I.

Introduction

“Klesha” as stress operates through four different modes. The first is “Prosupta” or
dormant. Given the right type of conditions, any mental process can become a stressor. The
second is “tone” or tenuous denoting comparatively weak stressors which are held in check
by more powerful stressor; they are present but without sufficient intensity and urgency. The
third stressors are “Vichchinna” or intercepted, these lack continuity due to conflict with
competing responses. They surrender their stressor value when in a dormant stage. The fourth
mode is ‘Udara’ or operative stressors. These are potent stress responses which have found
full expression in clearly observable behavioural modes.
Thus, the above model, which is proposed in Yogsutra is comprehensive and
incorporating cognitive structuring, affective or emotional stages and adaptive reactions. It
also presents the concept of “Kriya-yoga” which is aimed at reducing “the number and
intensity of the stressors” and facilitates related conversation of mental energy devoid of
tension which is defined as “Samadhi bhavna” (Pestonjee, 1992 and Rao, 1983).
The Patanjali’s Yogsutra emphasises the state of balance, union with ultimate and
freedom from conflict. The concept of homoeostasis is complex in the Ancient Indian
tradition and includes the integrated body-mind interacting system. Besides this, Gita and
Ayurveda provide an excellent illustration of stress and how it is to be handled.
Buddha emphasises “Abhidhama” a psychological theory which emphasizes that if
an act is motivated by evil mental states, it inevitably leads to stress and pain and if its
motives are pure, happiness follows the actions.
It is evident that the ancient Indian scholars have paid due attention to this issue. The
Indian tradition is characterised by a holistic approach to this human phenomenon. Behaviour
is interpreted in terms of the totality of an individual’s lifestyle and total body-mind
relationship (Dwairy, 1997).
The body-mind level of analysis in the Indian tradition is treated as less significant
than analysis at a still higher transpersonal level of self, “Aatman” or soul, which in turn is
equaled with Brahman – the ultimate reality.
Thus, the ancient Indian text and literature is analytical and modern western
psychological concepts such as frustration – aggression hypothesis, ego involvement, mind-
body interactions (psychosomatic) have their parallels in ancient Indian thought.
With the passage of time, a holistic concept of overall well being which includes the
physical, mental, intellectual well being of a person is developed. There are many institutes
working for the holistic development of human potentials including spiritual and faith based

3
 I. Introduction

organisations. Among these institutions, the Art of Living Foundation’s claims are more eye
catching as it has, with its effective interventions, reached across the majority of nations
around the globe. This foundation, not only claims for management of stress, but also claims
for improving holistic well being which develops human potentials to its fullest. Across the
globe, cutting across all sections of the society, people are enjoying its benefits.
The Art of Living Foundation established in 1981 by Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, is an
educational and humanitarian movement engaged in stress-management and service
initiatives. The organization operates globally in 154 countries and has touched the lives of
over 370 million people.
The programs are guided by Sri Sri's philosophy of peace: "Unless we have a stress-
free mind and a violence-free society, we cannot achieve world peace." To help individuals
get rid of stress and experience inner peace, the Art of Living offers stress-elimination
programs which include breathing techniques, meditation and yoga. These programs have
helped millions around the world to overcome stress, depression and violent tendencies.
The central piece of the Art of Living Happiness Program is a unique and profound
breathing technique. A practical tool that restores body, mind and spirit into its natural
rhythm of being, the Sudarshan Kriya has positively transformed hundreds of millions of
lives. Along with Sudarshan Kriya, other powerful breathing techniques, yoga and meditation
are taught in the interactive sessions of the Happiness Program.
Sudarshan Kriya (Healing Breath Technique) is a core process of almost all
programmes of the Art of Living foundation. Sudarshan Kriya incorporates specific natural
rhythms of the breath which harmonise the body, mind and emotions. This unique breathing
technique eliminates stress, fatigue and negative emotions such as anger, frustration and
depression, leaving one calms yet energised, focused yet relaxed. Sudarshan Kriya
harmonises the whole system by cleansing daily and accumulated stress. Studies show that
Prolactin, a well being hormone, significantly increases from the very first session of
Sudarshan Kriya.
European researchers have found that breath is the link between the mind and the
body each emotion has a distinct breathing pattern. For example, when one is angry, breath
becomes short, and when one is happy the breath takes a different rhythm. The reverse is also
true, that breathing in a particular pattern can induce a corresponding emotion. So instead of
being overwhelmed by emotions, one can transform those using specific breathing
techniques. Through Sudarshan Kriya, one can learn to skillfully use the breath to change the

4
 I. Introduction

way one feels, hence releasing negative emotions that cause stress, such as anger, anxiety,
depression and worry, leaving the mind completely happy, relaxed and energised.
Millions of people from all walks of life have been touched by the healing power of
the Sudarshan Kriya. It is well known that emotional well being is directly related to
productivity, concentration, learning ability, and success. The benefits of Sudarshan Kriya are
obvious for any family, business or organisation and results grow over time.
Participants of the programme have reported the following benefits of Sudarshan
Kriya.

• Reduces stress
• Improves health and well-being
• More energy
• Strengthens immune system
• Reduces cholesterol levels
• Greater creativity
• Greater clarity of mind
• Improves sleep
• Enhances brain function
• Improves ability to manage challenging situations
• Relief from anxiety and depression
• More ease, joy and harmony in personal and work relationships
• A deeper sense of community
• Increases awareness both of self and surroundings
• Improves patience
• Increases confidence and self-esteem
• Experiences a deep inner peace of mind.

