Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-021-11000-0

Introducing a novel model for predicting effective thermal

conductivity of spacer fabrics based on their structural parameters
Neda Dehghan1   · Pedram Payvandy1   · Shahram Talebi2

Received: 7 September 2020 / Accepted: 10 July 2021

© Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, Hungary 2021

Abstract
The knowledge of the thermal properties of textiles is important with regard to their vast applications in most industries.
Thermal properties, as one of the physical features of a textile, are influenced by its structural parameters such as thick-
ness, density, and so on. In this study, a new structural model is developed to predict the effective thermal conductivity in
knitted spacer fabrics. In the first step, a spacer fabric was considered as a three-layer set. The thermal conductivity of each
layer was calculated separately, and then the effective thermal conductivity of fabric was determined based on its structural
parameters. The performance of the proposed model was evaluated using spacer fabrics, and the results were compared with
those of other models. The results of the new model and the experimental method showed that the most effective parameters
involved in thermal conductivity are thickness, porosity and density. A good agreement (with R ­ 2 = 0.91) was found between
the results of the proposed model and the experimental values.

Keywords  Effective thermal conductivity · Structural model · Spacer fabrics · Thermal analysis

Introduction A spacer fabric has a three-dimensional structure, and

Understanding the thermal properties of textiles, such as
thermal comfort, thermal protection, and thermal insulation,
is of interest in the industry. Thermal conductivity and ther-
mal resistance are the key parameters in the thermal con-
siderations of textiles. They can be evaluated by different
methods, including analytical, numerical, and experimental
methods. There are many studies about textiles of various
types (e.g., woven, nonwoven, knitted, spacer, and so on)
with the goal of determining their thermal conductivity and
thermal resistance as well as the effect of structural param-
eters on their thermal properties.
* Pedram Payvandy
peivandi@yazd.ac.ir
Neda Dehghan
neda.dehghan@stu.yazd.ac.ir
Shahram Talebi
talebi_s@yazd.ac.ir
1
Department of Textile Engineering, Yazd University,
89195741 Yazd, Iran
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Yazd University,
89195741 Yazd, Iran
there is an empty space between the two surfaces of the
fabric. These features grant the fabric a variety of properties,
such as air circulation in it, better heat transfer, easy transfer
of water vapor from its surface, and lightness. Owing to
their special structure, spacer fabrics can be used in vari-
ous industries, such as sports clothing, medicine, protec-
tive clothing, automobile industry, and composites. One of
the applications of three-dimensional fabrics is in car seats.
The major reasons for the use of such fabrics in cars are
their favorable appearance, breathability (i.e., absorption of
body moisture and heat transfer), prevention of fast fatigue
(due to their elasticity and fast recovery from compression),
and efficiency (i.e., retention of their original thickness for
a long time). It is to be noted that the human body generates
heat and transfers it to the fabrics in touch. Therefore, it is
essential for those fabrics to transmit the heat away from the
user’s body and make him or her feel comfortable. There are
some pieces of research on the thermal properties of spacer
fabrics based on experimental methods, while there is little
research through an analytical or numerical method.
Regarding the studies based on analytical or numerical
methods, one can refer to [1] used both experimental and
analytical methods to examine a spacer fabric surfaced with
a wool web on one side. The thermal conductivity of this

