Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors For Monitoring of Physical 2020 Cit 91

REVIEW
Fiber Bragg grating sensors for monitoring of physical

parameters: a comprehensive review
Jasjot K. Sahota,* Neena Gupta, and Divya Dhawan

Punjab Engineering College (Deemed to be University), Department of Electronics
and Communication Engineering, Chandigarh, Punjab, India
Abstract. Fiber Bragg grating has embraced the area of fiber optics since the early days of its
discovery, and most fiber optic sensor systems today make use of fiber Bragg grating technology.
Researchers have gained enormous attention in the field of fiber Bragg grating (FBG)-based
sensing due to its inherent advantages, such as small size, fast response, distributed sensing,
and immunity to the electromagnetic field. Fiber Bragg grating technology is popularly used in
measurements of various physical parameters, such as pressure, temperature, and strain for civil
engineering, industrial engineering, military, maritime, and aerospace applications. Nowadays,
strong emphasis is given to structure health monitoring of various engineering and civil struc-
tures, which can be easily achieved with FBG-based sensors. Depending on the type of grating,
FBG can be uniform, long, chirped, tilted or phase shifted having periodic perturbation of refrac-
tive index inside core of the optical fiber. Basic fundamentals of FBG and recent progress of fiber
Bragg grating-based sensors used in various applications for temperature, pressure, liquid level,
strain, and refractive index sensing have been reviewed. A major problem of temperature cross
sensitivity that occurs in FBG-based sensing requires temperature compensation technique that
has also been discussed in this paper. © 2020 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers
(SPIE) [DOI: 10.1117/1.OE.59.6.060901]
Keywords: displacement sensor; fiber Bragg gratings; pressure sensor; refractive index sensor;
strain sensor; temperature sensor.
Paper 20200450V received Apr. 20, 2020; accepted for publication Jun. 8, 2020; published
online Jun. 25, 2020.
1 Introduction
The advent of fiber-optic communication has revolutionized nearly all aspects of communication
technology. In the past few decades, optical fiber sensors have been extensively researched and
employed for various applications, such as measurement of strain, refractive index, vibration of
structures and machines, electric current, voltage, impedance, temperature, pressure, humidity
etc. Although there is significant advancement in this field, integration of optical mirrors, partial
reflector, and wavelength filters remain a challenge since their integration increases both com-
plexity and cost. However, this problem has been overcome by use of fiber Bragg grating, which
alone can perform the basic function of reflection, dispersion, and filtering that can be easily
utilized in sensing applications. The process of optical absorption of ultraviolet (UV) light that
changes refractive index of the fiber core is called photosensitivity, which forms a fiber Bragg
grating (FBG).1
Fiber Bragg grating was first discovered by Ken Hill in 1978 at Communication Research
Centre, Canada.2 Ever since its discovery, grating structures have gained wide attention in the
area of optical sensing due to their inherent advantages, such as low cost, small size, real-time
response, high accuracy, high sensitivity, and immunity to electromagnetic interference. There is
great potential of sensing various parameters, such as temperature, pressure, stress, and refractive
index using grating-based devices.3 Current applications of fiber Bragg gratings are found in
high temperature sensors, health and biomedical devices, structural engineering, industries, bio-
chemical applications, radioactive environment, aerospace, maritime and civil engineering, and
many other fields.
*Address all correspondence to Jasjot K. Sahota, E-mail: jksahota91@gmail.com;
Optical Engineering 060901-1 June 2020 • Vol. 59(6)
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Sahota, Gupta and Dhawan: Fiber Bragg grating sensors for monitoring of physical parameters. . .
In this paper, a detailed study of fiber Bragg grating along with their deployment in various
significant applications has been discussed. Mainly, sensing of physical parameters, such as
pressure, temperature, strain, liquid level, and also sensing of refractive index, has been
discussed.
2 Theory of Fiber Bragg Gratings

FBG technology is one of the most admired choices of optical fiber sensors due to their simple
manufacturing and relatively strong reflected signal. FBGs are formed by a periodic modulation
of the index of refraction of the fiber core along the longitudinal direction.4 They are the
devices that are based on the principle of diffraction grating. By grating, it is meant that there
is a periodic change in the core’s refractive index. When the light travels inside the grating
structure, some portion of light gets reflected back from each grating plane. Figure 1 shows the
structure of simple fiber Bragg grating. Every reflected portion of light combines to form one
reflected beam of light, but this is possible only if Bragg condition is met. The Bragg condition is
given as5
λB ¼ 2Λneff ;
EQ-TARGET;temp:intralink-;e001;116;537 (1)
where Λ is the grating period that forms the distance between two adjacent grating planes, neff is
the effective core refractive index, and λB is the Bragg wavelength. When Bragg condition is
met, all the reflected light constructively adds up to form backward reflected peak whose
central wavelength is given by λB. The grating structure that follows Bragg condition works
as a mirror that reflects selected wavelength λB and transmits the remaining. If the condition
is not satisfied, all the reflections from the grating planes will go out of phase and cancels out,
therefore no reflection can be observed. The reflectivity obtained in FBG is estimated by
Erdogen’s coupled mode theory6 at each grating inside fiber. The reflectivity Ri ðλÞ, at each
i’th grating is given as
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
sin h2 Lg k2 − σ 2i
Ri ðλÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; (2)
σ2
EQ-TARGET;temp:intralink-;e002;116;398
cos h2 Lg k2 − σ 2i − k2i
Fig. 1 Structure of fiber Bragg grating along with the transmitted, reflected, and output spectra.

where λ is the wavelength, k is the ac coupling coefficient between the two modes, Lg is the
length of grating, product of k, and Lg gives strength of grating and for higher KLg (for instance
8) value the bandwidth of reflection spectra increases, and it is a unitless quantity. σ i is the dc
self-coupling coefficient that gives the dependence of wavelength for every grating and is given as
1 dϕ
σi ¼ δ þ σ −
EQ-TARGET;temp:intralink-;e003;116;686 ; (3)
2 dz
where σ is the dc (period averaged) coupling coefficient, dϕ

dz is the change in grating chirp, and δ is
given as

1 1
δ ¼ 2πneff − ; (4)
λ λD
where λD is the design wavelength for very weak gratings. When coupled mode theory is applied
on reflectivity equation, Eq. (5) is obtained where δneff gives magnitude of refractive index
modulation:

π 1 1
σ i ðλÞ ¼ δneff þ 2πneff − : (5)
λ λ λB;i
Grating inside the fiber is formed using various methods. This process of forming gratings in
the fiber core is also known as writing inside fiber. Broadly, there are two ways of writing, i.e.,
internal writing and external writing. Internal writing was first demonstrated by Hill using an
argon ion laser and exposing the photosensitive fiber by coupling light in fiber core as shown in
Fig. 2.7 The change in refractive index observed is very small therefore this type of writing is not
useful and thus seldom used. Externally inscribed writing is the most commonly used writing
and can be performed with various ways, such as interferometer, phase mask technology, point-
by-point technique, and line-by-line technique.
In interferometer technology as shown in Fig. 3,7 light from a laser is utilized and divided into
two separate beams using either a prism or beam splitter. Two mirrors are used for the two beams
that were separated for reflecting them onto the fiber. Writing operation is performed as the
interference pattern is created on the fiber. The period of the interference pattern is dependent
Fig. 2 Setup of internal inscription method.