Sri Sri Ravishankar, the creator of Sudarshan Kriya and founder of the Foundation
says that: “Nature is replete with various rhythms and cycles - day follows night, night
follows day, seasons come and go. Similarly, there are biological rhythms to one’s body,
mind and emotions. When these rhythms are synchronised, one feels a sense of harmony
and well-being. When stress or illness throws one out of order, one experiences discomfort
and discontent and feels upset and unhappy.

5
 I. Introduction

Sudarshan Kriya incorporates specific natural rhythms of breath which harmonise the
rhythms of the body and emotions and bring them in tune with the rhythms of nature. The
breath connects the body and mind. Just as emotions affect our patterns of breathing, one can
bring about changes in one’s mental and behavioral patterns by altering the rhythms of
breath. It flushes out anger, anxiety and worry; leaving the mind completely relaxed and
energised. After Sudarshan Kriya, many people feel so pure and so clear, so complete,
because the consciousness, which was stuck in the matter, material, which is foreign to itself,
got released from that and came back to its home. That is the sense of purity and feeling of
purity. One needs to do a cleansing process within one self. In sleep, one gets rid of fatigue,
but the deeper stresses remain in the body. Sudarshan Kriya cleanses the system from the
inside. The breath has a great secret to offer. (www.artofliving.org)

1.1 MODERN CONCEPT AND DEFINITION OF STRESS

Stress is a universal feature of life and no one can live without experiencing some
degree of stress. Though we experience and understand the stress, it would be useful to look
into the origin of the word “stress.” According to the concise oxford dictionary of current
English, the meaning of stress is “a pressure or tension exerted on a material object” or “a
demand on physical or mental energy.” The said meaning shows that the word “stress” was
initially used in the field of applied physics and later on adopted by the various fields relating
to human beings such as natural science, psychology, social science, physiology,
organisational management, behavioral science, etc.
Every human being has his own understanding of stress, because all demands of
adaptability do evoke the stress phenomenon. Selye (1956) beautifully summarized the nature
of stress in the following words:
“Everybody knows what stress is and yet nobody knows what it is.”
The term “stress” has been used in so many different contexts which creates
confusion regarding the exact meaning of the term. A few definitions of stress are given
below, and they are useful according to scope and clarity.
• “Stress is any condition that disturbs normal functioning” (Arnold, 1960).
• “Stress is the state of an organism where he perceives that his well-being is endangered
and that we must divert all his energies to its protection.” (Cofer and Appley, 1967).
• “Stress refers to physiological, behavioural and cognitive responses to events appraised as
threatening or exceeding one’s coping responses and options” (Lazarus, 1968).

6
 I. Introduction

• “Stress is a dynamic state within an organism in response to a demand for adoptions”

(Wolf and Goodell, 1968).
• “Stress was defined in terms of tolerance stating that stressful environments were
considered outside the normal tolerance limits of one's daily function, and stimulation
might be perceived as pain at extreme levels. ( McGrath et al., 1992).
• “Stress is a non-specific response of the body to any demand” (Selye, 1956).
• “Stress is a stimulus or situation to which man reacts with learned coping mechanism
activated by homoeostasis principle and fuelled by energies which are in finite supply”
(Caplan et al., 1975; Marshall and Cooper, 1979).
• Arnold and Feldman (1986) defined stress as "the reactions of individuals to new or
threatening factors in their work environment."
• Williams and Huber (1986) defined stress as "a psychological and physical reaction to
prolonged internal and/or environmental conditions in which an individual's adaptive
capabilities are over extended."
• The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) (Online resource) defined stress as "the adverse
reaction people have to excessive pressures or other types of demand placed on them."
• The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH – CDC Press Release,
1999) in the United States defined job stress as, “the harmful physical and emotional
responses that occur when the requirements of the job do not match the capabilities,
resources and needs of the worker.”
Perhaps, no construct in psycho-social research, has been able to define stress.
Therefore, there is no clearly satisfactory definition of stress which encompasses the social,
psychological and biological issues as they pertain to an individual. Stress is multifaceted in
nature and stress response arousal involves every set of organs and tissues in our body.
Thoughts and feelings are clearly intervened with these physiological processes.

1.2 CONCEPT OF STRESS PHENOMENON

The concept of stress phenomenon has been narrated by Selye (1956) in a

comprehensive three stage model known as General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), which
states that when an organism is confronted with a threat, the general physiological response
occurs in three stages. These stages are as under (Role Dynamics : Unit 7, Organisational
Stress and Burnout) :

7
 I. Introduction

[I] Alarm Reaction

This first stage includes an initial “shock phase” in which resistance is lowered and a
“counter shock phase” in which defensive mechanisms become active.
Alarm reaction is characterised by autonomous excitability; adrenalin discharge;
increased heart rate, muscle tone and blood content; and gastrointestinal ulceration.
Depending on the nature and intensity of the threat and the condition of the organism,
the period of resistance varies and the severity of symptoms may differ from “mild
invigoration” to “disease of adoption.”
[II] Stage of Resistance
Maximum adaptation occurs during this stage. The bodily signs characteristic of the
alarm reaction disappears. Resistance increases to level above normal. If the stressor
persists or the defensive reaction proves ineffective, the organism deteriorates to the
next stage.
[III] Stage of Exhaustion
When the adaptation energy is exhausted, signs of alarm reaction reappear and
resistance levels begin to decline irreversibly. The organism collapses.
A diagrammatic view of these stages is shown in Fig. 1.

