (1451-1526 AD)
• The Lodi dynasty was an Afghan dynasty
• It was the fifth and final dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, and was
founded by Bahlul Khan Lodi. Sikandar Lodi succeeded him.
Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517):
• He founded city Agra and transferred capital from Delhi to Agra.
• Sikandar was orthodox and a bigot king. He reimposed the Jizya on
Hindus.
• He was a poet of repute, composed under the pen-name of Gulruk.
• Sikandar Lodi was succeeded by his son Ibrahim Lodi.
Ibrahim Lodi (1517-1526):
• Ibrahim was defeated in 1526 at the Battle of Panipat.
• Humiliated his nobles in open courts, this made Daulat Khan Lodi (the
governor of the Punjab) invite Babar to invade India/Delhi.
• This marked the end of the Lodi Dynasty and the rise of the Mughal
Empire in India India Under Delhi Sultanate.
OVERVIEW OF DELHI SULTANATES
ADMINISTRATION :
• highly centralized state, for some time it was extended till Madurai
covering almost all India.
• The Sultans - representatives of the Caliph at Baghdad (lieutenant of
the faithful).
• He was also the commander in chief of the military forces.
• He was also responsible for the maintenance of law & justice.
• There was no clear law of succession during this period.
CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
• The military department -> Diwani Ariz - Headed by -> Ariz-i-mumalik.
Responsibility was to recruit the soldiers and administering the military
department.
• Diwani Rasalat -> department of religious affairs - Headed by chief
Sadr. Grants were made by this department for the construction and
maintenance of mosques, tombs and madrasas.
• The head of the judicial department was the chief Qazi.
• The Hindus were governed by their own personal law and their cases
were dispensed by the village panchayats.
• The department of correspondence -> called Diwani Insha. All the
correspondence between the ruler and the officials was deal with by
this department.
• Wakil-i-Dar – officer responsible for maintenance of proper decorum
at the court.
LOCAL ADMINISTRATION
• The provinces were called iqtas under the control of muqtis or walis.
• Their duty was to maintain law and order and collect the land
revenue.
• The provinces were divided into shiqs and pargana.
• The shiq was under the control of shiqdar.
• The pargana comprising number of villages was headed by amil.
• The village headman was known as muqaddam or chaudhri. The
village accountant was called patwari.
ECONOMY
• The land was classified into three categories:
1. Iqta land – lands assigned to officials as iqtas instead of payment for their
services.
2. Khalisa land – land under the direct control of the Sultan and the revenues
collected were spent for the maintenance of royal court and royal household.
3. Inam land – land assigned or granted to religious leaders or religious
institutions.
• Sarais or rest houses on the highways were maintained for the
convenience of the travelers.
• Indian textiles were exported to China.
• Gold coins or dinars became popular during the reign of Alauddin
Khilji after his South Indian conquests.
• Growth of metallurgical industry.
• They also introduced spinning wheels.
• Postal system based on relays of horses or fast-runners was
developed.
Mughal Empire
• Babur was the founder of the Mughal empire which was established
in 1526 after Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of
Panipat.
• Thus a new epoch and a new empire in India began, lasting for nearly
three centuries beginning from 1526 to 1857.
Zaheeruddin Babur
• Babur used Cannons effectively in the first battle of Panipat.
• The forces of Babur and Rana Sanga met at Khanwa, a place near
Fatehpur Sikri. Rana Sanga was defeated - With the defeat of Rana the
biggest challenge in north India was shattered. (Battle of khanwa
1527).
• He was a scholar of Persian and Arabic languages.
• He wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Baburi in Turki language.
Naseeruddin Humayun
• He was faced with the problems of a weak financial system and the
predatory Afghans.
• 1539 - Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun in Battle of Chausa.
• In the next year SherShah Suri confronted Humayun in Kannauj and
defeated him completely - (Battle of Kannauj 1540)
• His biography Humayunnama was written by Gulbadan Begum in
Persian language.
• He was buried in Delhi.
Sher Shah Suri
• He made his government highly centralised.
• The king was assisted by important ministers:
Diwan –i- Wizarat – also called as Wazir – in charge of Revenue and Finance.
Diwan-i-Ariz – in charge of Army.