Fig. 3 Setup of interferometric method.
on the wavelength of light and also the half angle between the beams that are interfering. The
main drawback of this method is that it is difficult to maintain the alignment of the laser beam to
obtain better coherency.
To overcome the drawback of interferometer technique, phase mask technology can be used.
In phase mask technology as shown in Fig. 4,7 a laser is used as a source to the phase mask layer,
which is made using holographic technology or electron beam lithography. The beam from the
phase mask gets diffracted into several other beams. The interference pattern is formed on the
fiber lying in close proximity to the phase mask layer. Including phase mask technology, femto-
second pulsed laser technique is also considered in new inscription technologies. UV radiation of
228 to 253 nm spectral region is considered to be most effective in inducing change in refractive
index of fiber, therefore a Krypton fluoride (KrF) excimer laser of 248 nm wavelength is used as
a light source in phase mask technique for writing.8 Since there is an issue of change in wave-
length of the laser in the case of phase mask technique, femtosecond pulse lasers are normally
preferred.
Femtosecond pulsed laser technique provides fully customized grating. It involves formation
of precise gratings using an ultrafast laser having time period in femtosecond. This method does
not depend on doping material present in the core and no hydrogen loading is required. This
technique uses different approaches to form gratings and can be achieved by the interferometric
method, phase mask, point-by-point, line-by-line, and plane-by-plane inscription. In the case of
point-by-point inscription as shown in Fig. 5,9 a laser is precisely focused on the fiber core and,
at that particular point, the refractive index is modified. To form grating, a mechanically con-
trolled translation stage is involved that repeats the same process every time. This technique
Fig. 4 Setup of phase mask technology.

Fig. 5 Setup of point-by-point femtosecond laser inscription.
involves some insertion loss and also the response is polarization dependent. To resolve the issue
of point-by-point inscription, line-by-line inscription is used that provides coarse alignment and
has less insertion losses as well as less dependency on polarization.10 The design and perfor-
mance of the sensor improve drastically depending on the type of inscription. In order to control
grating parameters, such as the grating pitch (period), grating length, grating width, and tilt
angle, plane-by-plane inscription method can be adopted by simply incorporating a cylindrical
lens in the setup.11 This type of inscription is mainly done for complex grating structures.
Recently, plane-by-plane technique has been used in cyclic transparent optical polymer
(CYTOP) polymer fiber12 and fluoride glass fiber.13 In Ref. 14, gratings were written in fiber
coated with acrylate, polyimide, or silicon using a phase mask and femtosecond laser and
analyzing their strain responses particularly for high strain resistant applications.
Other than UV or femtosecond laser exposure for fabrication of gratings, CO2 (carbon diox-
ide) laser irradiation is also used, which is a flexible and inexpensive fabrication process. This is
because no pretreatment such as photosensitization of fiber is required in this process and also no
expensive phase-masks are required.15 CO2 lasers are driven by computer-controlled translation
stage and radiated periodically along the axis of fiber. Complicated gratings can be formed as in
the femtosecond laser method using point-by-point approach. CO2 lasers can be used to inscribe
gratings such as long period gratings in silica fiber,16 in photonic crystal fiber (PCF)17 and even
in air-core photonic band gap fiber18 and superstructure gratings.19 But a CO2 laser is not suitable
for pure fused silica PCFs since they are fragile and can easily damage its holey structure.20
Broadly, optical sensors can be either point-based sensors or distributed-based sensors.21 In
distributed sensors, the mechanism of sensing is performed continuously along the fiber, which
therefore allows continuous sensing of measurand. Distributed type of sensing is one where
spatial distribution of measurand is measured by time-domain reflectometry.22 Rayleigh scatter-
ing, Raman scattering, and Brillouin scattering work as distributed-based optical sensors, but
they are seldom used due to high cost. In the case of point-based sensors, sensing mechanism
is performed at a discrete point of the fiber. Point-based optical sensors are those sensors where
sensing is achieved at particular point of fiber and can be either interferometer-based or fiber
grating-based. In interferometer-based sensors, an interference pattern is formed that holds the
information of sensing. Mach–Zehnder interferometer, Michelson interferometer, Sagnac inter-
ferometer, and Fabry–Perot interferometer (FPI) are example of point-based sensor. Fiber Bragg
gratings also fall in the category of point-based sensor as sensing is performed only at small
grating part. A point-based sensor has the ability of multiplexing, which can be used in distrib-
uted sensing of external perturbations. Depending on the gratings formed, fiber Bragg gratings
can be uniform FBG,3 chirped FBG,23,24 tilted FBG,25,26 long grating fiber,27–29 phase-shifted
FBG,30,31 or super-structured FBG.19 These gratings are usually inscribed in silica-based fiber
but many research studies have been carried out on inscribing FBG in microstructured optical
fiber (MOF) forming a microstructure FBG32,33 or polymer-based FBG34 that can offer unique

Type of grating Grating structure Spectra Description
Uniform FBG Characterized by
periodic perturbation
of refractive index
and works on
principle of Bragg’s
law.
Chirped FBG Grating period
changes linearly with
position causing broad
reflected spectra.
Long period grating Core mode couples
with co-propagating
cladding mode
causing resonance at
transmission spectra.
Tilted FBG Tilt in grating allows
light to be coupled
with cladding mode
instead of core mode
resulting in fine comb
resonance in
transmission spectra.
Phase-Shifted FBG A pi-phase
discontinuity is
presented in the FBG
forming a cavity by
two FBG mirror
resulting in extremely
narrow notch in
reflection spectra.
Super structure FBG Several FBGs are
combined to form
superstructure FBG
whose transmission
spectra consists of
individual FBGs
characteristic.
Fig. 6 Various types of gratings.

capability in enhancing sensing applications. Figure 6 differentiates various types of gratings in

optical fiber that can be used in sensing application.
Depending on the growth mechanism that includes specific inscription condition, specific
laser type, type of optical fiber, and photosensitivity condition there are four types of fiber
Bragg gratings, i.e., typeI, type IA, type II, and type IIA.7 Type I fiber grating or standard gra-
tings is the most widely used type of FBG and is made using common photosensitive fiber using
moderate intensity. The gratings are written either with or without hydrogen loading in the fiber.
For high reflectivity, FBG should exhibit high photosensitivity, which can be achieved by either
doping the silica fiber with photosensitive material such as germanium or by hydrogen loading
with high pressure and at low temperature.35 Also, when hydrogen is loaded in germanium
doped FBG, photoinduced index increases to 10 times to that of unloaded FBG.36 This type
of fiber is used relatively at low range of temperature (−40°C to 80°C). Since there is negligible
absorption and scattering loss, the transmission spectra is almost opposite to reflection spectra of
type 1 FBG. Type IA gratings are formed after removal of standard gratings using intense expo-
sure of UV in hydrogenated germanosilicate (germanium doped silica) fiber. Such gratings show
large redshift in Bragg wavelength due to large change in refractive index of core, which is
almost six times larger than conventional gratings. This type of gratings can be very well used
for temperature compensated sensors as they exhibit low temperature coefficient.37 Type II fibers
are made by exposing the standard gratings under UV radiations for a longer duration using
hydrogenated germanosilicate fiber. During its inscription process, a large red wavelength shift
is observable at Bragg wavelength. The mechanism of formation of such type of grating is based
on multiphoton excitation using high intensity laser that will surpass the damage threshold of
glass fiber in order to induce high index change in core. Such fiber has a working range at around
80°C temperature.
Type II gratings are developed using high radiation exposure (0.5 J∕cm sq) of UV radiations
focused at core-cladding interface causing large refractive index modulation. They are charac-
terized by the damage at core-cladding boundary. They pass wavelengths greater than Bragg
wavelength. Since they operate at high temperature (≈300°C) therefore they can be effectively
used for several sensing applications. Type IIA fiber gratings are similar to typeIA gratings in
terms of inscription process, but the only difference is that type IA is inscribed with hydrogen
loading and type IIA is inscribed without hydrogen loading. They are inscribed through a long
process following inscription process of typeI. It needs UV exposure of around 30 min to be fully
developed. In Ref. 38, type I gratings and type II gratings were formed using IR-laser and phase
mask technique. All types of fiber discussed above have similar strain sensitivity but different
temperature sensitivity, which is mainly lower for hydrogenated fiber and higher for nonhydro-
genated fiber.39
3 Sensing Mechanism of FBG

FBG sensor works on the principle of wavelength shift. According to coupled mode theory,40
Bragg wavelength depends on the physical parameters of fiber which are grating period and
effective refractive index. Shift in the wavelength of reflected spectrum either to the left or right
of central wavelength is caused only if either the period of gratings or effective refractive index of
FBG is changed by parameter to be measured, such as temperature, strain, humidity, pressure,
etc. According to Bragg condition, wavelength change can be found, which is indicative of the
amount of external perturbation applied on FBG as shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7 Wavelength shift due to external perturbation.

