ECV 308- Soil Mechanics II

Eng. Marclus Mwai (PhD, MSc, BSc (Civil Eng.))

Course Expectations
 Compute soil principle stresses
 Determine the coefficient of consolidation
 Analyze slope stability
 State mechanical and chemical methods of soil
stabilization
 Perform field investigation of soils
 Design landfill leachate containment systems
 Course Contents
• Overview- Engineering Properties of Soils
• Shear strength-
• Slope Stability
• Soil Stabilization
• Site Investigations
• Practical Application-Design of sanitary
landfills
Examinations
• Ordinary Examination at end of Semester 70%;
• Continuous Assessment 30% [10% tests, 5% assignments and 15%
laboratory ]

Design Exercise- (work in groups of 4)

Laboratory Exercises
• Drained and Undrained Triaxial test
• California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
• Unconfined compression strength (UCS
References
Textbook
Craig, R,F; Soil Mechanics. 7th edt. 2004, Taylor
and Francis, ISBN: 0415327032

Design Exercise
• Design of a sanitary landfill liner
• Work in groups of 4 students
• Further details later
 Overview- Engineering properties of
soils
• Permeability of soils
Practical Example – flow nets

• Compressibility of soils
- primary compression
- Secondary compression
Construct a flow net and for the sheet pile shown in Figure 1 below. Estimate the
seepage in cubic metres per year per unit width of the sheet pile.

Sheet pile

1m

Permeable layer
6m

12 m

k = 4.80 x 10 -3 cm/s

Impermeable layer

ECV 308- May 2018

 Compressibility of soils
• Develop a mathematical model for one
dimensional consolidation of soils- Self study

• Given the following data, determine the

compression index of the soil sample
The Table 1 below shows the relationship between overburden pressures and
porosity of 2 soil samples. Based on an appropriate mathematical model,
determine the compression index for each of the soil samples.

Pressure (kPa) Sample 1-Porosity Sample 2- Porosity

0 0.6681 0.6048
21.9 0.5511 0.5398
43.8 0.4736 0.4894
65.7 0.4257 0.4538
87.6 0.3898 0.42
109.5 0.3611 0.3936
131.4 0.3336 0.3706
153.3 0.3146 0.3504
175.2 0.3309
197.2 0.313
219.1 0.2982
241.0 0.2829
262.9 0.2805
284.8 0.2668
306.7 0.2553
328.6 0.2411

ECV 308
 ECV 308- Soil Mechanics II

Lesson 2- Shear Strength of Soils

Dr. Eng. Marclus Mwai (PhD, MSc, BSc (Civil Eng.))

 Course Contents
• Overview- Engineering Properties of Soils
• Shear strength of soils -
• Slope Stability
• Soil Stabilization
• Site Investigations
• Practical Application-Design of sanitary
landfills
 Lesson 2- Expectations
• Analyzing shear failure
• Analyzing shear strength of soils
• Understand methods of investigating shear
strength of soils- laboratory and field tests
• Understand soil behavior before failure- shear
characteristics of sands, clays
• Analyze field related problems
 Lesson 2- Expectations
• Analyzing shear failure
• Analyzing shear strength of soils
• Understand methods of investigating shear
strength of soils- laboratory and field tests
• Understand shear characteristics of sands,
clays
• Analyze field related problems
Understanding Stress
Analysis of Stress
 Analysis of Stress
• Within a loaded body the stresses generally
vary from point to point so, for example, the
stresses below the edge and centre of a
foundation are different.
Shear failure in a sloping ground
• Because of particulate nature of soils, eternal loads
applied on a soil mass induce shear stresses in a soil
mass.
• The resistance offered by the soil on any plane at any
point in a soil mass to the induced shear stresses is
called shear strength of the soil.
• Failure occurs on the plane where shear stress
exceeds the shear strength of the soil on that plane
• The plane of failure is called critical failure plane
• Shear strength is the principal engineering
property of a mass of soil that control the
safety and stability of earth supported
structures

• It is important to understand and determine

the shear strength of the soil to ensure
stability of the structures
• If shear stress exceed shear strength failure
occurs. It is important to determine the
stresses on any plane at any point in a soil
mass in order to determine the safety and
stability of the structure

• This is done with help of mohr circle of

stresses
 Analyzing shear failure
• Stress acting perpendicular to a plane is called
normal stress
 Analyzing shear failure
• Stress acting parallel to a plane is called shear
stress