Normal Level
of
Level of Resistance
Resistance

Alarm Stage Resistance Exhaustion Stage

Stage

Duration of Exposure to stress

Fig. 1. General Adaptation Syndrome (Selye, 1956)

However, this is an academic model and it has its own limitation.

8
 I. Introduction

1.3 SECTORS OF STRESS

• Another Indian expert Pestonjee (1992) attempted to present the nature and consequences
of the stress phenomenon. He identified the following three sectors of life in which stress
originates.
Table 1: Sectors of stress

Job and Organisation This refers to the totality of the work environment
i.
(task, atmosphere, colleagues, compensations,
policies, etc.)

ii. Social Sector This sector refers to the social / cultural context of
one’s life. It may include religion, caste, language,
dress, food, habits, etc.

iii. Intra-psychic Sector
This sector encompasses those things, which are
intimate and personal like temperament, values,
ability and health. It is contended that stresses can
originate in any of these three sectors or in
combinations thereof.

(Pestonjee, 1992).

1.4 CAUSES AND SOURCES OF STRESS

There are two main spheres of life in which each individual lives throughout his life.
They are:

[A] Non-Work Life: which includes the following life events relating to family, culture,
socio-economic, political beliefs, value system, religious, spiritual, physiological, etc.
The non-work life stress consists of many sources and events concerning to social,
cultural, economic and personal life. As the complexity of life increases day by day,
the sources and events can be increased further.

[B] Work Life: This can be called the sphere of job and organisational life. The modern
world, which is said to be a world of achievement, is also a world of stress. One finds
stress everywhere whether, it be a family, a military station, a Government set-up or
any other social or economic organisation. Stress is an inevitable consequence of

9
 I. Introduction

socio-economic complexity and to some extent, it is a stimulant as well (Ministry of

Defense, Government of India, 2013).

Stress in any organisation has been defined in terms of:

1. Misfit between a person's skills and abilities and the demands of his job, and
2. Misfit in terms of a person's needs not being fulfilled by his environment.
Caplan et al. (1975) defined organisational stress in general and role stress in
particular from the point of view of an individual. Cooper and Marshall (1976) are of the
view that occupational stress is environmental factors or stressors such as work overload,
role conflict, role ambiguity and poor working condition associated with a particular job.

1.5 ORGANISATIONAL ROLE STRESS (ORS) AND ITS SCALE

Pareek (1993a) has identified ten different types of organisational role stresses in the
organisation. These role stresses are:
1. Inter-Role Distance (IRD)
2. Role Stagnation (RS)
3. Role Expectation Conflict (REC)
4. Role Erosion (RE)
5. Role Overload (RO)
6. Role Isolation (RI)
7. Personal Inadequacy (PI)
8. Self Role Distance (SRD)
9. Role Ambiguity (RA)
10. Resource Inadequacy (RIN)
Pareek (1993b) has also developed and standardised the Organisational Role Stress
Scale (ORS scale) to measure the above mentioned role stresses.

1.6 OTHER RESEARCH ON SOURCES OF STRESS

Cooper et al. (1988) has identified six categories of sources of stress which includes;
Factors intrinsic to the job, Role in organization, Relationship at work, Career development,
Organisational structure and climate, and Non-Work factors.
Leka et al. (2003) has identified nine categories of sources of stress. They are Job
content, Workload and work pace, Working hours, Participation and control, Career

10
 I. Introduction

development, Status and pay, Role in the organization, Interpersonal relationships,

Organisational culture, and Home work interface.
The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, USA (NIOSH, USA,
Publication No. 99-101) has identified the Design of tasks, Management style,
Interpersonal relationships, Work roles, Career concern, and Environment conditions as the
categories of stressors.
The stress level of an individual depends upon the individual stress tolerance limit.

1.7 STRESS AND DISEASES

There has been a growing appreciation of how psychologically produced stress
reactions can enhance vulnerability to diseases, especially via imbalances engendered in
immune responsiveness. Psychological research in the later half of the twentieth century has
produced dramatic changes in the conceptualisation and study of disease aetiology.
Investigators from a diversity of fields have produced strong evidence for a robust and
arguably causal relationship between emotional stressors and susceptibility to human disease.
Stress and its accompanying physical and psychological effects determine not only
the causation but the prognosis and the possibility of cure. Thus, stress has come to occupy
the driver’s seat in most illnesses, especially the psychological ones. It is crucial to draw
attention to the role of stress in increasing disease risk for individuals. The underlying
mechanism of disease is unknown, but the physiological response to stress plays a significant
part. There is lot of evidence for psychological factors influencing physiological stress
reaction and its deleterious impact on the somatic structure and functioning of the body.
Many studies indicate that stress reactions involve increased production of catecholamine by
the adrenal cortex (Bowers and Kelly, 1979; Burchfield, 1979 and Solomon, 1985). Stress
related diseases can be broadly divided into four categories

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 I. Introduction

Table 2: Categories of Stress Related Diseases

It includes Gastro-intestinal physiology, peptic ulcer,

Gastrointestinal
1. : ulcerative colitis, irritable bowel syndrome, esophageal
disorder
reflux.