To understand how the sensing mechanism of FBG takes place, consider an external param-
eter “X” also called the measurand quantity, which may be temperature, strain, pressure, or
refractive index. The Bragg wavelength of FBG is dependent on this external parameter and
can be calculated by differentiating Eq. (1) with the measurand parameter “X” as41
dλB dðΛneff Þ dn dΛ
EQ-TARGET;temp:intralink-;e006;116;687 ¼2 ¼ 2Λ eff þ 2neff : (6)
dX dX dX dX
Since Bragg wavelength is dependent on grating period and effective refractive index of
FBG, the measurand parameter will change either effective refractive index or grating period
of FBG or both depending on the type measurand.
4 Interrogation of FBG Sensor

The key challenge in FBG sensing is the interrogation of the parameter signal encoded in the
wavelength shift. The sensing principle of FBG sensors involves detection of central wavelength
variation. Most conventional interrogation method utilizes an optical spectrum analyzer (OSA)
with broadband source as it performs direct measurement of the reflection spectrum of the FBG.
Figure 8 shows interrogation of FBG using OSA. However, OSA provides low resolution and
slow response speed that cannot satisfy the requirements of accurately detecting the small and
dynamic variations of the FBG’s central wavelength. It can be used only for laboratory test
purposes. Therefore, for real sensors, it is of significance to have interrogators that can work
at high scanning speed to achieve dynamic sensing. Mainly interrogators can be either passive or
active. Passive interrogation does not involve active electrical, mechanical, or optical devices. It
involves interrogators having passive devices such as filters that are wavelength dependent such
as edge filters42–45 or wavelength division multiplexing (WDM).46 Power detection-based pas-
sive interrogation is another method, where source having intensity that is wavelength dependent
such as erbium-doped amplifier fiber is used. Chirped FBG was also used in Ref. 47 to measure
dynamic strain using EDFA source. For interrogation of multiple FBG, charged couple device
spectrometer48 as a passive device can be used where multiple wavelengths reflected illuminating
different area of pixels.
Active interrogation method involves comparatively more complex system than passive inter-
rogators but gives better resolution. Many researchers have worked on various active interrog-
ation methods such as using Fourier-domain mode locked laser fiber,49 optical frequency
comb,50 Fabry–Perot filter,51 and acousto-optic tunable filter.52
5 Multiplexing in FBG Sensors

In several applications, multiple sensors or array of sensors are required to carry out measure-
ments of either the same parameter at multiple places or multiple parameters located at different
places of the structure. The sensors can be either surface mounted or embedded in smart struc-
tures. For instance, monitoring of railway track with FBG sensor would comprise multiple FBG
sensors laid over track of railway line. Therefore, several multiplexing techniques are required
to achieve distributed sensing network. Many multiplexing techniques have been reported in
studies such as time division multiplexing (TDM), spatial division multiplexing (SDM), WDM,
frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW), and many hybrid multiplexing methods.
Fig. 8 Interrogation of FBG using OSA.

The most commonly used multiplexing technique is TDM and WDM in FBG sensing. In WDM
method, every FBG is encoded with a different wavelength from every other FBG. The array of
FBG is illuminated by a broadband light signal having a spectral width covering all the wave-
lengths encoded to several FBG. The reflected light from array of FBG is interrogated with a
wavelength detection scheme. This method is usually preferred when FBG’s are spaced at differ-
ent locations with unequal distance. Fabry Perot tunable filter can be used to distinguish among
various wavelengths by operating it in scanning mode.53 Other methods such as band-pass wave-
length division demultiplexer,54 Mach–Zehnder interferometer, and FBG laser sensing system55
can also be used to interrogate different wavelengths. When an array of FBG is arranged in such
a manner that distance remains the same between adjacent FBG, then mostly TDM technique is
preferred. In TDM method of multiplexing, the return pulses from the FBG are recovered with
two pulses separated by a distance that is equal to the round trip time between gratings.56 Phase-
sensitive detection schemes such as Mach–Zehnder interferometer can be used to interrogate
reflected pulses from FBG.57 In Ref. 58, switched semiconductor optical amplifier-based
TDM scheme was used to interrogate FBG. TDM can reuse the wavelength spectrum of light
source and can multiply the number of FBG’s operating in a single fiber, which in the WDM case
can only be around 10 FBG. Hybrid TDM-WDM technique offers usage of a large number of
FBG sensors and also provides higher reflectivity, which in the case of TDM and WDM is low.
Simultaneously using TDM and WDM is carried out in Refs. 59 and 60 for high power signal.
SDM method is used when several FBGs have similar characteristics, operated independently in
the network, and have the ability to interchange.61 Unlike distributed measurements in WDM or
TDM, SDM performs point measurements. Michelson interferometer was used for scanning
wavelength in SDM-FBG sensor system to measure quasistatic strain and temperature by multi-
plexing 32 FBG.62 To further enhance the multiplexing capability, SDM can be used along with
TDM or WDM methods. In Ref. 63, hybrid SDM-WDM method was used to multiplex 20 FBG
in four channels for use in detecting shape of endoscope FMCW method of multiplexing also
known as optical frequency-domain reflector provides high spatial resolution with large capacity
by employing source having narrow line-width and fast acquisition setup.64 In Ref. 65, hybrid
FMCW-WDM method was used where the source was modulated by linearly swept radio fre-
quency carrier signal and reflected signal from 8 FBGs were demodulated using optical tunable
filters.
6 Progress in FBG Sensor Design
6.1 FBG-Based Refractive Index Sensor

Measurement of refractive index is of prime concern when dealing with quality check of certain
material used in different industries, such as biological, chemical, medicine, and pharmaceutical.
Various methods of chemical sensing using distributed sensor such as Rayleigh scattering and
Raman scattering phenomenon have been already reviewed in Ref. 66. Also, recent develop-
ments made in the area of FBG-based biosensing with nanocoatings to measure refractive index
have been reviewed in Ref. 67. According to Bragg’s condition, the Bragg wavelength is directly
dependent on effective refractive index (neff ) of FBG core. Therefore, change in neff induces
change in Bragg wavelength, which can be expressed as
Δλ ¼ 2Δneff Λ:
Refractive index sensing using a normal uniform fiber Bragg grating is difficult since effec-
tive refractive index of FBG is not affected easily by external perturbation. Therefore, they are
not much sensitive to external refractive index. Additional efforts are required to make FBG
sensitive to external refractive index. For this reason, the cladding portion of FBG is sometimes
etched partially or completely. Sensing of refractive index can be achieved using etched FBG,
no-core fiber, tilted FBG, thinned cladding fiber, or long period grating fiber, which basically
modifies the structural design of sensor. It was theoretically as well as experimentally studied in
Ref. 68, that as the thickness of cladding was reduced by submerging in HF (hydrofluoric acid)
solution the effective refractive index was increased exponentially. High sensitivity for etched-