Consider a force F acting on XY plane causing distortion . The force F is

a shearing force

Shear stress, Shear strain,

 Analyzing shear failure
• Maximum shear stress a material can sustain is
its shear strength

• If the shear stress = 0, the normal stress is

called principal stress

• Every point in a soil mass is subjected to three

principal stresses. The maximum is called
principal stress, while the least is called minor
principal stress. The other is called
intermediate principal stress
 Analyzing shear failure
• Soils can only contain compressive stresses, no
tensile stresses

• Strains can be compressive or tensile

Material response to normal forces

Linear and non-linear stress- strain curves of an elastic

material
Material response to shear forces

Shear stress- shear strain response of a material

 General state of stress

From Hooke’s law:

 Failure condition
• If stress equal strength- failure occurs

• We need to know the stress state due to

applied loads
- Two approaches
- Hooke’s law- analytical approach assuming materials
are elastic
- Mohr’s circle- graphical approach assuming two
dimensional stress system
 Mohr’s Circle of Stresses
• Mohr’s circle of stresses enables to determine
the stresses on any plane at any point in a soil
mass
• Mohr’s circle is a graphical representation of
stresses at any point in a soil mass with
normal stress on the x-axis and shear stress on
the y-axis
• Consider a small soil element subject to
stresses shown in Fig. 1, where σ1 is the major
principal stress and σ3 is the minor principal
stress. Hence, plane AB and DC are the major
principal planes and planes AD and BC are the
minor principal planes

Mohr circle can be used to calculate stresses in a given

plane, given principle stresses and vice versa
 σ1

σ
τ
σ3 σ3

σ1

Fig 1. Soil element subjected to principal stresses

Required: Determine stresses on plane EF
inclined at an angle θ

• This is achieved by constructing the mohr

circle, as follows

Fig 2. Mohr’s circle for stresses on the soil element

• 1. Draw the x- and y-axes with O as origin. The x-axis represents the
normal stress and the y-axis represents the shear stress.
• 2. Plot OA = σ3 on the x-axis. Similarly, plot OB = σ1 on the x-axis.
• 3. Bisect AB to locate the midpoint at C.
• 4. With C as center and AC = BC as radius, draw a circle, which is the
Mohr’s circle.
• 5. The coordinates of every point on the Mohr’s circle gives the
stresses on a plane. Thus, the coordinates of point A (σ3, 0) give the
stresses on the minor principal plane. Hence, point A represents
minor principal plane. Similarly, point B with coordinates (σ1, 0)
represents major principal plane.
• 6. Now, to determine the stresses on plane EF, which makes an
angle θ with the major principal plane, draw the line CD, making an
angle 2θ with CB to intersect the Mohr’s circle at point D. The
coordinates of point D give the stresses on the plane EF
• x-coordinate of point D = Normal stress on
plane EF –
• -coordinate of point D = Shear stress on plane
EF; τ = DE

Since angle θ can take any value, Mohr’s circle helps us to determine the stresses on
any plane inclined at an angle θ with the major principal plane.
Stresses on a plane oriented at an angle θ from the
principal stress plane
Calculating principle stresses given stresses at a point
Stresses on a two dimensional element and Mohr’s circle
Relationship between principal stresses and stress
components
 Examples
Example 1:
A dry sand sample is subjected to a normal
stress σ of 20 kPa in a direct shear test. Calculate
the shear force at failure if the soil sample is 10
cm × 10 cm in plane and 2.5 in height. The
strength parameters of the sand are c = 0 and φ
= 38◦.
 Example 2
An intact rocky wedge is situated on an inclined plane as shown
in Figure 2. Due to the self-weight of the wedge, a normal stress
of 900 kPa and a shear stress of 500 kPa are applied to the
inclined plane. Determine the safety of the wedge against sliding
given that the friction angle between the wedge and the inclined
plane is 25◦.
 Questions
• While constructing an embankment upto a certain height, the major and minor stresses at
point in the foundation increased to 9 kg/ cm2 and 3 kg/cm2, respectively. If the foundation
material has cohesion of 0.5 kg/cm2 and the angle of internal friction of 20o, will the above
condition cause failure at the point?
• Fig 1 shows a soil element on which normal stresses of 6 kg/cm2 and 3 kg/cm2 act on the
horizontal and vertical planes respectively. In addition to these normal stresses shear stress
of 2.8 kg/cm2 acts, as shown. Draw the Mohr stress circle and (b) determine the magnitudes
of principal stresses and orientation of principal planes

3 kg/ cm2
2.8 kg/ cm2

6 kg/ cm2 6 kg/ cm2

2.8 kg/ cm2

3 kg/ cm2
ECV 308- Soil Mechanics II

Dr. Eng. Marclus Mwai (PhD, MSc, BSc (Civil Eng.))