Cardiovascular It includes cardio-vascular physiology, essential

2. :
disorder hypertension and vasospastic phenomena.

Respiratory It includes allergy, Bronchial asthma and hyperventilation.

3. :
disorder

Musculoskeletal It includes skin disorders, the immune system and

4. :
disorder psychological manifestation of stress response.

(Kaila et al., 2001).

1.8 POSITIVE ROLE OF STRESS

The stress has also its positive impact on the individual. As noted by Kets de Vries
and Manfred (1979), each individual needs a moderate amount of stress to be alert and
capable of functioning effectively in an organisation.
It has also been studied by Pestonjee and Singh (1981) that stress and job satisfaction
have positive relations in the private sector managers. They explained their findings in light
of the characteristics of private organisations which generate greater stress and in turn, lead to
higher job satisfaction. Moreover, it has also been revealed that creative managers are
susceptible to greater stress than non-creative managers.
According to Birkenbihl (1989), individuals usually think of stress having negative
consequences. This negative stress is called distress. However, there is also a positive form of
stress called eustress where the Greek ‘eu’ means good. Getting a promotion, gaining
recognition, and getting married are examples of eustress.

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 I. Introduction

1.9 MODELS OF STRESS:

[I]

Fig. 2. Psychological Model of Stress (Palmer and Strickland (1996)).

[ II ]

Fig. 3. Model of Work Stress (Palmer and Cooper (2003)).

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 I. Introduction

1.10 BURNOUT

Stress is like the electric power which can provide brilliant illumination. The
phenomenon of burnout is the harmful effect of stress, resulting in loss of effectiveness.
Burnout can be defined as the ‘end result of stress experienced’ but not properly coped,
resulting in symptoms of exhaustion, irritation, ineffectiveness, inaction, discounting self and
others, and problems of health such as hypertension, ulcers and heart problems / ailments.

Effective Coping Glow-up

Role Stress

Ineffective Coping Burnout

Fig. 4. Coping and Burnout (Pareek, 1993a)

Generally, roles requiring continuous work with people such as teachers, trainees,
salesmen, personnel roles, etc., experience burnout more than roles requiring less contact
with people. Highly routine and mechanical roles produce burnout. The amount of stress
(distress) experienced as a source of irritation also contributes to burnout. Several other
factors contribute to burnout phenomenon. These are stress being very low or very high,
distress, stress prone personality, alienating role or job, hostile relationships, stress - prone
life style, avoidance oriented role style, use of dysfunctional coping modes of styles and
hostile organisational climate. The opposite of these contribute to the phenomenon of glow-
up.
The opposite, phenomenon of glow-up, occurs when stress is properly channelised,
resulting in a feeling of challenge, job satisfaction, creativity, effectiveness and a better
adjustment to work and life.

1.11 DEFINITION OF BURNOUT

However, much work and research is still required in the field of burnout. Burnout is
like stress, it cannot be defined in a single definition as a standard definition. However,
approaches to define burnout are as under (Unit 2, Role Dynamics, MS-26, Organisational
Dynamic, IGNOU, 1998 Edition):

14
 I. Introduction

• “A syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and reduced personal

accomplishment that can occur among individuals who do “people work” of some
kind (Maslach and Jackson, 1986).”
• "A progressive loss of idealism, energy and purpose experienced by people in the
helping professions as a result of the conditions of their work (Edelwich and Brodsky,
1980)"
• "A state of physical, emotional and mental exhaustion marked by physical depletion
and chronic fatigue, feelings of helplessness and hopelessness and the development of
a negative self concept and negative attitudes towards work, life and other people
(Maslach, 2003)."
• "A syndrome of inappropriate attitudes towards clients and self often associated with
uncomfortable physical and emotional symptoms (Cordes and Dougherty, 1993)."
• "A state of exhaustion, irritability and fatigue that markedly decreases an individual’s
effectiveness and capability Gordon et al.(2013).”

1.12 CHARACTERISTICS OF BURNOUT

One can see some of the differences in the above definition. However, examining the
details of the above definitions, one may find that:
• Burnout occurs at an individual level,
• Burnout is an internal psychological experience involving feelings, attitudes, motives
and expectations,
• Burnout is a negative experience for the individual and it contains problems, distress,
discomfort, dysfunction and other negative consequences, and
• Burnout appears to be a response to interpersonal stressors on the job in which an
overload of contact with people results in changes in attitudes and behavior.

1.13 CAUSES AND SOURCES OF BURNOUT

According to Pareek (1993a) Non work life, Life style, Personality type,
Characteristics of the role / job, Organisational climate / Culture, Role style, Type of stress,
Level of stress, and Coping style are the sources and causes of the burnout.

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 I. Introduction

1.14 RUST OUT STRESS SYNDROME (ROSS)

Researchers have also observed a phenomenon which is the opposite of Burn Out
Stress Syndrome (BOSS). The Rust out Stress Syndrome (ROSS) is indicative of stress
under-load. It occurs when there is a gap between what the executive is capable of doing and
what he is required to do. The concept of role erosion is close to the concept of ROSS. Stress
under-load can arise due to both qualitative and quantitative aspects of work.