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fabric was lower than that of an original spacer fabric with
no wool web on it. As it can be expected, therefore, in a fab-
ric covered with wool webs on both sides, the thermal con-
ductivity is significantly low. An analytical relationship was
used to study the heat transfer based on a model developed
for fibrous insulations [2]. In another study, Barauskas and
Abraitiene [3] presented a structural model to simulate water
vapor and heat transfer between a multilayer textile with
the spacer fabric layer and the human body. In their study,
each fabric layer was shown by one element and defined by
its heat capacity, thermal resistance, etc. The computational
model was able to predict the variation of temperature and
humidity in the gap between each pair of adjacent layers.
As for the studies conducted on the basis of experimental
methods, one can mention [4] investigated the air permeabil-
ity, compression behavior and thermal properties of those
fabrics in car seats. The results showed that spacer fabrics
have better thermal properties and higher breathability than
polyurethane foam. Hence, these fabrics transfer heat from
the human body faster and give the user a cooler feeling. In
another study by Yip and Sun [5], certain characteristics of
spacer fabrics, including their mechanical properties in a
low stress, air permeability and thermal conductivity, were
examined. According to the results obtained, air permeabil-
ity and thermal conductivity depend on the fabric density.
Also, higher density leads to better thermal conductivity.
Onal and Yildirim [6] investigated the thermal properties
(e.g., thermal conductivity, thermal resistance, and thermal
absorptivity) of spacer fabrics that were made of different
fiber compositions and used in mattresses. The heat source
for the mattresses is the body contact during the night. In
this study, the fabric tightness, fabric design and fiber com-
position were considered as the design parameters. Due to
the complexity of the three-dimensional structure of spacer
fabrics, these three parameters have the greatest effect on
thermal behavior. Also, the most effective parameter in ther-
mal conductivity is fabric density.
Ziaei and Ghane [7] studied the thermal insulation
properties of spacer fabrics impregnated by ceramic pow-
der. In their study, thermal resistance was determined by a
series model devised for multilayer structures. The results
showed that a multilayer structure has a significant and
positive effect on thermal resistance. It was also found that
an increase in the proportion of ceramic powder results in
decreased heat conduction by the fabric. Mishra et al., [8]
showed that spacer fabric properties like density have a very
important effect on air permeability, thermal conductivity
and mechanical properties. The main objective of this study
was to produce a suitable three-dimensional spacer fabric
to be used in sports clothing. The study showed that a fab-
ric with a lower density has a lower thermal conductivity.
This is because there exists more space to trap the air inside
the fabric. Arumugam et al., [9] studied the effect of spacer
13
N. Dehghan et al.
fabric parameters (e.g., raw materials, stitch density, thick-
ness, and type of spacer yarn) on such properties as thermal
conductivity and air permeability. The results showed that
an increase in the fabric mass and thickness leads to higher
thermal insulation. Moreover, spacer fabrics were found to
have low thermal conductivity when density is low and air
permeability is high. In another study by Arumugam et al.,
[10] examined the thermal properties of different spacer
fabrics and the water vapor transfer from them. The results
showed that the surface structure of the spacer fabrics and
their thickness plays an important role to determine the
thermal behavior and water vapor transfer. When the fabric
thickness and its density increase, the thermal conductivity
and the thermal absorption increase too.
Due to the vast application of spacer fabrics in vari-
ous industries, the deep understanding of their thermal
properties is important. The main purpose of this study is
to provide a new structural model to determine the factors
that affect the thermal conductivity of spacer fabrics. The
new approach examined in this case is the thermal conduc-
tivity measurement of spacer fabrics with regard to their
three-layer structure, the shape of their monofilaments,
and the almost uniform arrangement in their middle layer.
The performance of the proposed model is evaluated by
the guarded hot plate method, with commercially available
samples, and then through comparisons with some other
structural models used for textiles.
Modeling effective thermal conductivity
in porous materials
Thermal conductivity (K) is a feature of the materials
which have the ability to conduct heat. The thermal con-
ductivity is determined from the steady-state one-dimen-
sional heat conduction as follows:
Q×t
K= (1)
A × ΔT
where Q (w) is the heat transmitted through a sample with
thickness t (m) to the surface of area A (­ m2) due to the tem-
perature difference ΔT(◦ C) . Modeling the effective thermal
conductivity of two-component or porous materials has been
undertaken in various studies. There have been five main
structural models with a combination of simple rules to
calculate effective thermal conductivity for porous objects.
These models include Series, Parallel, two models based
on Maxwell–Eucken theory, and Effective medium theory
(EMT). Each one is used for porous objects with regard to
their structure [11]. Table 1 presents a list of those models
with their formulas and shapes.
Introducing a novel model for predicting effective thermal conductivity of spacer fabrics…

Table 1  Structural models of thermal conductivity in porous objects [11]

Model Thermal conductivity equation Physical structure Reference Parameter values

Parallel K p = v1 k1 + v2 k2 – v1 , v2 volume fraction of component

Series Ks =
k1 k2 – k1 , k2 thermal conductivity of component (W.
v1 k2 +v2 k1
m−1 K−1)

Maxwell–Eucken (1) k1 v1 +k2 v2 2k

3k1
1 +k2
[14, 15] Kp , Ks , KME1 , KME2 and KEMT effective thermal
KME1 = 3k1
v1 +v2 2k +k conductivity of material (W. m−1 K−1)
1 2

Maxwell–Eucken (2) k2 v2 +k1 v1 2k

3k2
2 +k1
[14, 15] –
KME2 = 3k2
v2 +v1 2k
2 +k1

Effective medium theory v k1 −KEMT + v k2 −KEMT = 0 [16, 17] –

1 k +2K 2 k +2K
1 EMT 2 EMT

In recent years, simulation and modeling of textiles have
been done to understand the effect of structural parameters
on thermal behavior. Some studies that have measured the
thermal conductivity of textiles are mentioned below. Gen-
erally, fabric is a non-homogeneous material made up of a
non-uniform matrix of fibers and air. Heat can be transferred
through a fabric by conduction, convection or radiation. Heat
transfer through conduction is basically dependent on the
temperature gradient; when the temperature difference is
low, heat transfer by radiation can be ignored [12]. Schuh-
meister [13] developed a relationship to calculate the ther-
mal conductivity of air and fiber mixtures. The assumptions
of his study were a) the fiber distribution is the same in all
directions, b) one-third of the volume of fibers is parallel to
the heat flow, and c) two-thirds of them are perpendicular
to the heat flow. The developed relationship is as follows:
( )
1( ) 2 Ka Kf
Ke = Ka Va + Kf Vf + (2)
3 3 Ka Vf + Kf Va
The first part of the above equation is related to parallel fib-
ers in the direction of heat flow, and the second part is related
to the fibers that are perpendicular to the heat flow. Ke is the
effective thermal conductivity, Ka is the thermal conductivity