based FBG comes with a price of low strength and durability. Recently, long period gratings have
shown significant role in sensing application of refractive index, temperature, humidity, and
curvature. Interaction of evanescent wave with external parameter increases sensitivity, which
can be obtained using no-core fiber. In Ref. 69, no-core fiber-based long period grating sensor for
sensing refractive index with compensated temperature was designed. No-core fiber of 125 μm
diameter is made of pure quartz with no core present in it and inscribed with long period gratings.
The refractive index of no-core fiber lies between the refractive index of core and cladding of
normal fiber. No-core fiber is sandwiched between single-mode fiber after every period of gra-
ting. Most of the light traveling is present at the end of the fiber in cladding. Such a structure
causes a constant exchange of energy between cladding and core thereby causing change in
refractive index and higher order cladding modes are motivated. In the proposed structure,
isotropic coupling is experienced. Both refractive index and temperature sensitivities were inves-
tigated using this structure. The wavelength sensitivity obtained was 141.837 nm∕refractive
index unit (RIU) with 1.33 to 1.40 RIU range. Temperature sensitivity calculated was low at
−6.43 pm∕°C and 0.005 dB∕°C. It was also observed from the temperature sensitivity that the
proposed sensor is more robust than the conventional long period grating. Similar study on LPG-
based refractive index sensor was conducted in Ref. 70, using thinned cladding long period
grating fiber. In thinned cladding fiber, the core and cladding diameters are relatively smaller
than the diameters of that of conventional single-mode fiber. In the proposed structure, the
thinned cladding fiber was embedded in the single-mode fiber thereby forming an in-fiber
Mach Zehnder interferometer due to mode field mismatch of single-mode fiber and thinned
cladding fiber. The long period gratings were inscribed on the thinned cladding fiber using
CO2 (carbon dioxide) laser. At the splice junction of thinned cladding and single–mode fiber,
cladding modes are excited as they are sensitive to the surrounding change in refractive index.
A high wavelength sensitivity of 7366.6 nm∕RIU was achieved, which was higher than conven-
tionally inscribed long period gratings in single-mode fiber. The bending sensitivity and temper-
ature sensitivity obtained were 2.32 dB∕m−1 and 70.85 pm∕°C, respectively. The study was
conducted experimentally and theoretically and results were well consistent. Though long period
gratings provides higher sensitivity than etched fiber Bragg gratings but limits accurate meas-
urement because of large transmission. Addressing to this problem, a new technique71 involving
the concept of microwave photonics for measuring refractive index with high resolution using
phase-shifted FBG and optoelectronic oscillator was introduced. Phase shifted FBG (PS-FBG)
has a spectral width of reflection spectra of around 11 pm, which is almost 10 times smaller than
that of uniform FBG having a spectral width of 100 pm.72 This is one feature that improves
accuracy but the main reason for high resolution is the microwave photonic filter whose central
frequency is function of Bragg wavelength of PS-FBG. The change induced in Bragg wave-
length of PS-FBG by external refractive index variation is then directly measured by oscillating
frequency change. The change in frequency can be easily interrogated by digital signal processor
with high resolution. But high resolution comes at cost of expensive electrical spectrum analyzer.
Another prominent technology, i.e., tilted fiber Bragg gratings (TFBG), has been nowadays
widely used for measuring surrounding refractive index for submicroliter samples.26 The down-
side of using TFBG is high loss in propagation of cladding modes, which was overcome by a
technique used in Ref. 73, where the refractometer working on the phenomenon of recoupling of
cladding and core was proposed and experimentally demonstrated. The sensor consisted of
TFBG tilted at an angle of 12 deg and gratings inscribed with phase masking technique using
a KrF excimer laser in hydrogen (H2 ) loaded single-mode fiber. The cladding of fiber was coated
with 3-μm thick gold to reflect light in cladding and guide it in the core. With gold coating, in-
fiber cladding mirror was formed, which backreflects the light to core and TFBG effectively
couples the forward core modes and backreflected cladding modes thereby recoupling them
into the same tilted grating fiber. Transmitted modes were monitored in the form of reflected
light. The proposed design of the refractometer is considered to have larger range of operation
as compared to the other tilted grating fiber-based refractometer with linear sensitivity of
528 nm∕RIU. The cross-sensitivity effect of temperature was under control in this design since
core mode is not sensitive to surrounding refractive index. The wavelength sensitivity was
improved to 7973 dB∕RIU using tunable laser. Some more studies on FBG-based refractive
index sensor along with their inferences are discussed in Table 1.

Table 1 Various FBG-based techniques for refractive index sensing.
Reference Technique Inferences
69 Long period grating embedded in no- Average wavelength sensitivity achieved was
core fiber 141.837 nm∕RIU in the range of 1.33 to 1.4 RIU.
70 Long period grating written in thinned Refractive index sensitivity of 6812.0 and
cladding fiber 7366.6 nm∕RIU was obtained for LPG written thinned
cladding for κL < π∕2 and κL > π∕2, respectively.
176 Etched fiber Bragg grating in Panda Refractive index sensitivity of −1.492 nm∕RIU was
fiber obtained for resolution of 0.06 nm.
71 Optoelectronic oscillator with etched An index variation of 1.9 × 10−6 RIU with sensitivity of
phase-shifted FBG 530 MHz ∕RIU was obtained.
68 Etched fiber Bragg grating Wavelength shifted to higher values when proposed
sensor was submerged in water, but mode power leaks
in case of submersion in oil.
73 Tilted FBG with gold coating Sensitivity of 7973 dB∕RIU was obtained with
limit of 10−6 RIU.
177 Single-mode–multimode–single-mode Sensitivity of 7:33 nm∕RIU obtained for range

fiber (SMF–MMF–SMF) structure 1.324 to 1.439 refractive index.
178 Exposed core microstructured optical Refractive index sensitivity of 5.85 nm∕RIU was
fiber achieved.
179 D-shaped fiber with long period Extremely high refractive index of 9786%/RIU achieved
grating for range 1.4 to 1.45 refractive index.
120 Micro-sapphire-FBG Refractive index measurement in range of 1 to 1.75 was

obtained with fiber operating at 1400°C temperature.
6.2 FBG-Based Strain Sensors

In this section, FBG-based strain sensors used in various applications are discussed though an
extensive review on interrogation methods for FBG strain sensor has been carried out in Refs. 74
and 75. Strain sensing is utilized in almost every type of industry and the most conventional
method used is strain gauge technology for testing automobiles, infrastructures, etc. Due to
inherent advantages of FBG, it has taken over conventional methods though FBG cannot com-
pletely compete with strain gauges regarding price. But due to mentioned properties of FBG,
they find a place in special applications involving modern constructions such as airplanes or
wind power plant since they match quite well with composite materials employed in such areas.
Fiber Bragg gratings for strain sensing play a very crucial role in almost every area of appli-
cation, such as condition monitoring, structural health monitoring (SHM), and fault diagnosis.
Stress applied on FBG induces change in either effective refractive index or grating pitch of
FBG, which causes a change in wavelength shift. Strain sensitivity of FBG depends on physical
characteristics of fiber such as thermo-optic coefficient and elasto-optic property and also on the
type of strain (tensile or compressive) applied on it.2 Bragg gratings are made on silica fiber
whose strain limit is around 4.8G Pa.76 To increase the strain limit of FBG, it can be coated
with some suitable material. By coating FBG with some different material using adhesive, the
strain transferred from the outside of FBG to the inside of core may vary depending on physical
properties of adhesive used. Some amount of strain may get absorbed by the intermediate layer
such as glue, which may result in inaccurate results and must be taken care of. In Eq. (6),
if measurand X is replaced by strain, ε, then it can be transformed to
ΔλB ¼ λB ð1 − ρa Þε;
where ρa is the stress optic coefficient and is given as