Lesson 3- Stability of Slopes

 Course Contents
• Overview- Engineering Properties of Soils
• Shear strength-
• Stability of Slope
• Soil Stabilization
• Site Investigations
• Practical Application-Design of sanitary
landfills
 Course outline
• Cases of slope instability
• Types of slope instability
• Factors affecting slope stability
• Stress changes in slopes
• Stability of infinite slopes
• Stability of finite slopes
• Design exercise
 Recent news
• Heavy rains, landslides kill atleast 100 people

• Met dept issues landslide advisory

• Landslides render 25 families homeless

Cases of slope instability
• Slope instability involve large ground movements
• Interested with natural slopes or man-made earthen
slopes
• The steeper the slope, the greater the stability
• limited by space, cost of earthworks
• Interested with the steepest safe slope
• Analyze the stability of the slope
• Design of earth retaining structures covered later
 Basic Concepts
• Geometry known- problem idealized as two
dimensional
• Shear strength of the soil is known
- Coulombs law: 𝜏𝑓 = 𝑐 + 𝜎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ∅
• Imposed and seepage stresses can be evaluated

– Disturbing forces can be evaluated

– Resisting forces can be evaluated
• Factor of safety can be evaluated
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
FS = > 1.0
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Types of slope instability
Stability of infinite slopes
b
C ϐ
D

z
B
A
 σz

Critical plane

β
σz sin β

σz = γ.z.cos β
σn = σzcos β = γ.z.cos2 β
τ = σzsin β = γ.z.cosβ sin β

Shear resistance given by Coulombs law

τs = c+σn tanφ = c+γ.z.cos2β tan φ
 Stability of finite slopes

Failure surface is circular and an arc of a circle

Stability analysis involves determining:
a) Disturbing forces acting on the assumed circular failure surface
b) resisting moments about the centre of the circle
c) factor of safety available for assumed failure surface
- surface with minimum factor of safety is the critical failure surface
Methods of analyzing finite slopes
Many methods available, e.g.

• Stability charts
• Friction circle method
• Swedish circle method
 Stability Charts
• Involves relationships between stability number (Ns),
friction angle (φ) and slope angle (β)
𝐶𝑑𝑒𝑣
• Where Ns =
𝛾𝐻
• Relationship expressed inform of stability charts called
Taylor stability charts

𝑐
• For a given slope, determine the factor of safety as Fs = ,
𝑐𝑑𝑒𝑣
c is effective cohesion

• For a given factor of safety, we can determine the safe

height of the embankment
 Tutorial Question

An engineer is considering stabilizing a slope using rock fill, but has limited funds to
protect the entire length of 2 km. He is considering making the remaining section of
the slope stable by cutting to a slope of 60o to the horizontal. If the soil friction angle
φ is 20o, and the effective cohesion is 18 kN/m2, would an embankment of 3.1 m
high be safe if the factor of safety is taken as 2.5? The unit weight of soil is 20 kN/m3.

(hint: determine safe height and compare with proposed height of 3.1 m )
• Compute the safe height of embankment
rising an angle of 68 to the horizontal and to
be made with a clayey soil having unit weight
of 20 t/m3, ∅ =17o, and cohesion c= 0.2
kg/cm2. Factor of safety = 2.5. Make use of
Taylor’s stability chart
 Swedish circle method
• Also known as method of slices
• Method used for the analysis of the c-∅
• Widely used for the analysis of earthen
dams
• The mass at risk of failure is divided into a
number of slices
• Assumption: failure takes place along a
cylindrical surface – arc of a circular surface
• The location of the circle of the failure surface
is assumed
• Soil mass divided into vertical slices (usually of
equal widths)
• The forces between slices are ignored
• Each slice acts independently of each other
• The weight of each slice assumed to act at its
centre
C r o
θ y5
6 y4
5 y3
y2
4
y1
3
2
T 1

N N T B
W6
W5
W4
W3
W2
W1
• The weight of slices can be resolved into two
components
– normal component – W cos β
– tangential component - W sin β