13
 N. Dehghan et al.

of the air, Kf is the thermal conductivity of the fiber and Va , Vf Arumugam [10] adopted the parallel-series model to pre-
are the volume fractions of air and fiber, respectively. dict the thermal conductivity of spacer fabrics. It was as the
Stark and Fricke [2] presented a basic model to calculate following:
the combined thermal conductivity of air and fiber. They took ( ) ( KK )
into consideration the orientation means of the fibers (Z = 5/6) Ka va + Kf vf + K v a+Kf v
(5)
which were perpendicular to the direction of heat flow. The
a f f a
Ke =
2
proposed basic model was as follows:
( )
𝛼−1
Ke = Kf 1 + (3) Modeling the effective thermal conductivity
1 + 𝜉(1 + Z(𝛼 − 1)∕(𝛼 + 1))
in spacer fabrics
In Eq. (3), (𝛼) is the ratio of the thermal conductivity of the
air to the thermal conductivity of the fiber, and (𝜉) is the ratio Spacer fabric is a type of fabric with a three-dimensional
of the volume fraction of the fiber to the volume fraction of the structure consisting of two outer surfaces and a middle
air. The effective thermal conductivity of a porous textile that layer of monofilaments that connects the two outer surfaces.
has fibers perpendicular to the heat flow is calculated through Owing to their special structure, these fabrics exhibit unique
the Fricke method [18] as follows: properties and can be used for various applications. The fib-
ers in three-dimensional fabrics are not only on the surface
⎡ ⎧ ⎫⎤ but also arranged in the direction of the thickness. Figure 1
⎢ ⎪ Ka ⎪⎥
⎢ ⎪ 1− K ⎪⎥ shows the shape of monofilaments in the middle layer of
(4)
f
Ke = ⎢1 − ⎨ � �� � ⎬⎥Kf
Ka Vf spacer fabrics.
⎢ ⎪ 2 K ⎪⎥
⎢
Va
⎪ 1 + 1+� Ka � ⎪⎥
f
In this study, a structural model was presented to calcu-
⎣ ⎩ Kf ⎭⎦ late the effective thermal conductivity of spacer fabrics in
two modes: I) based on parallel and angled fibers and II)
based on curved fibers.

Fig. 1  The shape of monofilaments in the middle layer of spacer fabrics: (a) scheme of the three layers of spacer fabrics, (b) parallel and angled
fibers, (c) curved fibers

13
Introducing a novel model for predicting effective thermal conductivity of spacer fabrics…

Modeling the effective thermal conductivity of spacer (x + y = 1) . Due to the presence of the third dimension,
fabrics with parallel and angled fibers this value varies for different spacer fabrics.
( )
( ) ka kf
In this mode, the basic structural model was presented with Kd1 = x va ka + vf kf + y (6)
simple combinatory rules to calculate the effective thermal va kf + vf ka
conductivity. Since the spacer fabric texture designs were
When the fibers are parallel to heat flow (Fig. 3), the thermal
similar in the first and the third layers, the following assump-
conductivity for the middle layer can be calculated accord-
tions were made to simplify the mathematical model:
ing to the parallel model and by the following relationship:
1) The fabric assembly is like a geometric cell in which the
heat transfer occurs by conduction through the air and
the fibers.
2) The fabric can be modified with the simple geometry of
air and fibers.
3) The cross section of the fiber is a non-deformable circle,
and there is uniform thermal conductivity in fibers.
4) The volume of air in the upper and the lower layers is
the same. As a result, the volume of fibers in the upper Ka
and the lower layers is the same too.
5) The thickness of the first and the third layers is the same.
6) There is no temperature difference between
(the two sides of the first ) and the third layers
T1 = T2 = Tc , T3 = T4 = Th (Fig. 2).
7) The heat transfer by convection from the fabric surface
to the surroundings is negligible.
8) The heat transfer by radiation is negligible.

In the proposed model, the thermal conductivity for

each of the upper and the lower layers has been consid-
ered in accordance with the Schuhmeister model [13].
However, (x) and (y) are considered as variables that refer q
to the ratio of fibers parallel with heat flow and the ratio
of fibers perpendicular to heat flow, respectively; hence, Fig. 3  The fiber parallel to heat flow in the middle layer

