SHEAR

STRENGTH
Learning Outcome

Evaluate the shear strength parameters

and determine the shear strength of soil
Key Contents

Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion

laboratory determination of shear
strength
shear strength of sands and clays
Sections

Introduction
Mohr’s Circle of stress diagram
◼ Mohr-Coulomb Failure Envelope
Shear Strength Test
◼ Direct shear test
◼ Triaxial Test
◼ Vane shear test
Shear strength of sand
Shear strength of clay
Application on various conditions of tests
What is strength of soil?
frictional strength
cohesive strength
Direct Shear Test

 = the friction angle

tan  = coefficient of
friction
2. Shear Strength Tests

The shear strength of a soil can be determined by a number of field

and laboratory tests. It is important that representative samples of
the insitu soil is used in the test. The commonly used methods for
determining shear strengths are:

• Direct Shear Test

• Triaxial Test
• Vane Shear Test
2.1 Direct Shear Test
The soil specimen is confined in a metal box of square cross-section
split horizontally at mid-height.

Porous plates are placed below and on top of the specimen to allow
free drainage. If the specimen is dry, solid metal plates may be used.

A vertical force (N) is applied to the specimen through a loading plate

and shear stress is gradually applied on a horizontal plane by causing
the two halves of the box to move relative to each other.

The shear force (T) being measured together with the corresponding
shear displacement (l) and change in thickness (h).

A number of specimens are tested, each under a different vertical force.

The value of shear stress at failure is plotted against the normal stress
for each test. The shear strength parameters are then obtained from
the best line fitting the plotted points
The advantages of the test are its simplicity and, in the
case of sands, the ease of specimen preparation.

However, the test suffers from the following

disadvantages:
Drainage conditions cannot be controlled,
Pore water pressure cannot be measured, therefore
only total stress can be determined
Shear stress on the failure plane is not uniform,
The area under shear and vertical loads does not
remain constant throughout the test.
 Learning Activity 1

Shear-box tests in which the soil was allowed to

consolidate fully under the influence of both the normal
and the shear loads:

Normal stress (kN/m2) 62 123 185

Shear stress at failure [kN/m2) 73 99 128

Determine the shear strength properties of the soil which

can be deduced from these results.

(c = 42; =24.5)
2.2 Triaxial Test

Principle and Procedure

Consolidation takes place under equal increments of total stress
normal to the end and circumferential surfaces of the specimen.
This all-around pressure is taken to be the minor principal stress
('3 ).
The sum of this all-around pressure and the applied axial stress
is the major principal stress ( ‘1 ).
The applied axial stress is thus referred to as the principal stress
difference (''1 - '3 ), also known as the deviator stress.
Figure 5 (Geospec3)
Presentation of stresses in soil using Mohr’s
Circle
the values of shear stress and normal stress on any
plane in the soil element, making an angle  with the
direction of the minor principal effective stress  '3.
Shear failure in a soil takes place under the following
conditions of effective stress:
suitable values of ‘1 and '3; combined with
the maximum stress ratio for  /'
2.2.1 The Mohr Circle of Stress Diagram

A graphical representation of the stresses on a sample

subject to an all-round (confining) effective stress, '3 and
an additional axial stress, (‘1 - '3), to give the resultant
axial stress of 'v
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohr's_circle
http://www.ah-
engr.com/som/8_transformation/text_8-3.htm
2.2.2 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Envelope

Mohr circles is the locus of failure points or the failure

envelope
(a) In Terms of Total Stress

The Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria, in its simplest form,

can be stated as :
f =c+ f tan  (1)
Where
 f = shear strength
f = normal stress
c = apparent cohesion
 = angle of shearing resistance or angle of internal
friction
(b) In Terms of Effective Normal Stress
◼ '1 = '1 - u
◼ '3 = '3 - u
 f = c’ + 'f tan ' (2)
(c) In Terms of Effective Major ('1 )and
Minor ('3) Principal Stresses

'3 = '1 (1 - sin  ) - 2c’  (1 - sin  )

(1 + sin ) (1 + sin )

 '3 = '1 tan2 (45- /2) - 2c’ tan (45- /2)

‘1 = '3 (1 + sin ) + 2c’  (1 + sin ) (3)

(1 - sin ) (1 - sin )

‘1 = '3 tan2 (45+ /2) + 2c’ tan (45+ /2) (4)
(d) In Terms of q '-p ' Plot
1/2 ('1 - '3 ) = a ' + 1/2 ('1 + '3 )tan ' (5)

Where a' and ’ are the modified shear strength

parameters. The parameters c' and ' are then given
by:

' = sin-1 (tan ') (6)

c' = a'/cos  (7)
In calculating the principal stress difference, account
must be taken of the fact that the average cross-
sectional area (A) of the specimen does not remain
constant throughout the test.

V
1−
Vo
A = Ao
l
1−
lo
(8)
Where
A 0 = original cross-sectional area of the specimen
V/Vo = volumetric strain
l /l0 = axial strain
Dissipation of excess pore water pressure takes place due to drainage
through the porous disc at the bottom (or top) of the specimen.