Diwan-i-Rasalat- Foreign Minister.
Diwan-i-Insha- Minister for Communications.
• He extended the Grand Trunk Roadfrom Chittagong in the frontiers of the province of Bengal in
northeast India to Kabul in Afghanistan in the far northwest of the country.
• Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote the famous Hindi work Padmavat during his reign.
• He started building a new walled city in Delhi, which later came to be known as Purana Qila (Old
Fort).
• He built his own mausoleum in Sasaram.
Jalaluddin Akbar
• One of the major achievements of his regency period was the defeat
of Hemu and the Afghan forces in the second battle of Panipat in
1556, who were posing a serious threat to the Mughal Empire.
Military conquest-
• He built new capital Fathepur sikri in memory of this victory.
• In the Battle of Haldighati, Rana Pratap Singh was severely defeated
by the Mughal army led by Man Singh in 1576.
Religious policy:
• He abolished the pilgrim tax and jiziya
• Ibadat Khana (House of worship) at his new capital Fatepur Sikri.
• Akbar invited learned scholars from all religions like Hinduism,
Jainism, Christianity and Zoroastrianism.
• New religion called Din Ilahi or Divine Faith. It believes in one God. It
contained good points of all religions.
• He propagated a philosophy of Sulh-i-Kul (peace to all).
Nuruddin Jahangir (Salim)
• Jahangir’s reign witnessed the visit of two Englishmen – William
Hawkins and Sir Tomas Roe - succeeded in securing permission to
establish a British factory at Surat.
Shah Jahan
• Shah Jahan launched a prolonged campaign in the northwest frontier
to recover Kandahar and other ancestral lands.
• His Deccan policy was more successful. He defeated the forces of
Ahmadnagar and annexed it.
• Shah jahan defeated Shivaji’s father shahji Bhonsle.
• In memory of her Shah jahan started constructing Musoleum at
Agra(Taj mahal).
• In his reign the famous Peacock Throne was made for the King.
• Europeans like Bernier (French physician and
traveller), Tavernier (French gem merchant and traveller), Manucci
(Italian writer and traveller) visited India.
• Dara Shukoh, the eldest, was the favourite of his father.
• A war of succession broke out between the four sons of Shah Jahan
in which Aurangzeb emerged victorious.
• Aurangzeb imprisoned Shah Jahan and crowned himself as the
Mughal emperor. Shah Jahan died broken hearted as a royal prisoner
in January 1666 and was buried in the Taj Mahal.
Aurangzeb
• He assumed the title Alamgir, World Conqueror.
• He imposed jijiya on Hindus.
• He was influenced by Nakshabandi sufi order.
• Aurangazeb annexed Golconda and Bijapur.
Administration -
• The Mughals retained many features of the administrative system of
the Sultanate and Shershah.
• Under Shershah the administrative units of Pargana (a group of
villages), sarkar (a group of parganas) and groups of sarkars (some
what like subas or province) were placed under specific offices
• The Mughals formalized a new territorial unit called suba. The
Mughal empire was divided into twelve provinces or subas by Akbar.
• Institutions of Jagir and Mansab system were also introduced by the
Mughals
Mansabdari System
• Under this system every officer was assigned a rank (mansab).
• The lowest rank was 10 and the highest was 5000 for the nobles.
Princes of royal blood received even higher ranks.
• The ranks were divided into two – zat and sawar.
• Zat means personal and it fixed the personal status of a person.
• Sawar rank indicated the number of cavalrymen of a person who was
required to maintain. Every sawar had to maintain at least two horses.
• The mansab rank was not hereditary. All appointments and
promotions as well as dismissals were directly made by the emperor.
Land Revenue System:
• Akbar went for revenue experimentation in his administration .
• The revenue policies of Alauddin Khilji and Sher Shah Sur formed the base
for Mughal revenue system.
• In the year 1581 revenue minister Raja Todarmal reorganized the whole
land revenue system. This system is known as Zabti or bandobast
• According to this system land was measured and classified based on the
fertility of soil as,
• Polaj- cultivated every year
• Parauti – once in two years
• Chachar- once in three or four years
• Banjar-once in five or more years
Literature -
• Persian, Sanskrit and regional languages developed during the
Mughal rule.