– The normal component will pass through the

centre of rotation- hence no moment
– Tangential component causes a disturbing
moment – T. r
• Total disturbing moment, Md = algebraic sum
of the tangential moments
• Md = ∑ T.r
= r. ∑ T
where ∑ T = (T1+T2+T3 + ……)
• Resisting moment
– Developed of shearing resistance of the soil along
shearing surface
– Shear strength for developed in each slide
depends on cohesion off soil and normal
component of that slice
– That is Mr = c.ΔL+N tan ∅
– C is unit cohesion, ΔL is the curved length, ∅
friction angle of the soil
• The shearing resistance acts at a distance r
from O and provide a resisting moment
= r[c.ΔL +N tan ∅]
Total resistance moment, Mr
Mr = r[∑c. ΔL + ∑N. tan ∅]
= r[c∑ ΔL + (∑N) tan ∅]
• ∑N = N1 + N2 + N3+……

• ∑ ΔL = 𝐴𝐵

• Length of slip circle

2𝜋.𝑟
= 𝐴𝐵 = xθ
360

Where θ is the angle in degrees formed by the arc AB at

centre O
• Factor of safety against sliding

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑀𝑟
• F.S. = =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑏𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑀𝑑

r[c. 𝐴𝐵+tan ∅ (∑N)]

• =
r. ∑ T
[c. 𝑨𝑩+tan ∅ (∑N)]
• F.S. =
∑T
Steps for downstream slope
1. Determine soils, slopes, height, crest width
2. Draw dam to scale
3. Locate point Q P
4. Locate point P based on table 1 below
5. Locus of critical circle lies on line PQ α2

α1

H
4.5H
Q
Fellenius construction – downstream slope
- Locus of critical circle lies on line PQ
- Critical circle passes through the toe of the dam
 P

α2

H
α1

4.5H
Q

Fellenius construction- upstream slope

- Locus of critical circle lies on line PQ
- Critical circle passes through the toe of the dam
 Directional Angles
slope α1 α2
1:1 27.5 37
2:1 25 35
3:1 25 35

4:1 25 35

5:1 25 35
 Stability of downstream slope under steady
state conditions

Critical condition occurs when the dam is full and seepage is taking place

 Seeping water exerts pore pressure

 Soil is submerged – reduce shear strength – (see coulomb model)

 Net shear strength given by: That is Mr = c.ΔL+(N-U) tan ∅

Where U is the pore pressure

ECV 308- Soil Mechanics II

Dr. Eng. Marclus Mwai (PhD, MSc, BSc (Civil Eng.))

Lesson 4- Soil Stabilization

 Course Contents
• Overview- Engineering Properties of Soils
• Shear strength-
• Stability of Slope
• Soil Stabilization
• Site Investigations
• Practical Application-Design of sanitary
landfills
• Rationale
• Engineering properties of soils unfavourable for
engineering construction

• Why
• Increase shear strength
• Reduce the pore pressure
• Permeability (increase, reduce)
• Reduce compressibility

New properties should not deteriorate due to weather or

climatic conditions
• Approaches for soil stabilization

• Depends on type of soil

• Form of treatment required
Cases of soil instability
 Soil Properties
• Soil properties that give it stability are

• High shear strength

• Low permeability
• Low water absorption
 Soil stabilization
• Process of improving the soil properties by
adding something to the soil

• Objectives
• Increase stability of the soil
• Maintain soil stability
 Available Methods
• Compaction and pre-consolidation.
• Drainage and ground water control.
• Chemical stabilization
• Grading
 Compaction and pre-consolidation

• Mechanical stabilization
• Grading and mixing different types – sands and clays

• Compaction- Increasing density – higher shear strength,

low compressibility, less susceptible to moisture

changes
 Drainage Methods
• Lower water table, and reduce the pore water
pressure
• Dewatering the excavations
• Drainage behind retaining walls
• Drainage of embankment dams
• Sand drains
 Chemical stabilisation
• Lime stabilisation- highly unstable, plastic
clayey soils

• Bitumen stabilisation
• granular soils
• binder and water proofing agent
• Cement stabilization
- most soils except highly organic clays, or soils with high
sulphate contents
• Grading
• Grading and mixing different types – sands and clays
ECV 308- Soil Mechanics II

Dr. Eng. Marclus Mwai (PhD, MSc, BSc (Civil Eng.))