1.15 CONSEQUENCES OF BURNOUT

• Negative Consequences
Paine (1982) has observed "Burnout Stress Syndrome" (BOSS), the consequence of
high levels of job stress, personal frustration and inadequate coping skills which have
major personal, organisational and social costs and these costs are probably increasing
(Latha and Panchanatham, 2010).

• Positive consequences
Pareek (1993b) has suggested the opposite phenomenon of burnout which occurs
when stress is properly channelised, resulting in the feelings of challenge, high job
satisfaction, creativity, effectiveness and a better adjustment to work and life.

1.16 BURNOUT AND MBI-GS SCALE

Many western researchers have defined burnout in different ways, among all of them,
the widely popular defined concept was developed by Maslach and Jackson (1986).
According to them, “Burnout is a syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and
reduced personal accomplishment that can occur among individuals who do ‘people work’ of
some kind.” They have developed the self report questionnaire, the MBI (Maslach Burnout
Inventory) which includes all three dimension of Burnout, i.e., emotional exhaustion,
depersonalisation and personal accomplishment. Emotional exhaustion indicates the
depletion or draining of emotional properties of a person caused by interpersonal demands.
Depersonalisation refers to the development of negative, callous and cynical attitude towards
the recipients of one’s service. Depersonalisation indicates an impersonal and dehumanised
perception of recipients. Lack of personal accomplishment points out the developing
tendency to evaluate one’s work with recipients negatively.

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 I. Introduction

In the third edition of the MBI manual (Maslach et al., 1996), the concept of burnout
was broadened and defined as a crisis in one’s relationship with work in general and only
with people at work. As a consequence, the three original burnout dimensions are redefined.
Exhaustion (Ex) now indicates fatigue irrespective of its causes. Cynicism (Cy) refers to an
indifferent or distant attitude towards work instead of other people. Lack of professional
efficacy (PE) covers both social and non-social aspects of occupational accomplishment.
Burnout can be reliably and reasonably validly measured, particularly with the MBI.
Burnout scores tend to be relatively stable across time, even after longer period. The MBI
can be used as an individual assessment tool.

1.17 OTHER RESEARCH ON BURNOUT AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

Veningle and Spradley (1981) have identified the following stages of burnout:-

• Honeymoon Stage
In this stage, there is a euphoric feeling of encounter with the new job. There is
excitement, enthusiasm, pride and challenge. Dysfunctional features emerge in two ways:
(i) The energy reserves are gradually depleted in coping with the demands of a
challenging environment.
(ii) Habits and strategies for coping with stress are found in this stage which is often not
useful in coping with later challenges.
• Fuel Shortage Stage
In this stage, there is a vague feeling of loss, fatigue and confusion. The symptoms are
job dissatisfaction, inefficiency, fatigue and sleep disturbance leading to escape activities
such as increased eating, drinking and smoking. Future difficulties are signaled at this stage.

• Chronic Symptom Stage

The physiological symptoms become more pronounced and demand attention and
help at this stage. Common symptoms are chronic exhaustion, physical illness, anger and
depression. A sense of fatigue and exhaustion overtakes the individual.

• Crisis Stage
When feelings of the chronic symptom stage persist over a longer period, this stage
occurs. In this stage, an individual feels oppressed, pessimism is heightened and self-
doubting tendency is generated which results in an 'escape mentality'. Peptic ulcers, tension

17
 I. Introduction

headaches, high blood pressure and difficulty in sleeping are some of the better known
symptoms of the crisis period which may become acute.

• Hitting the Wall Stage

This stage leads to muscle paralysis, dizziness, fainting and even complete collapse.
One may lose control over one's life; it may be the end of a professional career.
Caldwell and Ihrke (1994) have also identified the following stages of burnout:-

• Enthusiastic when entering the organisation.

• Stagnation when individual realises that he is not capable of solving all the problems of
the organisation.

• Frustrations as important problems are not being resolved.

• Apathy towards the organisation.

1.18 COPING STRATEGIES FOR STRESS AND BURNOUT AS PER

INDIAN WISDOM

In order to save the individual and the organisation from the adverse effects of stress
and burnout, proper coping strategies are essentially required to be implemented. As per
ancient Indian philosophical literature such as Bhagvad Geeta, Samkhya Yoga and Patanjali
Yogsutra, following theories and interventions can be useful to mitigate the adverse effect of
the stress and burnout:

1.19 HOLISTIC WELLBEING

True health must include not only physical fitness, but also simultaneous
psychological and spiritual well-being. In a broader perspective, the physical body of the
human being is not as important as the spiritual, intellectual and emotional aspects. A mind
draws its power from the “spirit” which transmits it to all body organs and ensures their
rhythmic and co-ordinated functioning. (Pestonjee and Muncherji (1991))

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 I. Introduction

1.20 NON-ATTACHMENT AND HEALTH

Pande and Naidu (1992) presented a research report on non-attachment and health.
The result indicated that those who were non-attached, though they experienced as many
events as their attached counterpart, did not get as distressed by those events. Consequently,
they exhibited fewer symptoms of mental and physical strain in comparison to those low on
non-attachment. Thus, non - attachment is a powerful predictor of both perceived distress and
strain.