• Persian was the language of administration in Mughal Empire.
• The greatest contribution in the field of literature during the Mughal
rule was the development of Urdu
• Babur wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Baburi in Turki language.
• This autobiography gives details of flora and afauna in India.
• Babarnama (translation of tuzuk I baburi) was written in Persian by
Abdul Rahim Khan.
• Abdul Fazl has written Akbarnama (history of Akbar) and Ain-i-
Akbari(administration book).
• Shahjahan’s biography padshanamah was written by two author.
They were Abdul Hamid lahori and Inayat Khan. Inayat khan wrote
shahjahan namah.
• Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavat Gita and Upanishads into the
Persian language. His most famous work, Majma-ul-Bahrain.
Architecture
• Indo-Islamic architecture reached its zenith during this period
• The first building of this rule was Humayun’s Tomb at Delhi. Red
sandstone was used in this building. It has a main gateway and the
tomb is placed in the midst of a garden. Many consider it a precursor
of the Taj Mahal.
• Akbar built forts at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri. The Buland
Darwaza reflects the grandeur of the mighty Mughal Empire. This
building was made following Akbar’s victory over Gujarat.
• The tomb of Salim Chishti, Palace of Jodha Bai, Ibadat Khana,
Birbal’s House and other buildings at Fatehpur Sikri reflect a synthesis
of Persian and Indian elements.
• Shahjahan was the greatest builder amongst the Mughals. He used
marble extensively. Decorative design in inlay work, (called pietra
duro) beautiful arches and minarets were the features of his buildings
• The Red Fort and Jama Masjid of Delhi - Shahjahan.
REGIONAL KINGDOMS
VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE (1336 -1646 AD)
• It was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka (with the blessings of
Guru Vidyaranya)
• They later proclaimed their independence and founded a new city on
the south bank of the Tungabhadra River named it “Vijayanagar” (City
of Victory).
• During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of Bijapur,
Ahmednagar, Golkonda and Bidar defeated him at the Battle of
Talaikotta in 1565 which marked an end of the Vijayanagar Empire.
Krishna Deva Raya (1509-1529 AD
• The most famous king Vijayanagara Empire (from Tuluva dynasty).
• He is also known as Andhra Bhoja
• Waged war against Bahamani kingdom & kept them under check.
• Liberated Mohammad Shah & assumed the title “Yavanarjya
Prathishtapanacharya”.
• The author of Manu Charitramu was the greatest among
Ashtadiggajas.
• His empire extended from the river Krishna in the north to River
Cauvery in the south; the Arabian Sea in the west to Bay of Bengal in
the east.
• He had a cordial relationship with Portuguese.
• “Amuktamalyada” (Telugu work on polity) and “Jambavati Kalyanam”
(Sanskrit drama).
• Hazara Rama temple and the Vittalaswami temple.
• Patronized Telugu, Kannada, Sanskrit, and Tamil scholars & poets.
• 8 eminent scholars ‘Ashtadiggajas’ at his royal court.
• Nagalapuram in memory of his queen Nagaladevi
“ASHTADIGGAJAS” of Krishna Devaraya
A group of eight scholars adorned Krishnadevaraya’s court and they were:
1. Allasani Peddanna – the author of Manucharitram, he was also known as
Andhra Kavitapitamaha
2. Nandi Thimmana – the author of Parijathapaharanam
3. Madayagari Mallana
4. Dhurjati
5. Ayyalaraju Ramabhadrudu
6. Pingali Surana
7. RamarajaBhushana
8. Tenali Ramakrishna
ADMINISTRATION:
• The king enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial & legislative
matters.
• The succession to the throne was hereditary.
• Administrative units divided as: Mandalams, Nadus, Sthalas and
finally into Gramas.
• Mandaleshwar or Nayaka was the governor of Mandalam.
• He had considerable autonomy- had right to issue coins of small
denominations & right to impose new tax or remit old one.
• Sources of income: land revenue, tributes, and gifts from vassals and
feudal chiefs, customs at ports, & taxes on various professions.
• The army consisted of cavalry, infantry, artillery and elephants.
• Nayankar System - The top-grade officers of the army were known as
Nayaks/Poligars.
• They were granted land in lieu of their services which were called
Amaram.