Lesson 5- Site Investigations

 Course Contents
• Overview- Engineering Properties of Soils
• Shear strength-
• Stability of Slope
• Soil Stabilization
• Site Investigations
• Practical Application-Design of sanitary
landfills
 Site Investigations
Why investigate soils?
• Geological forces and processes results
inhomogeneous and discontinuous soil formations -
• To design safe and economical structures, the prevailing geological features
must be understood

• Most theories dealing with soils are based on

homogenous soil mass –
• Soils are rarely homogenous
 Site Investigations
• It is necessary to know the details of the soil
strata at a proposed construction site

• Often a soil testing report is required - details

findings of a soil investigations
 Site Investigations
• General details required:
• Sequence, depths and extents of different soil strata

• Soil classification, properties (unit weight, water

content, compressive strength, angle of internal

friction)

• Position of water table and fluctuations

 Site Investigations
• If deeper exploration is required:
• Permeability

• Compressibility

• Pore pressure distributions

• Shear strength
 Sampling methods
• Trial pits- shallow depths (2-5 m)
• Cost effective
• Large quantities available
• Provide surface geologic information

• Drilling test bores

– Hand and portable augers (limited depths 5 m or so)
– Percussion boring- tool bit is raised and dropped breaking the
soil into particles, forming a slurry
– Wash boring- mainly for boring holes
– Rotary drilling- chopping bit moves up and down, but the bit
rotated continuously
 Types of soil samples
• Non-representative samples
- soil mixture from different strata
-useful in determining depths at which major
changes occur
 Types of soil samples
• Disturbed samples

• Sample has same size distribution and soil structure as

insitu soil stratum
• Water content may have changed,
• Useful for identification of soil types,
 Types of soil samples
• Undisturbed samples

• Preserves particle size distribution, soil structure,

• Useful for shear strength and consolidation tests
 In-situ soil testing
• Direct methods
• Standard penetration test
• Cone penetration tests
• Vane shear testing
• Plate load tests
 In-situ soil testing
• Indirect methods-

- Geophysical tests
- Seismic waves method
- Electrical resistivity method
 In-situ soil testing
Seismic waves method
• Seismic refraction is a geophysical method used for
investigating subsurface ground conditions utilizing
surface-sourced seismic waves
• The seismic waves propagate downward through the
ground until they are reflected or refracted off
subsurface layers.
• Based on principle that seismic waves move through
different types of soils at different velocities and also
refracted when they close the boundary between two
different types of soils
 Assumptions
• All strata are homogeneous and isotropic
• Strata boundaries are plane
• Each strata is thick enough to produce change
in slope on the time-distance plot
 Ground water observations
• Position of water table- stationary water table

• Chemical analysis – to detect contamination,

presence of corrosive substances

• Direction of flow – at least three boreholes

required

• Monitoring wells- upstream and down stream

positions
Leachate Collection Systems
 Why bother with LCS?

‘Sanitary landfills a necessary evil’

Waste Composition
• waste components: organics, paper, polythene
bags, cartons, metals and PET bottles

Figure 1. Waste components in a developing country

112
Waste Management Hierarchy
Integrated Solid Waste Management
(ISWM)
 Waste to Resource
• Do not waste waste!
 Performance of Sanitary landfills
• Functional elements
- Final cover
- Daily cover
- LCDS
- Leachate treatment plant
LCDS
Leachate Collection and Drainage System

Gravel filter

118
Factors affecting performance of LCDS

hydraulic properties

Performance of LCDS
(leachate mounding)

•waste densities •leachate geochemistry

•landfill height •climatic conditions

119
 Many factors influence leachate mounding
 Permeability, media type, rainfall, slope, landfill
operations, biogeochemical processes

 We need to understand how these factors

affect hydraulic performance of LCDS

 Leachate mound should not exceed 300 mm

within 24 hrs

120
Leachate Geochemistry and clogging of media

Process Relevance to performance of the drainage media

Advection Responsible for leaching

Dispersion Causes spreading of the dissolved constituents

Biodegradation Causes dissolution of minerals that can clog the media

Precipitation Cause formation of solids -clog particles

Sorption Reduces migration of dissolved species from LCDSs

Straining Traps particles within the media pores

Many processes involved - clogging is a complex process 121

 Conceptual diagram
Rainfall

Mound
hmax

Liner
β

L=20 m

We need to get the equation of the leachate mound

- Landfill geometry, media characteristics and type, leachate characteristics, time,

122
 Profile for leachate mound

 h 2
 h 2
 R
 ( x )  h ( x )  h 1  
2 2 2 1
 x  (L  x ) x
 L  K

Terms

123