1.21 STRESS AND MEDITATION

There are many studies which support that meditation is effective in the management
of stress. Goleman and Schwartz (1976) found in one study that the meditators had a unique
pattern of reaction. There was greater initial arousal and faster recovery in meditators. Fawzy
et al (1993) concluded in their study that the effectiveness of meditation techniques for stress
management has been demonstrated to be helpful in a lot of diseases, as it perks up the
psychological and physical well being of the human entity and lifestyle understanding.

1.22 YOGA AND STRESS MANAGEMENT

William J.D. Doran, in his online article on “The Eight Limbs, The Core of Yoga” stated that
the core of Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra is an eight-limbed path that forms the structural framework
for yoga practice. In brief the eight limbs, or steps to yoga, are as follows:
1. Yama: Universal morality,
2. Niyama: Personal observances,
3. Asanas: Body postures,
4. Pranayama: Breathing exercises, and control of prana,
5. Pratyahara: Control of the senses and principle of non-attachment,
6. Dharana: Concentration and cultivating inner perceptual awareness,
7. Dhyana: Devotion, Meditation on the Divine, and
8. Samadhi: Union with the Divine. It is the ultimate state of mind which corresponds to
the self actualisation stage of the need triangle as envisaged by the famous western
psychologist Maslow (1943, 1954). This is the point beyond which exists no need and
as such it can be stated as the finest state of mental equilibrium.

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 I. Introduction

Yoga therapy claims to reduce the “Tamas” and “Rajas” gunas from a person and
intensify the “satva” guna, thereby establishing balance between the body and mind which is
the aim of yoga. Through diet, asana and pranayama, it provides a defense mechanism
against stress and serves in stress prevention. The Yogi or follower of yoga learns to accept
the life in realistic way. The wide variation between expectation and fulfillment causing
frustration and stress does not arise as the person learns to be “content” (santosh) and does
not suffer from stress due to anger, lust or magnified expectations.
Yoga as a therapy provides better control on the different systems in a person's body
and also on the various glands which secrete hormones to maintain body equilibrium. It is
believed that "Yogasanas" and "Pranayamas" are responsible for secretion of “endorphin" in
the system which provides better immunity.
Yoga defines stress as "Disharmony" or "Imbalance" which is not only bodily, but
also psychological. Rishi Patanjali has used the term "Klesha" for stress in his Yogasutras.
Even Upanishads give proper perspective about "Stress" which seems acceptable as it
conceptualises a person into five Koshas (Layers) - viz.
1. Annamaya Kosha
2. Pranamaya Kosha
3. Monomaya Kosha
4. Vigyanmaya Kosha
5. Anandmaya Kosha

Fig. 5: Panch Kosha (Five Layers), a Conceptualisation of a Person (Kaila et al.,

2001)
Looking to this total perceptive, it is easier to understand stress as the effect of
imbalance in the basic Manomaya or Pranamaya Kosha on the Annamaya kosha which
modern science speaks of as "psycho-somatic." In reality, the ego-problems, frustrations,
conflicts, mismatch between expectation and fulfillment and tension due to false notions etc.,

20
 I. Introduction

all reflect adversely on the body (Annamaya Kosha) due to the imbalance on Pranamaya
Kosha and / or Manomaya Kosha.

1.23 MODERN CONCEPT ON COPING STRATEGIES FOR STRESS

AND BURNOUT

Various researchers and experts have suggested different coping strategies. Moos and
Billings (1982) have indentified three domains for coping. They are:
• Appraisal Focused Coping: involves defining the meaning of a situation, its logical
analysis and cognitive redefinition.
• Problem Focused Coping: involves modifying or eliminating the sources of stress or
changing the self and develop a more satisfying situation.
• Emotion Focused Coping: involves managing the emotions and maintain effective
equilibrium.
Lazarus (1968) has suggested two categories of coping actions:
• Direct actions: which bring changes in a stress causing environment.
• Palliative actions: relieving the organism of any emotional impact of stress.
Maddi and Kobasa (1984) have suggested two forms of coping:
• Transformational: altering the events in less stressful way, and
• Regressive: avoiding contact with a stressful event.
Kobasa (1979) have mooted the concept of personality hardiness which combines three
tendencies: Commitment rather than alienation, Control rather than powerlessness, Challenge
rather than threat. It has been found from the study undertaken by Maddi and Kobasa (1984)
that constitutional strength, social support, exercise and personality hardiness are useful in
protecting health and in buffering effect against stress.
Two Way Approach for Stress Management:
• At individual level, and
• At organisational level.

Strategies and intervention at individual level (Pareek, (1993))

• Approach strategy: According to this strategy, one has to increase the capability of
dealing with it. Approach strategy includes, sound social and emotional support and close
interpersonal relationships with friends and families.

21
 I. Introduction

• Escape or avoidance strategies are ineffective strategies which reduce the feeling of
stress but do not deal with the resolution of such a situation or problem.
• Physical and mental preparedness for coping through, Physical exercise, Walking,
Breathing exercise, Pranayama, Yoga, Meditation, Sudarshan Kriya (The Art of Living),
Diet management, Time management, Good practice of human resources management,
Create diversion for emotional enrichment in the fields of music, art, theatre, painting,
etc.