T1
Vf
Kd1

Va
T2
Vf1

Kd6
V1

V2
Va1 T3 V3

T4
Th

Fig. 2  Details of the spacer fabrics in the models

13
 N. Dehghan et al.

( ) ( )
Kd2 = va1 ka + vf1 kf (7) Ka Kf
K⊥ = sin 𝛽 (11)
vf1 Ka + va1 Kf
where va1 and vf1 are the volume fractions of the air and
the fiber, respectively. The effective thermal conductivity of ( )1
the spacer fabric is calculated based on the following series Kd4 = K∥2 + K⊥2
2
(12)
model:
1 v v v where β is the angle between the fibers and the direction of
= 1 + 2 + 3 (8) heat flow. So, with respect to Eqs. (6), (8) and (12), the effec-
Keff Kd1 Kd2 Kd3
tive thermal conductivity is calculated for the three layers
as in the following:
In Eq. (7), v1 , v2 and v3 are the volume fractions of layers
kd1 kd4
1, 2, and 3, respectively. Also, with regard to the mentioned keff = (13)
assumptions, v1 = v3 and Kd1 = Kd3 . The equation for the 2v1 kd4 + v2 kd1
effective thermal conductivity is generally written as follows:

1 2v K + v2 Kd1
= 1 d2 (9) Modeling the effective thermal conductivity of spacer
Keff Kd1 Kd2
fabrics with curved fibers
When the fibers make an angle with the direction of heat
flow (Fig. 4), the thermal conductivity for the middle layer can The thermal conductivity of the middle layer fibers in a
be calculated as follows [19]: curved shape can be calculated according to the volume
( ) element in the fiber as shown in Fig. 5.
K∥ = va1 Ka + vf1 Kf cos 𝛽 (10) With respect to the curved fiber element, Fourier’s law
and Newton’s law of cooling, the following equations can
be derived:
dT
qx = −Ks Ac (14)
dx
( )
dqc = h T − T∞ dAs (15)
Ka
where Ac is the cross section area of the element, As is the
β
surface area, and Ks is the thermal conductivity of the fiber.
Ks is assumed to be constant throughout the fiber. With
regard to the boundary conditions shown in Fig. 5, the tem-
q perature distribution of the fibers as well as the effective
thermal conductivity can be calculated as:
Fig. 4  The fibers angled to the heat flow in the middle layer

Fig. 5  (a) The curved fiber in (a) Tc (b)

the middle layer, (b) the volume
element of the fiber dqx
dqc qx +
dx
S

R dAs
dAc
qx C
β
ϕ x

y
Th

13
Introducing a novel model for predicting effective thermal conductivity of spacer fabrics…

{
T(𝛽 = 0) = Th Table 2  The specifications of the spacer fabrics
B.C ∶
T(𝛽 = 𝜑) = Tc Sample code Thickness/m Areal mass of Spacer yarn density
( ) ( ) fabrics/g ­m−2) (number/0.0001m2)
Tc − T∞ sinh m𝛽 + Th − T∞ sinh m(𝜑 − 𝛽)
T(𝛽) = + T∞
sinh m𝜑 S10 0.010 350.00 50
(16) S20 0.020 885.96 60
2
where KhCrA = m2 S22 0.022 827.64 48
s c
S23 0.023 1437.82 50
ΔT dT |
−Kd5 A = −Ks A ||𝛽 = 𝜑 (17) S24 0.024 2305.55 60
s d𝛽 | S26 0.026 1977.03 60
S27 0.027 1758.33 80
[( ) ( )]
Tc − T∞ cosh m𝜑 + Th − T∞ S30 0.030 2335.38 60
s
Kd5 = Ks m ×( ) S37 0.037 2722.22 60
sinh m𝜑 T h − Tc
(18)
where h is the heat transfer coefficient used to indicate the
heat transfer in the air trapped between the fibers. Also, C is
the cross section perimeter of the element (m), S is the arc
length, and r and β are the radius and the angle of the arc,
Methods
respectively. In Eq. (18), Kd5 is the effective thermal conduc-
Thermal conductivity test
tivity for a curved fiber. In the middle layer, there are a set of
regularly arranged curved fibers. So, the thermal conductiv-
There are several methods to determine the thermal con-
ity based on the parallel model can be calculated as:
ductivity of textiles [20]. Three methods are commonly
Kd6 = Kd5 vf1 + Ka va1 (19) used, including constant temperature method [21], two-
plate method [22], and guarded hot plate method [23].
( ) ( ) ( )
msKs vf1 Tc − T∞ cosh m𝜑 + Th − T∞ + Ka va1 sinh m𝜑 Th − Tc
Kd6 = ( ) (20)
sinh m𝜑 Th − Tc