n2eff
ρa ¼ ½ρ − σðρ11 − ρ12 Þ; (9)
2 12
where σ is the poisson’s ratio and ρ11 ; ρ12 are pockel’s coefficient or coefficient of stress-optic
tensor. For isotropic strain, change in Bragg wavelength with change in strain can be written as
ΔλB ¼ λB ð1 − Pe Þε;
where Pe is the strain-optic coefficient whose value for germanium doped silica fiber is 0.22,4
from which Eq. (11) can be formed:
ΔλB ¼ 0.78ελB :
Strain gauge method for strain measurement is the most commonly used method where
change in resistance due to induced strain is determined by Wheatstone bridge circuit. Since
it is not electrically isolated, therefore it cannot be used in many such applications where elec-
trical isolation is necessary. An experiment was performed between FBG and strain gauge in
Ref. 77, where FBG-based strain sensing showed more accurate results as compared to strain
gauge method. Two FBG and strain gauge were pasted on one side of equi-intensity cantilever
beam, and on other side different weights were added that were to be tested. The strain value
obtained from FBG was found much closer to the theoretically calculated strain as compared to
strain gauge. Many more studies based on a cantilever where FBG is usually pasted for strain
calculations have been performed in the past. In Ref. 78, embedded stress distribution of FBG
was analyzed using cantilever structure where FBG sensor was pasted along the length of can-
tilever. The curvature or displacement is measured using FBG sensor produced by lateral load on
the cantilever structure. Using method of mechanics of materials, stress relation with parameters
of FBG is obtained and the reflection spectrum of FBG is achieved using transmission matrix
method, which is suitable for measuring linear or uniform strain.79 Another study using a can-
tilever beam for FBG using collimators to measure strain was proposed in Ref. 80, where FBG
sensor was installed on cantilever beam. The sensor was demodulated using FBG interrogator
connected via a pair of collimator. The collimator helps in maintaining the alignment of light
between the FBG sensor and interrogator. The results showed accurate strain measurements with
collimators. Another cantilever structure was utilized in Ref. 81 where a sensitizing structure was
designed using flexure hinge and FBG was passed through that structure and further pasted on
the cantilever with epoxy. With this design, sensitivity was improved by 10 times, which can be
used for monitoring dynamic strain on mechanical structures accurately.
Strain sensing at high temperature can be a big challenge for FBG as silica material operates
at a low temperature range. Nowadays, polymer-based optical fibers are extensively being used
in sensing technology due to their high fracture limit and biocompatibility. In Ref. 82, polyimide
was utilized in Fabry–Perot-based strain sensor, which was able to endure strain of 35% even at a
temperature of 220°C. FBG can also be effectively used for strain sensing at high temperatures
using suitable polymer coating materials such as metals having high thermal expansion coef-
ficient or also using polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA)-based FBG.34,83 Silica-based FBG is
capable of operating at a temperature ranging from −60°C to 80°C having acrylate coating
whereas with Pyrocoat coating operating temperature can range up to 300°C but fiber must not
be exposed at high temperature for a longer duration of time.84 PMMA-based fiber has glass
transition temperature of about 165°C, and above this temperature the physical properties of
polymer changes. Strain sensor based on FBG-PMMA was proposed in Ref. 83, where fiber
Bragg gratings were inscribed in microstructured polymer optical fiber (mPOF) made up of
a special polymer called PMMA using phase mask technology. In this study, PMMA-based fiber
was used to sense strain for longer duration since PMMA has very low Young’s modulus (low
stiffness) thereby increasing the limit of elasticity. Depending on the magnitude and time of
strain applied on polymer fiber visco-elasticity could be calculated. In the experiment, different
amounts of strains, i.e., 0.4%, 0.65%, and 0.9%, were applied on the polymer for different dura-
tion of time, i.e., 2.5, 5, 10, and 50 min and fiber was left relaxed for 2 h. It was observed that for
65% and above of the strain range the fast relaxation range is desired. The calculated results are
valid only for unembedded polymer fiber, and if embedded fiber is used the results will directly

depend on the material properties of host. It was also confirmed from the experiment performed
that even after prestraining the fiber the following strain applied could be effectively calculated
in real-time therefore prestraining was not an issue in this case. Recently, polymer such as
PMMA,85 cyclic-olefin copolymer (TOPAS86,87 and Zeonex88), polycarbonate89-based FBG has
taken over conventional silica-based FBG because of its distinctive material properties such as
low Young’s modulus and high fracture toughness that can be effectively used in enhancing
strain performance of sensor. Inscription of gratings in such polymers can be made using
248-nm KrF laser90 for stable grating, and ultrafast gratings in 7 ms were formed on PMMA
using dopant (diphenyl disulphide) as discussed in Ref. 91. Table 2 shows comparison of a few
polymer-based FBGs for strain sensing.
FBGs can be deployed in many safety monitoring engineering or civil structures for their
SHM. In Ref. 92, structural deformation of Chinese ancient timber building was monitored using
FBG-based sensor system. Physical parameters, such as temperature, fire, humidity, and incli-
nation, were monitored within 15 months to validate the long-term process of SHM system. It
was observed that the foot column of timber was under stress and was prone to cracking in 20
years of service. Also, an FBG sensor was used in health monitoring of airship ZHIYUAN-1
nose-cone93 where three FBGs were pasted on the nose-cone. The strain was interrogated with a
commercial interrogation system (Micron Optic sm-130), which is the main part of the whole
sensing system as it provides a resolution of 1 pm. To validate the experiment, qualitative strain
monitoring of the airship was made. Also, to confirm the results of the experiment, finite element
analysis was carried out. FBG can be used for strain monitoring of gas combustion. In Ref. 94, an
experimental study was conducted on the flammable explosion of ethylene for monitoring strain
in the process of detonation, deflagration, and discharge. Packaged FBG using 502 adhesive was
pasted on inner surface of steel testing device where ethylene gas was released using an ethylene
gas cylinder. In the experiment, FBG successfully monitored the strain values at 0.5 MPa.
Similarly, FBG was used for measuring dynamic strain from the explosion on blast doors, which
is very helpful from a safety point of view usually employed in tunnels or subways.95 In the
experiment, eight FBGs were pasted horizontally and vertically on the blast door (reinforced
concrete material), and strain data were successfully measured in explosion test. The role of
FBG in structural monitoring is used in many studies, and their main purpose in some appli-
cations is to have early warning as discussed in Ref. 96, where strain was monitored for express-
way slopes. Prewarning of land sliding from slopes surrounding the road can be made using an
FBG sensor can measure the horizontal displacement of soil and the axial strain distribution of
soil nails, which is used to stabilize soil. The strain and displacement obtained in the experiment
were 198 με and 5.06 mm, respectively. SHM of concrete structure was discussed in Ref. 97,
using polystyrene foam covered FBG. The expansion of corrosion induces formation of cracks in
a concrete structure, which degrades the durability of concrete. The material covering FBG used
was polystyrene, which is a lightweight and good energy absorber that will provide good pro-
tection to FBG.
Apart from designing aspect of the FBG strain sensor for sensitivity enhancement as dis-
cussed in Refs. 81, 98, and 99, type of interrogation plays an important role in overall evaluation
of sensor performance. Especially in cases where dynamic or quasistatic strain monitoring is
involved, an interrogation scheme different from static sensing is applied. For static strain
Table 2 Polymer-based FBG for strain sensing.
Reference Material Result Strain
88 Zeonex Strain sensitivity of 39.791 0.004 pm∕με is attained. 0.3%
89 Polycarbonate Strain sensing up to 3% with a linear response of the grating to 3%

temperature up to 125 °C.
24 PMMA Strain sensitivity of 0.90 pm∕με is obtained. 2%
180 TOPAS High strain operation (2.5%) of the FBG at 98 °C and stable 2.5%
operation up to a high temperature of 110°C.