POSITION OF WOMEN:
• Women occupied a high position and took an active part in the
political, social and literary life of the empire.
• Women even went to battles.
• It was the only empire in Medieval India which employed women in
state services.
• Widow re-marriage was promoted.
CULTURAL CONTRIBUTIONS:
• Tall Raya Gopurams or gateways and the Kalyanamandapam with
carved pillars in the temple premises.
• The horse (Yali) was the most common animal found in these pillars.
• The most important temples built: Vittalaswamy and Hazara
Ramaswamy temples, the Stone chariot at Hampi.
• The Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha temples at Kanchipuram.
• Different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil
flourished in the regions
BAHAMANI ARCHITECTURE:

• The Gulbarga fort & Jama Masjid in Gulbarga, Bidar Fort and Madrasa
by Mahmud Gawanin Bidar, are the major architectural contributions.
• Gol Ghumaz was built by Muhammad Adil Shah; it is famous for so
called “Whispering Gallery”
• Ibrahum Adil Shah introduced ‘Dakhini’ in place of Persian as court
language.
BHAKTI AND SUFI MOVEMENT
• Single-minded intense devotion to God.
• The origin of Bhakti is traced in Vedas, but its real development took
place after the 7th century.
• It was initiated by Shaiva Nayanars & Vaishnavite Alwars in south
India, later spread to all regions.
Bhakti Schools
FEATURES OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT:
• Condemnation of rituals, ceremonies and blind faith.
• Rejection of idol worship.
• Surrender of oneself to God.
• Emphasized both Nirguna and Saguna bhakti.
• Salvation through Bhakti.
• Open-mindedness about religious matters.
• Rejected castes distinctions & believed in equality of all humans.
• Rebelled against the upper caste’s domination and the Sanskrit language.
• Use of local or regional languages for Preaching.
• Creation of literature in local language.
Causes for the emergence of Bhakti
Movement
• Influence of Vaishnavism
• Evil practices of the Hindus
• Fear of spread of Islam
• Influence of Sufi sects
• The emergence of great reformers.
Shankararcharya (788 – 820 AD)
• Birth- Kelara, Death- Uttarakhanda (Kedarnath)
• Guru – Govidhabhagavath pada
• Integrated the essence of Buddhism in Hindu thought and interpreted
the ancient Vedic religion
• Consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedant (Non-Dualism)- God &
created world is one and The individual soul is not different from
Brahman.
Ramanujarcharya (1017-1137 A.D)
• Birth - Tamilandu
• Guru – yadavapreksha
• Propagator of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta or qualified monism - There
exists a plurality and distinction between Ātman (soul) & Brahman
(metaphysical, ultimate reality).
• Exponents of the Sri Vaishnavism tradition within Hinduism
• Literary works: Vedartha Sangraham, Sri Bhashyam, Gita Bhashyam
Nimbarka
• He was contemporary of Ramanuja.
• He propounded the philosophy of ‘bheda-bheda’ -the God, the soul
and the world were identical yet distinct
Madhvarchaya (1238-1319 AD)
• Was critic of Adi Shankara's Advaita Vedanta and Ramanuja's
Vishishtadvaita Vedanta teachings.
• He preached "Dvaita" or dualism, where the divinity was separate
from the human conscience/soul.
• Liberation- only through the grace of God
• Book – Anuvyakhyana.
Nathpanthis, Siddhas, and Yogis
• Criticised the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the
social order, using simple, logical arguments.
• They advocated renunciation of the world.
• To them, the path to salvation lay in meditation on the formless god.
• To achieve this they advocated intense training of the mind and body
through practices like yogasanas, breathing exercises and meditation.
• These groups became particularly popular among “low” castes.
VIRASHAIVISM MOVEMENT (Karnataka)
• Basavanna and other virshaivas like Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi.
• Equality of all human beings and against the Brahmanical ideas of caste
and poor treatment of women.
• They were also against religious rituals and idol worship.
• Challenged caste system, questioned the theory of rebirth
• Encouraged post puberty marriage & widow remarriage.
• Basavanna spread social awareness through his poetry, popularly known as
Vachanaas.
• He established Anubhava Mantapa (1st democratic parliament of the
world.)