With respect to relations (6), (8) and (20), the total
effective thermal conductivity for this mode of spacer
fabrics is formulated as:
Kd1 Kd6
Keff =
2v1 Kd6 + v2 Kd1
Materials and methods
Materials
In this study, nine samples of knitted spacer fabrics with
curved fibers were used with the specifications given in
Table 2. The fabrics were different in thickness, texture,
and density. They were produced on a Raschel machine
with six guide bars. Polyester monofilament fibers of 220
microns in diameter were used in the middle layer, but
polyester multifilament made up the first and the third
layers. The samples were coded based on their thickness
in millimeters.
In this study, an experimental setup was designed based
on the guarded hot plate method (cooling method) and
according to the ASTM D1518-85 standard [23], as
shown in Fig. 6. Ten DS18B20 sensors were used, five of
(21) which were connected to a hot plate and the others were
placed on the sample, inside it, 50 cm above its surface (in
accordance with the standard), and at an ambient tempera-
ture (i.e., on the external wall of the laboratory system and
inside the test chamber).
In this study, high-thickness spacer fabrics were used as
padding in car seats. Therefore, to determine the thermal
conductivity of these fabrics, the following test conditions
were set up:
• Hot plate temperature: the hot plate temperature was
maintained at 60 °C all through the test.
• Test chamber temperature: the average temperature of
the test chamber was maintained between 303.15 k and
306.15 k.
• Relative Humidity: the relative humidity inside the test
chamber was maintained at the level of 35%.

13

6
Fig. 6  Scheme of the experimental setup: (1–6) thermal sensor, (7) hot plate, (8) aluminum plate with the thickness of 1 mm, (9) spacer fabric,
(10) power supply and (11) temperature controller
After the experimental setup reached equilibrium condi-
tions and the hot plate temperature was fixed at the desired
value, the measurements were recorded. The average of
these measurements over a period of 30 min was needed
to determine the combined transmittance coefficient of the
sample plus the air ( Q1 ) [23].
P2
Q1 = [ ( ]
A × Th − Tc )
In this equation, A is the area of the hot plate ­(m2) which
was 0.04 hereby, P2 is the power loss from the hot plate
(w), Th denotes the hot plate temperature (k), and Tc repre-
sents the air temperature (k). When the sample was placed
on the hot plate, the hot plate temperature increased due to
the thermal contact resistance. The operating power of the
experimental setup had to be reduced to achieve an optimal
temperature. For this purpose, the system was equipped with
a temperature controller.
P1
Qbp = [ ( ]
A × T h − Tc )
where P1 is the power loss from the hot plate (w), when
there is no sample on it during the measurement, and Qbp is
the bare plate transmittance coefficient. The transmittance
13
N. Dehghan et al.
10
11
coefficient of the fabric alone ( Q2 ) was calculated through
Eq. (24) derived from Eqs. (22) and (23) [22].
Q1 Qbp
Q2 = (24)
Qbp − Q1
The effective thermal conductivity of the spacer fab-
ric (K) was determined as follows [23] ( t is the fabric
(22)
thickness):
K = Q2 × t (25)
It was important to calculate the heat flux which passed
through the samples. The test plate was surrounded by
expanded polystyrene sheets (EPS) to ensure that all the
heat would pass through the fabric and no heat would be
lost. The inside is completely coated with aluminum foil
and this also helps to reduce the effect of radiation. In such
a case, heat flow is generally equal to the amount of power
required to maintain the test plate temperature.
(23)
Measurements
The thickness of the fabric samples was determined using
the ASTM D1777 standard [24], and their mass was meas-
ured according to the ASTM D3776 standard [25]. The
Introducing a novel model for predicting effective thermal conductivity of spacer fabrics…

fiber volume fraction in the middle layer was calculated 𝜌 fabric

using the fiber mass and the density of the polyester fiber
𝜀=1− (26)
𝜌 fiber
(1380 kg ­m−3). The total porosity of the spacer fabrics was
calculated with the equation below [26]: where ε is the porosity, 𝜌fabric is the fabric density (kg m−3 ) ,
and 𝜌fiber stands for the fiber density (kg m−3 ). The fabric
specifications, like the fiber volume fraction in each layer,
as well as the geometric parameters were calculated. The
Get image geometry is related to the shape of the monofilaments placed
in the middle layer, the angle of the fibers, the arc radius, the
Color image to grayscale arc length, etc. The calculations were done based on the pro-
Image conversion cessing of the sample images, as well as the surface porosity
of layers 1 and 3 was determined by processing the layer
Denoising with median filter images using the MATLAB software. The image processing
steps are reported in Fig. 7 [27]. To calculate the porosity,
Image clustering to 3-5 fiber separation from the background was best done by the
Clusters by K-means method
K-means clustering method, which is generally used for the
classification and separation of objects from the background.
Using davies-bouldin index
to fine the best cluster Figure 8 indicates three samples of layer 1 in the stud-
ied spacer fabrics along with their processed images.
Best-clustered image to The porosity of layer 1 and other fabric characteristics
binary image conversion that were determined by image processing are given in
Table 3.
Calculating surface porosity
of images The values v1  , v2 and v3 in Eq. (7) (i.e., the volume
fractions of layers 1, 2, and 3, respectively) could be cal-
culated for each layer with respect to the sample dimen-
Fig. 7  Flowchart of the image processing algorithm to calculate
porosity sions and the thickness of the layers. The total thickness

Fig. 8  (a), (b) and (c): Layer 1

of three spacer fabrics in sam-
ples S37, S27 and S23. (d), (e)
and (f): Binary images obtained
from image processing in (a),
(b) and (c)