The drainage connection leads to an external burette, enabling the

volume of water expelled from the specimen to be measured. The
datum for excess pore water pressure is therefore atmospheric
pressure.

For the case of testing under back pressure, the back pressure is the
datum for excess pore water pressure. The objective of applying a
back pressure is to ensure full saturation of the specimen or to
simulate insitu pore water pressure conditions.
 Learning Activity 2
The results shown in Table were obtained at failure in a series of triaxial
tests on specimens of a saturated clay initially 38 mm in diameter by 76
mm long. Determine the values of the shear strength parameters with
respect to (a) total stress, (b) effective stress. (Cu = 85; u =0; c’ =20;
=26o)

Type of test All-round Axial load Axial Volume

pressure (N) deformation change
(kN/m2) (mm) (ml)
(a) Undrained 200 222 9.83 -
400 215 10.06 -

600 226 10.28 -

(b) Drained 200 467 10.81 6.6

400 848 12.26 8.2

600 1265 14.17 9.5

 Solution:
lo = 76 mm; Ao = 1135 mm2; Vo = 86 x 103 mm3

3 l/lo V/Vo Area 1 - 3 1

(kN/m2) (mm2) (kN/m2) (kN/m2)

(a)Undrained 200 0.129 - 1304 170 370

400 0.132 - 1309 164 564

600 0.135 - 1312 172 772

(a)drained 200 0.142 0.077 1222 382 582

400 0.161 0.095 1225 691 1091

600 0.186 0.110 1240 1020 1620

Types of Triaxial Test
Unconsolidated - Undrained (UU)
Consolidated Undrained (CU)
Consolidated Drained (CD)
A special case of the triaxial test is the unconfined compression
test in which axial stress is applied to a specimen under zero
(atmospheric) all-round pressure.
The three principal types of triaxial tests are as follows:
Unconsolidated - Undrained (UU). The specimen is subjected to a
specified all-round pressure and then the principal stress difference is
applied immediately with no drainage being permitted at any stage of
the test.

Consolidated Undrained (CU). Drainage of the specimen is permitted

under a specified all-round pressure until consolidation is complete, the
principal stress difference is then applied with no drainage being
permitted. Pore water pressure measurements may be made during the
undrained part of the test.

Consolidated Drained (CD). Drainage of the specimen is permitted

under a specified all round pressure until consolidation is complete.
With drainage still being permitted, the principal stress difference is
then applied at a rate slow enough to ensure that the excess pore
water pressure is maintained at zero.
Shear strength parameters determined by means of the above
test procedures are relevant only in situations where the field
drainage conditions correspond to the test conditions.

The shear strength of a soil under undrained conditions is

different from that under drained conditions.

The vital consideration in practice is the rate at which the

changes in total stress (due to construction operation) are
applied in relation to the rate of dissipation of excess pore water
pressure, which in turn is related to the permeability of the soil.
 Learning Activity 3

The following results were obtained from tests on a saturated

clay soil: Undrained triaxial tests:
Cell pressure az(kN/m2) 100 170 240
Principal stress difference at failure,
 1- 3 (kN/m2) 136 142 134

(Cu = 68; =0)

3 1 1/2 (1 - 1/2 (’1 + ’3)
3)
100 236 68 118
170 312 71 241
240 374 67 307
Students to plot the Mohr circles
below as an exercise
 Learning Activity 4

The results shown in the following table were obtained at failure in a

series of consolidated-undrained tests, with pore water pressure
measurement, on specimens of a saturated clay. Determine the
values of the effective stress parameters c' and  '. (c’ = 16;
=29o)
Repeat using the q’ - p’ plot. (a’ = 13; =26o)

All-round pressure Principal stress difference Pore water pressure

(kN/m2) (kN/m2) (kN/m2)
150 192 80
300 341 154
450 504 222

Principal stress difference or Deviator

stress
3 1 ’1 ’3 1/2 (1 - 3) 1/2 (’1 + ’3)

150 342 70 262 96 166

300 641 146 487 170 316

450 954 228 732 252 480

2.3 Vane Shear
Test
The vane shear test is for the
insitu determination of the
undrained strength of intact, fully
saturated clays.

It is very suitable for soft clays.

Generally the test is only used in
clays having undrained strengths
less than 100 kN/m2 .