sensing, mostly broadband source and optical analyzer are utilized in demodulating the signal.
This method cannot be applied on dynamic strain sensing because of slow measurements on the
optical analyzer, low signal-to-noise ratio, and low resolution. Such systems comprise of broad-
band source to cover the bandwidth of measurand and are usually referred as passive FBG sensor
system. The power of the reflected signal is generally low in passive FBG sensor system thereby
causing low accuracy in sensing measurements and also a smaller number of FBG can be multi-
plexed in such system. To resolve this issue, research has been carried out in FBG laser sensor
system that is able to provide high output power with narrow line-width. In Ref. 100, fiber laser
strain sensor was proposed based on a distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) laser, which was
formed by two FBG inscribed in erbium doped fiber (EDF). The two gratings form a Fabry
Perot cavity whose length determines the wavelength and when strain is applied on such struc-
ture the cavity length changes. The wavelength change is demodulated by Mach–Zehnder inter-
p
ferometric method that converts wavelength to intensity. In this study, sensitivity of 80 pε∕ Hz
was obtained for frequency range 100 mHz to several hundred hertz. In Ref. 101, DBR fiber
laser-based simultaneous strain and temperature sensor was proposed for high resolution and
was achieved by measuring the laser wavelength and polarization beat frequency. Similarly, for
simultaneous sensing of strain and axial load, a DBR fiber laser sensor can be used.102 Many
interrogation schemes for dynamic or quasistatic strain sensing have been reported achieving
high-resolution. Methods such as interferometric methods, scanning filters, edge detection filter,
wavelength-swept laser, and many more such dynamic strain interrogation techniques have been
presented in past research and are also listed in Table 3.
Simultaneous sensing of temperature and strain causes low sensitivity and inaccurate results.
Simultaneous measurement of strain and temperature was discussed in Ref. 103, where a simple
optical sensor has been designed using fiber Bragg gratings and long period gratings. Many
sensing heads have been incorporated in the proposed sensor design where each sensing head
will include both the long period gratings and fiber Bragg gratings thereby forming a concat-
enation. By measuring the reflected power and wavelength of fiber Bragg gratings both strain
and temperature responses could be obtained. Many more studies have been conducted in the
past for simultaneous measurement of temperature and strain with FBG.104–107 Table 4 compares
various FBG strain sensors.
Table 3 Interrogation methods of FBG strain sensor.
Reference Interrogation technique Inferences Perturbation type
181 VCSEL array swept source Sweeps bandwidth of 10 nm at a Dynamic

scanning rate of 4 kHz
50 Electro-optical dual optical Measured dynamic strain vibrations Dynamic

frequency combs (200 Hz and 1 kHz, 18 and 56 με,
respectively) and ultrasounds (40 and
120 kHz, 0.4 and 0.32 με, respectively)
182 Linearly wavelength-swept Sweeps bandwidth of 11.8 nm with Dynamic

thermo-optic laser chip scanning rate of 16 Hz
183 Cascaded long-period fiber Strain resolution of 1 με obtained Dynamic and

grating static
49 Fourier-domain mode- The frequency resolution of the dynamic Dynamic

locked fiber laser variation could reach up to 0.5 Hz for
2 s integration time
p
184 Interferometric method Dynamic resolution of 4 pε∕ Hz Dynamic
obtained
185 Optoelectronic oscillator Sensitivity of 58 Hz∕με obtained Dynamic

loop
186 Low loss jammed-array Interrogation at rate of 200 kHz can be Dynamic
wideband sawtooth filter achieved

Table 4 Various FBG-based techniques for strain sensing.
Reference Technique Inferences Packaging Application
97 Polystyrene-coated For 0.169% corrosion, the Polystyrene foam Corrosion

FBG FBG was still intact with the covering monitoring in
steel reinforcement concrete
187 FBG strain gauge Large axial strain FBG bonded on steel Vibration
corresponding to 2.262 Hz structure sensing of
frequency was identified bridge
188 Steel packaged Able to take load up to FBG bonded on steel Derrick
FBG 50 kN structure with monitoring in oil
ultraviolet glue and gas field
189 Eccentric core FBG Strain sensitivity of — Simultaneous

0.76 pm∕με was obtained sensing of strain
for eccentric FBG in the and bend
range 0 to 1200 με
190 FBG strain rosette Average strain sensitivity Coating (Young’s SHM of ship hull
structure coefficient of 0.89 με∕pm modulus: 3 GPa,
obtained Poisson’s ratio: 0.35)
99 Lever mechanism Strain sensitivity of FBG bonded on steel Strain monitoring

11.49 pm∕με was achieved structure casing of lithium ion
comprising of flexure battery
hinge, lever, and
serpentine spring
191 Elastic mechanic Strain sensitivity of — Early warning

theory 0.59 pm∕με was monitoring of
achieved slope
174 Phase-shifted FBG Strain sensitivity of — —

with femtosecond 0.867 pm∕με was achieved
laser in the range 0 to 3500 με
83 PMMA Able to perform strain — SHM where

microstructured measurements up to 0.9% durability is of
FBG for 50 min prime concern
192 FBG-based strain Resolution and sensitivity of PVC protective tube Circumferential
sensor using 3-D 114 μm and 0.0218 nm∕mm strain monitoring
printing method achieved, respectively
81 Flexible hinge Strain sensitivity of FBG bonded on Health

10.84 pm∕με was achieved copper alloy flexible monitoring of
hinge structure mechanical
structures
193 Fourier curve fitting Real-time monitoring of FBG bonded with Stress hole
stress achieved with average epoxy resin adhesive monitoring in
error of stress being 3.9 με on specimen aircraft
194 FBG embedded in Strain sensitivity of PCF bonded on beam —

small core PCF 0.67 pm∕με achieved with heat cured epoxy
(EPO TEK 353ND)
98 FBG with lever Strain sensitivity of Resin protective tube Harsh industrial
structure 6.2 pm∕με achieved environment
6.3 FBG-Based Temperature Sensor

Sensing of temperature is the most common parameter used in almost every area of application.
Conventional temperature sensors such as thermostat, thermocouple, and resistance temperature
detector are bulky in size, have low range of operation, are not immune to EMI, and are not
suitable for distributed sensing. Fiber Bragg gratings-based sensors are highly reliable, have

low thermal conduction, are small in size, and are strongly immune to EMI. Thermo-optic effect
is the prime cause of temperature sensitivity in FBG.2 Differentiating Eq. (1) by temperature
gives relation between change in wavelength and change in temperature as1
Δλ 1 dneff 1 dΛ
¼ ΔT þ ΔT; (12)
λ Λ dT
neff dT
Δλ
¼ ðᶓ þ αÞΔT; (13)
λ
where Δλ∕λ is the normalized shift of resonance due to change in temperature, ᶓ is the
thermo-optic coefficient, and α is the thermal expansion coefficient. For 1330 nm wavelength,
and putting ᶓ, α values of silica, i.e., 6.6 × 10−6 ∕°C and 0.55 × 10−6 ∕°C, respectively, in
Eq. (13), temperature sensitivity obtained is 0.0094 nm∕°C.108 At high temperature, reflectance
from germanium-doped silica FBG becomes low. At 350 K temperature, the FBG failed to show
the result and to solve this, a guilded-germanium doped fiber grating sensor was developed,
which showed sensitivity of 0.0157 nm∕°C.108 At high temperature, it is difficult to record
results using bare FBG due to low thermal coefficient of silica. Research has been conducted
to improve sensitivity at high temperature using coating on FBG,109 doping of certain material in
silica,110–112 formation of stable,113 or using polymer optical fiber. In polymer optical fiber as
proposed in Ref. 114, fiber Bragg gratings were inscribed on planer waveguide made of polymer
material particularly for high temperature stable sensor. In this study, a single step writing
method based on rapid UV is used for fabrication of waveguide and FBG simultaneously.
A planer waveguide FBG was made of cyclo-olefin copolymer (COC) samples, which were cut
using ultrashort pulse laser and ends were polished. Phase mask technique was used to inscribe
gratings on the waveguide. Reflectivity of 99% was achieved with such structure that is suitable
for sensing application. Polymers such as PMMA have high affinity to water absorption thereby
exhibiting glass transition of up to 92°C. On the contrary, COC polymer is immune to water
absorption making it work even at 178°C temperature. Temperature sensitivity of COC poly-
mer-based FBG observed in this study was −7.7 pm∕°C. Negative sign indicates negative
thermo-optic coefficient of COC polymer. A strong signal was observed even at 160.2°C temper-
ature. Another method using polymer optical fiber was discussed in Ref. 115, in which the pro-
file of temperature is detected using chirped fiber Bragg grating (CFBG) written in mPOF during
thermal treatments such as thermal ablation of radio frequency. Using phase mask technique
CFBG with 0.09 nm∕mm chirp rate was inscribed in mPOF. Temperature sensitivity of
CFBG measured was 10 pm∕°C, which causes small amount of bandwidth spectral variation
leading to ineffective detection of temperature. Many successful researches have been done
in past to enhance its sensitivity. In this study, the temperature sensitivity of −191.4 pm∕°C
was achieved with CFBG-mPOF. The microstructured POF used here was PMMA having core
doped with benzyldimethylketal to increase photosensitivity of fiber. Linear profile of temper-
ature was detected by placing CFBG on heating plate. This study also introduces a spectral
reconstruction demodulation technique in which spectra of CFBG is converted to measured
temperature in each fringe of grating with 1 mm of spatial resolution. Such a narrow spatial
resolution provides a benchmark for biomedical applications such as thermotherapies. Another
special hybrid polymer, Ormocer, which stands for organically modified ceramic, is an organic–
inorganic polymer which was used for sensing temperature in Ref. 116 by inscribing FBG into it
using phase mask technique. Ormocer is equivalent to glass having profound thermo-optic
coefficient that shows high thermal and chemical stability. High temperature sensitivity of
−250 pm∕°C was obtained with low humidity sensitivity using Ormocer-based FBG sensor.
For high temperature, several technologies involving the fabrication type of FBG have also
been evolved in past years that provide FBG operating at elevated temperature. In Ref. 117, four
types of gratings in FBG, i.e., types I and IIA, regenerated, femtosecond, sapphire grating were
reviewed. Type 1 FBG can operate at temperature ranging −20°C to 80°C but its range can be
improved to 600°C by thermal annealing and photosensitization to provide stable gratings. Type
In or type IIA is a hydrogen-free silicate fiber that is irradiated with a UV or continuous wave-
length laser for extended period of time and can perform at 500°C temperature. By giving high
intensity exposure to the fiber, temperate range can be extended up to 800°C too. Such type of