13

of the fabric and the thickness of the first layer after
separating the middle fibers of the second layer were
determined using the standard [24]. The thickness of
each layer can also be determined by image processing
(Fig. 8).
The heat transfer coefficient of the spacer fabrics (h) was
calculated using the standard [28]. In this paper, (x) and (y)
in Eq. (6) that refer to the ratio of fibers parallel with heat
flow and the ratio of fibers perpendicular to heat flow con-
sidered 0.7 and 0.3, respectively.
In addition to the calculation of the temperature differ-
ence from the sensors, an IR camera was used to investigate
the temperature changes from the hot plate to the sample
surface. In the thermal images, the temperatures of the hot
plate, the middle layer, and the fabrics surface are visible.
Figure 9 shows two images of the spacer fabrics along with
their thermal images.
Results and discussion
The average temperature of the hot plate, the air temperature
and the obtained thermal conductivity by experimental setup
are presented in Table 3. The reported temperatures related
to samples after placed on the hot plate.
Fig. 9  (a) and (b) are for
S37 and S24 spacer samples,
respectively, (c) and (d) show
the thermal images of those
samples
13
N. Dehghan et al.
The thermal conductivity of every layer of the fabrics
and its volume fraction are presented in Table 4. Calcula-
tions were made for the thermal conductivity of layers 1
and 3 using Eq. (6) and the middle layer using Eq. (20),
as well as the total effective thermal conductivity of the
whole set of spacer fabrics using Eq. (21).
It is obvious that an increase in the arc length of the
fibers in the middle layer would increase the fabric thick-
ness (as shown in Table 5). Due to the direct relationship
between thermal conductivity on one hand and the thickness
and length of an arc on the other (see Eqs. 20 and 25), ther-
mal conductivity would increase with an increase in thick-
ness. As it can be seen in Fig. 10, there is a high correlation
between thermal conductivity of layer 2 and thickness.
Due to the relationship between the radius and the angle
of an arc and its length, if other variables and fabric param-
eters are constant, the thermal conductivity increases with an
increase in the arc angle. In Fig. 11, the curved fibers were
simulated while the angle was increased, and the thermal
conductivity was calculated when the other parameters were
constant.
Thermal conductivity values were obtained for the Poly-
ester fibers at angles 45°, 90° and 120°. It was observed
that an increase in the angle would make the length of the
arc and then the thermal conductivity of the fabric rises
(Table 6).
Introducing a novel model for predicting effective thermal conductivity of spacer fabrics…

Table 3  Geometric parameters of the fibers in the middle layer and the specification of layers 1 and 3
Sample code Thickness/m Angle (φ)/° R/m Arc/m Porosity in layer 1 Fiber volume fraction
or 3/% in the middle layer

S10 0.0100 116.719 0.0057 0.0116 68.90 0.2340

S20 0.0200 118.800 0.0107 0.0222 49.70 0.2260
S22 0.0220 125.532 0.0127 0.0278 17.30 0.2380
S23 0.0230 107.461 0.0150 0.0281 45.40 0.2240
S24 0.0240 93.060 0.0159 0.0258 7.60 0.2800
S26 0.0260 112.750 0.0156 0.0308 39.90 0.2230
S27 0.0270 97.030 0.0182 0.0308 27.80 0.2310
S30 0.0300 113.867 0.0184 0.0365 5.00 0.2230
S37 0.0370 111.400 0.0218 0.0424 4.50 0.2290

Table 4  The hot plate temperature, air temperature, and the thermal method. In Fig. 12, parts (a) and (b), one can see the corre-
conductivity measured by the experimental method lation between the theoretical model and the experimental
Sample code Tc/K Th/K Measured thermal values, where R ­ 2 is the correlation coefficient. The results
conductivity/W show that, of all the models ever developed, the model
m−1 K−1 proposed in this study has the highest correlation with the
S10 307.00 333.21 0.0293 experimental values. It can also be noted that the param-
S20 306.95 333.78 0.0316 eters of structural models used for multi-layer textiles and
S22 305.78 333.52 0.0286 spacer fabrics include the volume fraction of fibers and
S23 305.58 333.39 0.0347 air as well as the thermal conductivity of air and fibers,
S24 306.54 333.98 0.0388 whereas in the model presented here, first, the fabric is
S26 305.15 333.31 0.0333 considered as a set of three layers, and then the thermal
S27 304.62 333.67 0.0340 conductivity of each layer is calculated. In addition, the
S30 304.58 333.23 0.0355 geometrical parameters of fabrics, like the shape of fibers
S37 304.03 333.39 0.0432 and the volume fraction of the fibers in the middle layer,
are taken into consideration too. The difference between
the proposed model and the experimental method in terms
of thermal conductivity can be due to the heat dispersion
A comparison of the thermal conductivity of the predicted during the heat transfer from the hot plate to the sample;
model and several other models is presented in Table 7. as a result, the used power is estimated to be more than
The thermal conductivity obtained from the models was the actual power, also the contact of monofilaments in the
compared with the values obtained from the experimental