Ramanada (14-15th century)
• He was a follower of Ramanuja.
• Founder of Sant-parampara (literally, the tradition of bhakti saints) in
north India.
• Substitute the worship of Rama in place of Krishna.
• Disciple(s): Kabir (a muslim weaver), Ravidas (cobbler), Bhagat Pipa,
Sukhanand, sena (barber) & sudhana.
• His verse mentioned in Guru Granth Sahib
Kabir Das (1440-1510 AD)
• Disciple of Ramananda
• He was the first to reconcile Hinduism and Islam.
• He was a Nirguna saint and openly criticised the orthodox ideas of
major religions like Hinduism and Islam.
• Denounced idol-worship, fastings, pilgrimages and religious
superstitious beliefs, bathing in holy rivers, formal worship like nama.
• His poems are called “Banis” (utterances) or ‘Dohe’. His works are
compiled in the famous book “Bijak”.
Guru Nanak Dev (1469-1538 AD)
• Birth – Talvandi Viilage & Death Kartarpur ( Both are in Pakistan)
• He composed hymnes and sang along with the help of instrument
called ”Rabab” played by his attendant “Mardana”
• Travelled across the Asia including Mecca & Baghdad and spread the
message of “Ik Onkar” - One God.
• Opposes idol worship, pilgrimage and caste system, and emphasized
purity of character and conduct.
• Called God as “Waheguru” that is shapeless, timeless, omnipresent &
invisible ( Nirgun Bhakti )
• He started Guru-Ka-langer (Community Kitchen)
Purandar Das (1483-1564)
• One of the chief founding-proponents of the South Indian classical
music (Carnatic Music).
• He is often quoted as Karnataka Sangeeta Pitamaha
Dadu Dayal (1544-1603 AD)
• Disciple of Kabir
• He was a supporter of Hindu-Muslim unity
• His followers were called Dadu Panthis
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1533 AD)
• Founder of modern Vaishnavism in Bengal.
• He was a Saguna and popularized “Kirtans” (religious songs) as a form
of worshipping God.
• Popularized the chanting of “Hare Rama, Hare Krishna”.
• He made famous the practice of worshipping Radha and Krishna
together. He gave the “Achintaya Bheda-Abheda” philosophy.
Shankaradeva (1499-1569 AD)
• Spread the Bhakti cult in Assam
• He started the Ekasarana movement (Neo-Vaishnavite movement).
He believed in the worship of ‘Ekasarana’ (One God) in the form of
Krishna.
• He also called Krishna by different names like Hari, Narayan and
Rama.
• His most famous work is “Kirtana Ghosha”, written in a simple
language understood by the masses.
Vallabhacharya (1479-1531 AD)
• Exponent of Krishna cult
• Founded philosophy of “Suddhadvaita” (Pure Non dualism) and his
philosophy is known as ‘Pushti Marg’.
• He worshipped Krishna under the title "Srinathji"
Mirabai (1498-1546 AD)
• Staunch devotee of Lord Krishna
• Composed number of songs and poems in honour of Krishna
Tulsidas (1532-1623 AD)
• Depicted Rama as the incarnation
• Wrote “Ramcharitmanas”
Namdeva (1270-1350AD)
• Disciple of Vishoba Khechar
• He was a devotee of Vittoba (Vishnu)
• Opposed Caste system
• Only Nirguna saint in Maharasthra.
• He belongs to Varkari tradition
Dnyanesvar (1275-1296 AD)
• He was founder of the Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra in the 13th
century.
• Wrote "Dnyaneswari", a commentary on the Bhagavad-Gita.
• His other work is “Amrutanubhav “ on Yoga and philosophy.
• He was a worshipper of Vithoba (Vitthala) who is considered a
manifestation of Vishnu.
• He was a follower of Nath Yogi Tradition. He also drew inspiration
from the Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita.
Tukaram (1598-1650)
• Contemporary of Maratha king Shivaji
• Devotee of Vithal
• He founded the Varkari sect
• Man behind Maratha Nationalism.
• His teachings are contained in “Abhangas”
VARKARI TRADITION:
• Maharashtra and northern Karnataka.
• Vari means 'pilgrimage' and a pilgrim is called a Varkari
Sufism
• The word ‘Sufi’ derives its name from another Arabic word ‘Suf which
means wool.