FBG does not even require hydrogen loading. Another type called regenerated FBG can operate
at a temperature even higher than 800°C, which formed by annealing the seed structure. Such
FBG can be effectively used in applications having a harsh environment such as a furnace.118
Also in Ref. 119, an ultrasonic sensor based on regenerated-phase shifted-FBG was designed
that could operate at 1000°C. Femtosecond-based FBG can provide remarkable thermal stability
up to 1000°C due to formation of finer gratings by an ultrafast laser pulse having energy below
damage threshold for type I FBG and energy above damage threshold for type II gratings. Above
1200°C, silica-based FBG becomes inappropriate to use. Sapphire-based FBG is the most suc-
cessful temperature sensor as sapphire optical fiber has a very high glass transition of 2030°C and
can be written using a femtosecond laser with either a phase mask or point-by-point method.9
In Ref. 120, microsapphire-FBG was presented that could effectively monitor temperature up to
1400°C. Similarly, in Ref. 121, sapphire-based FBG sensor was used in temperature monitoring
of boilers at a commercial power plant (Virginia Tech Central Steam Plant) and was able to
measure temperature up to 1200°C.
Even in the field of oceanography research, there is a need to obtain accurate measurements
of temperature and depth of ocean for various applications, such as meteorology, fishing, and
navigation. Conventional methods such as piezoelectric and thermistor can be used for measure-
ments but at the cost of low spatial resolution and accuracy. A special encapsulation process
was discussed in Ref. 122, where FBG-based sensor was designed that would cancel the effect
of pressure and also avoid FBG chirping. This research was carried out at North Yellow Sea,
China. Special glue called EPO-TEK 353ND was used to glue the FBG on a metal tube that is
usually meant for usage at high temperature. Also, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) thermoplastic was
used as external covering, which would reduce the time of response of temperature compensated
sensor. Temperature and pressure sensitivity obtained were 29.87 pm∕°C and 1611 pm ∕Mpa,
respectively.
Not only at highly elevated temperatures FBG fails to operate but also at cryogenic temper-
ature operation of FBG becomes challenging due to low thermal rate of expansion, but this
problem can be overcome by using suitable coating.123–125 It was shown in Ref. 126, to measure
temperature at multiple places of the high-temperature superconducting magnets efficiently,
instead of using conventional multipoint measurement systems like thermocouples and
Cernox (Zirconium Oxy-Nitride), which can intrude heat in superconducting magnets, multiple
fiber Bragg gratings can be embedded in a single fiber as they have low heat invasions. At cryo-
genic temperature, FBG contracts, changing the refractive index of core, which eventually causes
a shift in Bragg wavelength. But at such a low temperature, the thermal rate of expansion is
decreased, which lowers the sensitivity of FBG sensor. In this study, zinc metal was coated over
FBG to enhance the thermal rate of expansion owing to its inherent property of high thermal
expansion coefficient. Three methods were used to coat zinc over FBG sensor. Sputtering, elec-
troplating after sputtering titanium and copper, electroplating after electro-less nickel plating
were the methods used in this study. It was found that electroplating after sputtering titanium
and copper was the best method among the three methods. The drawback of this method was the
accuracy of thickness as dispersion can take place due to non-uniform coating. Also, durability
experiment was performed, which confirmed the ability of sensing cryogenic temperature even
under vibration, rapid and repeated cooling. Similar study on cryogenic temperature sensing was
proposed in Ref. 127, to increase the capability of measuring temperature at such a low level
using various metal coatings over fiber Bragg grating using electro-winning and casting process.
Metals like tin, copper, lead, and zinc having high thermal coefficient along with good adhesion
were used for coating over FBG. Since copper has a high melting point therefore it cannot be
used in casting process. FBG is made of silica and electro-winning process can take place only
with conducting metals therefore FBG needs to be pre-coated with metal. A perfect layer of
coating was formed with tin, lead and zinc in casting process. Also, less amount of time was
involved in casting method. In contrast, electro-winning process is very complex and cumber-
some method of depositing low melting temperature metals or metal alloys but they were
fabricated thermally stress free at room temperature. It was found in this study that zinc coated
fiber Bragg sensor using casting method had high thermal sensitivity and can be used effectively
at cryogenic temperature. Table 5 compares various FBG based temperature sensors.

Table 5 Various FBG-based techniques for temperature sensing.
Optical Engineering
195 Etched FBG coated with Temperature sensitivity of 95 pm∕°C for 10 nm MoS2 coating by magnetron —

molybdenum disulphide (MoS2 ) thickness of MoS2 was achieved sputtering
126 Zinc-coated FBG Able to perform cryogenic sensing with electroless and Zinc coating by electroplating Conduction-cooled
electroplating zinc on FBG from 280 to 16 K superconducting
magnet
196 Sapphire-based FBG Temperature sensing up to 1900°C was obtained — Inductive furnace
121 Wavelength-multiplexed Temperature sensing up to 1200°C was obtained High-purity alumina ceramic Boilers in power plant
sapphire FBG tube
174 Phase-shifted FBG with Temperature sensitivities of 14.91 pm∕°C was obtained — High temperature
femtosecond laser inscription in the range of 50°C to 800°C environment

174 Polymer-based FBG with Temperature sensitivity of −220 pm∕°C was achieved — Biosensing, all-fiber
060901-18
femtosecond laser inscription over a range of 24°C to 40°C devices
127 Metal coating with casting and Lead showed highest sensitivity Lead coating by various Cryogenic application
electro-winning method methods
197 Fiber laser-based FBG Temperature sensitivity of 15.9 pm∕°C for range 300°C — High temperature
to 1000°C was achieved applications
198 Microfiber Bragg grating Proposed sensor when molded with acetal showed high Acetal molded FBG —
sensitivity of 479.48 pm∕°C
122 Special encapsulation using Accuracy of 0.01°C was reached Silica gel coating and bonded Ocean temperature
EPO-TEK 353ND with metal structure with
adhesive
June 2020
•
199 Bimetallic configuration Temperature sensitivity enhanced to 71.9 pm∕°C Alumina adhesive paste for —
bonding FBG with metal
Vol. 59(6)
Recently, research on materials other than polymers or metals has also evolved in area of
FBG sensors. Since silica fiber is limited to work around 1600 nm, it fails to provide high sen-
sitivity and large range of operation, which can be offered at the mid-infrared region. In Ref. 128,
FBG based on soft glass such as tellurite, chalcogenide, and fluoride was numerically simulated
and studied that shows great potential in applications of mid-infrared waveband. Temperature
sensitivity of 175.7 pm∕°C was obtained for chalcogenide (arsenic trifluoride, As2 S3 ) based
fiber, which is higher than silica based FBG having 11.5 pm∕°C sensitivity. But As2 S3 has
low glass transition temperature that is 185°C , which limits its high temperature applications.
In Ref. 129, a mixed chalcogenide (Ge-Sb-Se) based multimode FBG was theoretically studied.
Since refractive index of chalcogenide glass is around 2.0-3.5, they are considered as excellent
candidate for multimode FBG. In this study, temperature sensitivity was calculated to be
0.0758 nm∕°C at 1550 nm and 0.16 nm∕°C at 3390 nm, which indicates great potential in tem-
perature sensing in the mid-infrared region. Femtosecond laser is the key to fabricate high quality
Bragg gratings in such fibers to enable practical application of mid-infrared technology and still
further research is required in its fabrication process.130
6.4 FBG-Based Liquid Level Sensor