Table 5  Volume fraction and thermal conductivity for the layers of the spacer fabrics
Sample code Thermal conductivity of Volume fraction of Thermal conductivity of Volume fraction of Predicted ther-
layer 1/W m−1 K −1 layer 1 layer 2/W m−1 K −1 layer 2 mal conductiv-
ity/W m−1 K −1

S10 0.046 0.170 0.0063 0.660 0.0280

S20 0.059 0.100 0.0170 0.798 0.0286
S22 0.100 0.063 0.0145 0.873 0.0278
S23 0.067 0.079 0.0230 0.840 0.0301
S24 0.124 0.109 0.0228 0.780 0.0314
S26 0.068 0.068 0.0239 0.863 0.0297
S27 0.081 0.047 0.0270 0.905 0.0298
S30 0.122 0.055 0.0282 0.888 0.0311
S37 0.128 0.044 0.0355 0.910 0.0322

13
 N. Dehghan et al.

Thermal conductivity / W.m –1K –1

0.04 Effects of thickness and density on thermal
0.035 R² = 0.9375 conductivity
0.03
0.025 Figure 13 shows the effect of thickness variation and den-
0.02 sity variation on thermal conductivity in both the proposed
0.015 model and the experimental modes. The results suggest
0.01 that the thermal conductivity of spacer fabrics increases
0.005 with the increase in thickness and density.
0
8 13 18 23 28 33 38 43 As density increases, thermal conductivity does not
Tickness*10 – 2/m increase continuously, which might be due to other param-
eters such as the porosity and thickness of the fabrics. For
Fig. 10  Correlation between the thermal conductivity in layer 2 and example, in the case of samples S37 and S24, the latter has
the spacer fabric thickness higher density and less thickness than the former; hence,
the thermal conductivity is reduced. All this shows that
thickness plays an important role than density on the ther-
middle layer and the contact resistance between them can mal conductivity of spacer fabrics.
be effective on thermal conductivity value. This difference In addition, an increase in the density and thickness
can be minimized by using the correction factor due to the of sample S27 versus S20 leads to higher thermal con-
assumptions. ductivity. It is also expected that, in case fabric porosity
Table 8 presents the results of the analyses conducted on and thickness are constant, denser fabrics will have higher
the spacer fabrics. The numerical data concern the effective thermal conductivity. This can be due to the less space to
thermal conductivity in the experimental method and the trap the air inside fabrics.
proposed model in connection with density, thickness, and By and large, the thermal conductivity of spacer fab-
total porosity. rics depends on a number of major parameters, including
thickness, fibers density in the middle layer and porosity.

0.005m

0.04m

Fig. 11  Curved fibers with different angles

Table 6  Thermal conductivity at different angles

Angle (degrees) Th/K Tc (k) T ∞/K h/W m−2 K −1 [3, 28] Ks/W m−1 K −1 [1, 29] Ka/W m−1 K −1 Keff /W m−1 K −1

45 333.15 308.15 300.15 6.5 0.14 0.0285 0.01106

90 333.15 308.15 300.15 6.5 0.14 0.0285 0.02170
120 333.15 308.15 300.15 6.5 0.14 0.0285 0.02893

13
Introducing a novel model for predicting effective thermal conductivity of spacer fabrics…

Table 7  Thermal conductivity of spacer fabrics obtained by different models and the proposed model
Sample code Ka/W m−1 K−1 Ks/W m−1 K−1 Vs Thermal conductivity calculated through different models/W Predicted thermal
m−1 K−1 conductivity/W
m−1 K−1
Fricke model Schuhmeister Stark-Fricke Arumugam
model model model

S10 0.0285 0.14 0.974 0.02805 0.03089 0.03082 0.03155 0.0280

S20 0.0285 0.14 0.967 0.02808 0.03072 0.03065 0.03134 0.0286
S22 0.0285 0.14 0.939 0.02789 0.03169 0.03161 0.03257 0.0278
S23 0.0285 0.14 0.954 0.02815 0.03036 0.03030 0.03088 0.0301
S24 0.0285 0.14 0.930 0.02779 0.03220 0.03212 0.03321 0.0314
S26 0.0285 0.14 0.945 0.02795 0.03138 0.03130 0.03217 0.0297
S27 0.0285 0.14 0.951 0.02796 0.03132 0.03125 0.03211 0.0298
S30 0.0285 0.14 0.943 0.02793 0.03149 0.03141 0.03232 0.0311
S37 0.0285 0.14 0.946 0.02796 0.03132 0.03125 0.03211 0.0322

0.034 As a result, the interrelation of such parameters can create

Thermal conductivity (W.m –1K–1)

0.033 R² = 0.245 synergistic effects on the thermal conductivity of fabrics.

R² = 0.3056
0.032
Effect of thickness and porosity on thermal
R² = 0.311
0.031 properties
0.03