1.24 STRATEGIES AND INTERVENTIONS AT ORGANISATIONAL

LEVEL

Pareek, 1993b.has defined coping strategies for different organisational role stresses as
per following table.
Table 3: Coping Strategies for Role Stresses

Sr. Dysfunctional
Role Stresses Functional Strategies
No. Strategies

1. Self-Role Distance Role rejection, Role integration

self rejection

2. Inter-Role Distance Role partition, Role negotiation

role elimination

3. Role Stagnation Role fixation Role transition

4. Role Isolation Role boundness Role linkage

5. Role Ambiguity Role prescription Role clarification

6. Role Expectation Role taking Role making

Conflict

7. Role Overload Role reduction Role slimming

8. Role Erosion Role visibility Role development /

Role enrichment

9. Resource Inadequacy Role atrophy Resource generation

10. Personal Inadequacy Role shrinkage Role linkage

(Pareek, 1993b).

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 I. Introduction

Effective stress management involves directing stress for productive purposes,

preparing role occupants to understand the nature of stress, helping them to understand their
strengths and usual styles and equipping them to develop approach strategies for coping with
stress.
Lazarus (1968) suggested strategies of Intellectualisation, Rationalisation, Isolation
and Denial as effective cognitive coping strategies. Murphy (1988) suggested Employee
assistance programme, Stress management training programme and Stress Reduction /
Intervention Programme for stress management.

1.25 STRESS AUDIT

When an organisation decides to have a scientific look at the mental - cum - physical
health status of its employees, it is called a stress audit. A stress audit refers to the attempt an
organisation makes to study, explore and control the various types of stresses which the
individual experience by virtue of their organisational membership. Pestonjee and Muncherji
(1999) identified four phases of stress audit as under:.
• Phase-I: Carrying out an exploration on stress tolerance limits (STL) with the help of
psychometric instruments regarding anxiety and depression proneness, state / trait anger,
dominant motive / need profile and so on.
• Phase-II: Identifying the dominant organisational role stress dimensions using the role
efficacy index (REI) for the executives (Pareek, 2002).
• Phase-III: Collecting qualitative data on stress variables and their effects on individual
health and performance through structured interviews.
• Phase-IV: Remedial measures for implementing suitable modifications and changes in
activities and practices. This might also entail slight restructuring of the organisation.

1.26 COPING STRATEGIES FOR BURNOUT

Certain specific techniques and interventions are available to deal with burnout which is as
under.
1. Individual : To strengthen an individual's ability to deal with job-related stress
(Wilder and Plutchik, 1981);
2. Interpersonal: To strengthen interpersonal relations or work group dynamics to
decrease stress (Golembiewski, 1981);

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 I. Introduction

3. Workplace : Modifications in the immediate work environment intended to reduce

stress (Pines, 1981); and
4. Organisational: Change in policies, procedures or structure intended to deal with
organisational factors related to burnout (Golembiewski, 1981).
Paine (1981) has suggested that some consideration should be given to all sixteen
areas mentioned below in order to develop comprehensive programmes.
Table 4: Illustrative Burnout Interventions

Site Goal of intervention

Intervention Identification Prevention Mediation Remediation

Professional
Stress Individual
Personal Self evaluation training /
Management counselling
orientation

Support Creative Group

Interpersonal Peer feedback
Groups supervision counselling

Professional Job/ career

Work-Place Formal survey Job redesign
development changes

Performance Organisational Quality Employee

Organisational
monitoring development Assurance assistance.

(Paine, 1981).

1.27 INDIVIDUAL INTERVENTION

Any consideration of attempts to deal with the problem of burnout must start with a
consideration of the individual. However, this is not to say that individuals have the only
responsibility to prevent, or mediate the Burnout Stress Syndrome (BOSS). Now, individual
organisations have also begun to recognise their responsibility to provide a safe and healthy
workplace. Tubesing and Tubesing (1982) are of the view that everything from aerobic
dancing to Zen has a potentially useful role in Stress Management. They contend that there is
no “Magic bullet” that can be aimed at the problem. Instead, they recommend individualized
prescription based on an understanding of an individual's needs and strengths. Freudenberger
and Richelson (1981) have suggested more investment in training, more sensitisation to the
human and psychic needs of professional work force, increase employee communication and

24
 I. Introduction

participation, more team approach, and more research on the issues relating to stress and
burnout to diminish burnout.

1.28 ORGANISATIONAL INTERVENTIONS

Wilder and Plutchik (1982) have suggested a preventive strategy for burnout through
a Need Assessment and Coping Assessment (NAC) training method. This method includes
following steps:
• Sensitise the individuals to their own needs:
The eight needs related to personality characteristics. They are recognition, stimulation,
family and social life, achievement, competence, autonomy, advancement, and
collegiality. There are eight needs related to job characteristics. They are ambience and
working condition, variety and change, security, workload, emotional demands,
participation in decisions, time pressures and deadliness, and interpersonal relations.
• Help the individuals to assess the need fulfilling characteristics of a potential job.
• Increase the probability of an appropriate match between an individual and a job.
• Focus individual's attention on the areas they should work on to provide maximum
satisfaction on the job.
Plutchik (1980) suggested certain basic coping styles to reduce stress. They are:
suppression(avoid the stressor), help seeking, replacement(engage in direct stress reducing
activities), blame(other or the system), substitution(engage in indirect stress reducing
activities ), mapping(collect more information), reversal(act apposite to the way one feels),
and minimisation(minimise the importance of the stressful situation).
Lawless, 1991 suggested the steps for stress management as supportive work and
family policies, effective management communication, health insurance coverage for mental
illness and chemical dependency, and flexible scheduling of work hours.
Williams and Huber, 1986 has suggested certain managerial actions for stress
reduction. They include clarifying task assignments, responsibility, authority and criteria for
performance evaluation, introducing consideration for people into one's leadership style,
delegating more effectively and increasing individual autonomy where the situation
warrants it, clarifying goals and decision criteria, and setting and enforcing policies for
mandatory vacations and reasonable working hours.