The test may not give reliable

results if the clay contains sand
or silt laminations.
The equipment consists of a stainless steel vane of
four thin rectangular blades, carried on the end of a
high tensile steel rod.
Torque is applied gradually to the upper end of the
rod until the clay fails in shear due to rotation of the
vane. The undrained shear strength (cu) is calculated
from the expression:

 d 2h d 3 
T =  cu  + 
 2 6 

Where T = torque at failure

d = overall vane width
h = vane length
Learning Activity 5
Explain three principal types of triaxial tests and their major difference.
Advantages & disadvantages of Direct Shear test
Advantages & disadvantages of Vane Shear tests
Give practical examples of application of UU, CU and CD tests
Define terms: deviator stress; all-round pressure, principal stress
difference
3 Shear Strength of Sands

Figure 13
Dense sand
considerable degree of interlocking

After a peak stress is reached at a low

value of shear displacement, the degree
of interlocking decreases and the shear
stress necessary to continue shear
displacement is correspondingly reduced.
The decrease in the degree of interlocking
produces an increase in the volume of the
specimen during shear (Figure 13).
Loose sand
In the case of loose sand there is no initial particle
interlocking to be overcome. The gradual increase in
shear stress is accompanied by a decrease in the
volume of the specimen.

The ultimate values of shear stress and void ratio for

loose and dense specimens of the same sand tested
under equal vertical stresses or all-round pressures
are approximately equal.
4 Shear Strength of Saturated Clays

General
In addition to the drainage conditions, a factor
influencing the shear strength of a saturated clay to a
significant extent is the stress history of the clay. To
describe the stress history, the following definitions
have to be established.
 4.1 Undrained Strength of Clays

Unconsolidated-undrained (UU) triaxial test

For the unconsolidated-undrained (UU) triaxial test, the
effective stresses in the specimen remain unchanged after the
application of the all-round pressure. This is due to the fact that
any increase in all-round pressure results in an equal increase
in pore water pressure for a fully saturated soil under
undrained conditions.
The results are of a number of UU tests expressed in terms of
total stress as shown in figure 14. The failure envelope in this
case is horizontal, i.e. u = 0 and the shear strength is given by
 = cu.
It should be noted that if the values of pore water pressure at
failure were measured, only one effective stress circle would be
obtained.
Consolidated-undrained (CU)

The consolidated-undrained (CU) triaxiai test enables

the undrained strength of the clay to be determined
after the void ratio has been changed from the initial
value by consolidation.

For normally consolidated clays, the relationship

between  and '3 is linear, passing through the
origin.
4.2 Strength of Clays In Terms of
Effective Stress

The strength of a clay in terms of effective stress can

be determined by means of either the consolidated-
undrained (CU) triaxiai test with pore water pressure
measurement during the undrained part of the test,
or the drained triaxiai test.

A number of tests, each performed at a different

value of all-round pressure, enables the failure
envelope to be drawn and the shear strength
parameters c' and  ' determined as illustrated in
Figure 15.
In terms of Effective Stress
Figure 15
4.3 Residual Strength

After the peak shear strength in terms of effective

stress has been reached, most clays show a decrease
in strength with increasing strain until an ultimate or
residual strength is reached at a large strain.
Figure 16
Learning Activity 6
The following table lists out the results of a direct shear box test on a
soil.

Normal stress, Peak shear stress, Residual shear

stress, r
(kN/m2)
150 105 45
250 163 73
350 220 100
(i) Plot p vs n and determine the peak angle of internal friction p and
the cohesion intercept cp of the soil.

(ii) Plot r vs n and determine the residual angle of internal friction r

and the cohesion intercept cr of the soil.
Learning Activity 7
Explain the peak and residual strength
Explain the difference in behaviour between a dense and a loose sand.
Define brittleness Index.
Give an example of a situation under which one would design for
residual strength.
Explain why, at the same normal stress, the shear strength of a sandy
soil is higher at a dense state than it is at a loose state.
Describe the behaviour of saturated clay under various type of test.
Learning Activity 8

A cohesive soil has an angle of shearing resistance of

u = 15° and a cohesion of Cu = 30 kN/m2. If a
specimen of this soil is subjected to an undrained
triaxial compression test, find the value of the lateral
pressure in the cell for failure to occur at a total axial
stress of 200 kN/m2.
(3 = 71)
Learning Activity 9

Class discussion:
Give practical examples of application of UU,
CU and CD tests
Disclaimer- the author has tried his best to indicate all references but there is no guarantee that all
materials cited can be included.

Further References
Das, B. M. (2006). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. 6th Edition. Cengage Learning.
Craig, R. F. (2004). Soil Mechanics. 7th Ed, E & FN Spon.
Capper, P.L., Cassie, W.F. and Geddes, J.D. (1980). Problems in Engineering Soil, E & FN Spon.
Whitlow,R.(2000) Basic Soil Mechanics, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall.
Barnes, G.E. (2000) Soil Mechanics Principles and Practices, MacMilan.
Berry, P.L. & Reid, D.(1987) An Introduction to Soil Mechanics, McGraw-Hill Book Company
Budhu, M. (2000), Soil mechanics & Foundations, 2nd Ed., John Wiley & Sons
Smith G.N. (1990), Elements of Soil Mechanics, 6th Ed, BSP Professional Books.
Sutton, B.H.C (1993). Solving Problems in Soil Mechanics, 2nd Ed, Longman.
ELE International. Catalogue in Laboratory Testing.
http://www.geocities.ws/dominic_trani