0.029
There is larger space created in spacer fabrics when the
R² = 0.5144
porosity increases. With the increase in the fabric porosity,
0.028
the air volume increases in the fabric, and, thus, its thermal
0.027 conductivity decreases.
0.027 0.032 0.037 0.042
Figure 14 shows a decrease in the thermal conductiv-
Measured thermal conductivity ( W.m–1K–1) ity due to an increase in the porosity. Generally, thermal
Fricke model Schuhmeister model conductivity decreases as porosity increases, but, in a few
Stark-Fricke model Arumugam model cases, thermal conductivity also increases due to an increase
Measured thermal conductivity (W.m–1K–1)

(a) in thickness or density. For example, the porosity of sample

0.045 S37 is more than that of sample S24, while its thermal con-
0.043 ductivity is also higher than the sample S24, which is due to
0.041 R² = 0.9152 an increase in thickness 13 mm.
0.039
0.037
0.035
Effect of porosity and density on thermal properties
0.033
0.031 The two parameters of density and thickness did not show
0.029 suitable results on the thermal conductivity simultaneously.
0.027 In general, at a constant fabric thickness, porosity decreases
0.025 with increasing fabric density and fibers numbers. Therefore,
0.027 0.028 0.029 0.03 0.031 0.032 0.033
the thermal conductivity of fabrics increases, because the
Thermal conductivity (W.m–1K–1)
thermal conductivity of fibers is higher than air.
Proposed model
(b)

Fig. 12  Correlation of the measured thermal conductivity values in

(a) different models and (b) the model proposed in this study

13
 N. Dehghan et al.

Table 8  Effective thermal Sample code Total Poros- Predicted thermal con- Measured thermal con-
Density ( kg m−3)
conductivity of the spacer ity/% ductivity/W m−1 K −1 ductivity/W m−1 K −1
fabrics
S10 35.004 97.46 0.0280 0.0293
S20 44.298 96.79 0.0286 0.0316
S22 37.620 97.27 0.0278 0.0286
S23 62.514 95.47 0.0301 0.0347
S24 96.003 93.04 0.0314 0.0388
S26 75.060 94.56 0.0297 0.0333
S27 66.361 95.19 0.0298 0.0340
S30 77.640 94.35 0.0311 0.0355
S37 73.570 94.66 0.0322 0.0432

Predicted thermal conductivity Measured thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity*10–3/W.m–1 k–1

Thermal conductivity*10–3/W.m–1 k–1

33 45
32
40
31
30 35
29
30
28
27 25
100
100
80 40 40
80
De 60 30
De
nsi
ty / 40 20 –2 /m nsi 60 30
k ty /
g m– 20 10 nes s*10 kg/ 40 20 –2
0 /m
3
Thick
m3
20 10 k n e ss*1
Thic

Fig. 13  Effect of thickness and density on the thermal conductivity of fabrics (a) predicted and (b) experimental values

Predicted thermal conductivity Measured thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity*10–3/W.m–1 k–1

Thermal conductivity*10–3/W.m–1 k–1

34
45
32
40
30
35

28 90
90 30
92
92
26 25
94 94
40
35 /% 40 35 /%
30 96 sity 30 96 sity
25 20 ro 25 20 ro
Thicknes 15
10
98 Po Thickne 15 98 Po
s*10 –2/m ss*10 –2 10
/m

Fig. 14  Effect of the total porosity and thickness on the thermal conductivity, (a) predicted and (b) experimental values

13
Introducing a novel model for predicting effective thermal conductivity of spacer fabrics…
Conclusions
In this study, the effective thermal conductivity of polyester
spacer fabrics was investigated. The studied fabric samples
were different in terms of thickness and density. The results
showed that the parameters affecting the thermal conduc-
tivity of spacer fabrics are thickness, density, porosity, and
the thermal conductivity of fibers in the interlayer. Among
the tested samples, S10 and S22 proved to have the highest
porosity and the lowest thermal conductivity, while S24 had
the lowest porosity and rather high thermal conductivity. The
highest thermal conductivity belonged to sample S37 with a
porosity of 94.66% and the highest thickness. Therefore, the
most important factor affecting the thermal conductivity of
fabrics is thickness, followed by porosity and density. When
all the other parameters are constant, an increase in thickness
can enhance the thermal conductivity. In addition to the find-
ings on the volume fraction of fibers and air and their thermal
conductivity, the shape of fibers in the middle layer emerged
to be of some impact on their thermal conductivity. Of all
the models ever developed in the field, the model proposed
in this study has good agreement with experimental results,
which indicates the model’s efficiency in predicting the effec-
tive thermal conductivity of spacer fabrics.
Authors’ contribution  All authors contributed to the study conception
and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were
performed by Neda Dehghan under the guidance of Pedram Payvandy.
The first draft of the manuscript was written by Neda Dehghan and all
authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors
read and approved the final manuscript.
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