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 I. Introduction

1.29 RATIONALE OF THE PRESENT STUDY

Stress has been considered as one of the major factors in work organization
(Agrawal et al., 1979). Sources or stressors in the employment organization are work, role,
personal development, interpersonal relations and organization climate (Pestonjee, 1992).
The role ambiguity, role isolation, role overload, role erosion and overall role stress had a
detrimental effect on all aspects of job satisfaction and morale (Pestonjee and Singh, 1981).
The organizational role stress, dimension-wise as well as total, was highly inter-correlated
(Pestonjee and Azeem, 2001). The spectrum of studies reviewed relating to the extent of
burnout among human service professionals, including teachers, doctors and nurses
churn out a considerable variation across different professions and within the same
profession (Birmingham, 1985; Whitehead, 1986; Turnipseed, 1987; Malhotra, 1989; Basi,
1990; Das, 1990; Gupta and Dang, 1993; Dasgupta and kumar, 2009). The animal
husbandry sector which is potentially one of the most important sectors of rapid socio-
economic development of Gujarat State, India, is also not exception to this.
The veterinary and animal science service is a highly specialized area that involves
tasks like management and health care of the livestock and poultry, prevention of
diseases, disease diagnosis etc. Also, globalization and implementation of world trade
agreements (WTA) has increased the scope for export of livestock and hygienically produced
livestock products manifolds. Movement of livestock and livestock products across the
borders also introduces the risk of trans-boundary infections. Zoonotic diseases and public
health issues associated with livestock and livestock products are other concerns.
In this context, the role of the veterinarians and paraveterinarians of Animal
Husbandry Department has become multifaceted as a clinician, researcher, and an advisor. In
order to manage these multi-dimensional activities, there is a high need of qualified technical
manpower and facilities. However, shortage of technical manpower and poor veterinary
infrastructure is affecting the quality of manpower and services. Only 34,500 veterinarians
are employed for field services against the requirement of 67,000. Similarly, against the
requirement of 7,500 veterinary scientists for teaching and research, only 3050 are available.
Availability of para-vets and other supporting staff is only 52,000 against the requirement of
2,59,000 (Source: 12th five year plan (2012-17) of Gujarat Government). The main duties of
these cadres include organizing animal health camps at the village level; provide animal
health care service at the door step; preventive as well as curative service delivery such as

26
 I. Introduction

vaccination and educating animal keepers. The factors contributing to burnout syndrome and
ORS among veterinarians and paraveterinarians include boredom, physical working
conditions, time pressure and deadlines, work demands, critical decision making in
emergency situations, over expectations of people, job design and technical problems.
Under such conditions, the employees of animal husbandry department are
undervalued and under-appreciated in the society. The veterinarians and paraveterinarians are
confronted with heart-breaking and frightening conditions that make them angry, frustrated,
and hopeless. The following symptoms were observed among these employees: loss of
interest in service, aggressive behavior, aloofness, absenteeism, lack of satisfaction for stake
holders, decreasing productivity and production, lack of dedication and timely appropriate
response, increasing complaints about professional service delivery and avoidance of
responsibility. Overall the morale of the employees appeared down.
Sudarshan Kriya & Pranayama (SK&P) was effective in treating mild and
melancholic depression (Murthy et al. 1997). Significantly lower levels of blood lactate
and higher levels of SOD, glutathione and catalyze were found in practitioners as
compared to non- practitioners of Sudarshan Kriya (Sharma et al.2003). A significant
increase in beta activity in the left frontal, parieto-occipital and midline regions of the brain
were observed in the SK&P practitioners (Bhatia et al, 2003). It is suggestive of
increased mental focus/heightened awareness, mental alertness (beta activity). Reduction
in stress-hormone levels (cortisol and ACTH) along with BDI reductions possibly
supported a biological mechanism of SK&P in producing beneficial effects
(Vedamurthachar et al., 2006). Also found was a statistically significant reduction in
anxiety and improvement in stress coping skills. Janakiramaiah, N. and Gangadhar, B. N.
(2000) suggested that participants in the SK&P group, but not the control group, lowered
their degree of anxiety, depression and stress, and also increased their degree of
optimism.
There is no research work available on burnout syndrome as well as
organizational role stress (ORS) among these employees. It was deemed fit to investigate
the ORS and burnout level among these cadres and to provide intervention. A detailed
discussion was held with the regional Joint Director, Animal Husbandry Department and
mutual agreement was arrived at with him. It was decided to undertake a stress audit of
these employees of the department with ORS scale and MBG-GS inventory along with
certain informative questionnaire about demographic variables and provide intervention in

27
 I. Introduction

the form of the Art of Living Happiness programme at the Art of Living Ashram near
Vasad, District Anand, Gujarat, India during September, 2012 by the corresponding
researcher in order to measure the impact of the Art of Living Programme on organisational
role stress and burnout among animal husbandry personnel

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