• The Muslim saints who wore garments of coarse wool began to be
called Sufi saints.
• The Sufi’s main theme was Wahadut-ul-Wajud (Unity of God).
• Sufi orders were called as Silsilas
Salient Features
• Against the growing materialism of the Caliphate as a religious and
political institution.
• Sufism emphasized upon leading a simple life.
• The Sufis were divided into 12 orders each under a mystic Sufi saint
like Khwaja Moinuddin Chisthi, Fariuddin Ganj-i-Shakar, Nizam-ud-din
Auliya etc.
• While the orthodox Muslims depend upon external conduct and blind
observance of religious rituals, the Sufi saints seek inner purity.
• The Sufis thus sought an interpretation of the Qur’an on the basis of
their personal experience.
• Devotion is more important than fast (Roza) or prayer (Namaz).
• Sufis bridged the communal divide as is evidenced by the reverence
the Subcontinent’s non-Muslim population exhibited for Sufi saints.
Chisti Order
It was founded by Sheikh Abdul Chisti
• It was introduced in India by Sheikh Moinuddin Chisti. His Dargah is at Ajmer
• Qutubuddin Bakhtiar Kaki was the chief disciple of Moinuddin.
• Iltutmush dedicated Qutub Minar to Bakhtiar Kaki
• Sheikh Nizamuddin was the most popular Sufi saint in India. Amir Khusro, the
greatest musician and literary giant was also the disciple of Sheikh
Nizamuddin.
• Sheikh Salim Chisti was the last great saint of this order. He was held in great
respect by Akbar.
• Qamkhana were hermitages of Chisti saints outside the city
Suhrawardi Order
• It was founded by Shihabuddin Shuhrawardi
• It was introduced in India by Bhauddin
• It was the richest order and very soon became unpopular
Chhatrapati Shivaji
Treaty of Purander 1665:
• According to the treaty, Shivaji had to surrender 23 forts to the Mughals out
of 35 forts held by him.
• The remaining 12 forts were to be left to Shivaji on condition of service and
loyalty to Mughal empire.
• Mughals recognized the right of Shivaji to hold parts of the Bijapur kingdom.
Renewed war against Mughals
• Surat was plundered by him for the second time in 1670.
• He also captured all his lost territories by his conquests.
• In 1674 Shivaji crowned himself at Raigarh and assumed the title Chhatrapati.
Administrative Policies
Peshwa laid the foundations of a sound system of administration.
The king was the pivot of the government. He was assisted by a council of
ministers called Ashtapradhan.
• Peshwa – Finance and general administration. Later he became the prime minister
• Sar-i-Naubat or Senapati – Military commander, a honorary post.
• Amatya – Accountant General.
• Waqenavis – Intelligence, posts and household affairs.
• Sachiv – Correspondence.
• Sumanta – Master of ceremonies
• Nyayadish – Justice.
• Panditarao – Charities and religious administration.
 Revenue Policies
Lands were measured by using the measuring rod called kathi.
Taxes : Chauth and sardeshmukhi taxes collected not in the Maratha
kingdom but in the neighbouring territories of the Mughal empire or
Deccan sultanates.
1. Chauth was one fourth of the land revenue paid to the Marathas in
order to avoid the Maratha raids.
2. Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of ten percent on those lands
which the Marathas claimed hereditary rights.
Military Policies

• There were two divisions in the Maratha cavalry

• Bargirs, equipped and paid by the state;
• Silahdars, maintained by the nobles.
• Mavli foot soldiers played an important role.
• Shivaji also maintained a navy.
3RD BATTLE OF PANIPAT:
• The Third battle of Panipat was fought between the Marathas, led by
Sadashivrao Bhau and Durranis of Afghanistan, by Ahmed Shah Abdali
in 1761.
• The weakness of Mughal emperors and the division of the nobility in
contending groups.
• The ambition of the Marathas to gain influence in the North
• Aim of Abdali to capture Kashmir, Multan and Punjab
• The Maratha army, under the Bhao Sahib, uncle of the peshwa (chief
minister), was trapped and destroyed by the Afghan chief Aḥmad
Shah Durrānī.