Applications such as oil reservoirs, storage of fuels, sewage treatment plant, chemical process-
ing, and several industries require the need of liquid level measurement. Corrosion and explosion
are the biggest concerns while designing a liquid level sensor, which is why electrical based
sensors are nowadays seldom used. Optical sensors, mainly FBG, are resistant to corrosion,
electrically isolated and intrinsically safe, which serves as a promising technology in accurate
measurement of liquid level. As discussed in refractive index based sensors, similar is the
concept used here for detection of liquid level by exploitation of evanescent fields of fiber for
measuring refractive index. Fibers such as phase shifted fiber, long period grating fiber, and
etched fiber are mainly used in past studies for measuring liquid level. Also, FPI-based liquid
level sensors have been proposed in Refs. 131 and 132, but one has to compromise with high
cost and tedious fabrication process with this technology to achieve high sensitivity. An easy
approach is to use FBG technology, which will provide high sensitivity along with easy
fabrication.
Liquid level measurement can be derived from pressure measurements using mathematical
relations as has been discussed in Ref. 133, where a bourdon tube was used for pressure meas-
urement and was attached with an FBG sensor resulting in monitoring of water column height in
terms of hydrostatic pressure. In one study,134 fiber Bragg grating was embedded in diaphragm of
epoxy resin. The sensing fiber was placed in close proximity to another reference FBG for tem-
perature sensing to compensate the effect of cross-sensitivity. Pressure applied on the diaphragm
induces longitudinal strain on FBG, which estimates measurement of liquid level. Sensitivity of
2.8 pm∕mm was obtained in this experimental work.
Tilted FBG, etched FBG, and no core FBG methods that deals with change in design of fiber
or grating can be used for detection of liquid level. Using a TFBG,135 measurement of liquid level
and temperature was experimented simultaneously. Bragg resonance response and cladding
mode response provides the discrimination of temperature sensing and liquid level sensing.
Particularly, change in amplitude of cladding mode is caused due to immersion of FBG in liquid
keeping core modes unchanged whereas shift in wavelength is observed for change in temper-
ature, which is sensitive to cladding modes also. In this study, paraffin oil (having refractive
index of 1.44) level was measured at varying temperature between 30°C and 60°C. Tilted
FBG of 10 mm length had grating fringe weakly tilted at 3.5°, which made it sensitive to higher
refractive index relatively. For higher angle of tilt, sensor sensitivity was observed to decrease.
Temperature sensitivity observed was 11.3 0.1 pm∕°C. The proposed sensor can be effectively
used in broad area of applications such as automobile, food, chemical, and many other industries
due to its simple and small structure. An ultrasensitive liquid level sensor was experimentally
demonstrated in Ref. 136, using an etched CFBG. Detection of variation of tens of micrometer
liquid level with sensitivity of 1.214 nm∕mm was achieved with the sensor proposed in this
study. Sensing mechanism is such that the evanescent wave is exposed to the surrounding envi-
ronment by removing the cladding portion of optical fiber using hydro fluoric acid (20 %), which

Table 6 Various FBG-based techniques for liquid level sensing.
Reference Technique Inferences
137 Multimode interference Sensitivity of 0.25 dB mm−1 was achieved
134 FBG embedded Sensitivity of 2.8 pm∕mm with low temperature error
diaphragm of 1.04 mm∕°C was achieved
138 Optical chaos Linear range of 3.8 cm achieved from 1.0 to 3.8 cm
136 Etched chirped FBG Sensitivity of 1.214 nm∕mm was achieved for tens
of micrometer variation
135 Tilted FBG Sensitivity of −0.456 0.009 dB mm−1 was

achieved for low refractive index
131 FBG and Fabry–Perot Sensitivity of 0.01491 nm∕cm with average

pressure sensor measurement error of 0.0323 m was achieved
greatly enhances the sensitivity. When bare core written with Bragg gratings is immersed in
liquid, the refractive index of FBG changes which will further bring variation in Bragg wave-
length according to Bragg principle and also at the interface of liquid the phase of Bragg wave-
length field changes. Response of spectra remains unchanged for CFBG with air. At interface of
air and liquid with CFBG is observed. Liquid level from 0 mm to 5.6 mm with increment of
0.2 mm was recorded. Linear relation of wavelength shift and liquid level was observed. Also
dependence of temperature was studied by varying temperature from 30°C to 60°C with
0.008 nm∕°C temperature sensitivity, which hardly requires temperature compensation. Another
method where no-core fiber is embedded into a conventional single-mode fiber was used as
liquid level indicator in Ref. 137. Bragg gratings were inscribed in one part of the single–mode
fiber that will be dipped in liquid. No-core fiber portion sensitive to external refractive index,
therefore when the whole fiber is immersed in liquid, the response gets shifted according to the
length of no-core fiber immersed. The resonance wavelength of FBG in single-mode fiber should
be tuned to region of response of no-core fiber response filter. Intensity based technique is used
here for liquid level indication. Sensitivity reported in this study was 0.25 dB mm−1 . Similar
method of no-core fiber along faraday reflection mirror was used for liquid level sensing using
correlation method where FBG is used for filtering the chaotic light from source.138 Table 6
compares various FBG based liquid level sensors.
6.5 FBG-Based Pressure Sensor

Force applied on any surface by air or liquid is defined as pressure and is usually measured in
Pascal’s. A pressure sensitive element is present in pressure sensor that estimates the actual
pressure exerted on it and some components convert it to output signal. Usually, strain-gauge
based pressure sensor, capacitive pressure sensor and piezo-electric pressure sensor are used for
measuring pressure using deflection method. Because of no electrical isolation and less range of
operation, they are seldom used. Use of FBG based sensor is a promising technology for all the
range of pressure sensing with high accuracy. Since FBG is written inside the core of fiber, its
durability is higher than other optical technologies such as Fabry Perot. Since strain is the effect
of pressure, change in Bragg wavelength can be obtained from Eq. (9), though strain caused due
to pressure on FBG can be calculated from Eq. (14), where P is pressure, ν is poisson’s ratio, and
E is Modulus of elasticity:139
−Pð1 − 2νÞ
ε¼
E
An FBG-based pressure sensor can work under harsh conditions and is still able to provide
reasonably high sensitivity. In harsh environments such as thermoelectric power plants, FBG can
be used to measure pressure of combustion chamber140 by sealing FBG with electro-less nickel

plating. The FBG pressure sensor was able to record pressure of 200 bar at 300°C temperature.
Material for fixation is very crucial in harsh conditions as adhesives such as epoxy resin do not
function at 200 bar and above, so in this study nickel to nickel was used for fixation as matching
of different thermal expansion coefficients is important, which in this case becomes a single
material. Similar study discussed in Ref. 141, where choice of material and structural design
played an important role in enhancing the sensitivity of FBG based pressure sensor using
thin-walled cylinder. Performance analysis of different types of pressure sensors using flexible
diaphragm packaging, polymer packaging, and bourdon tube packaging has also been reviewed
in this study. However, in this study, thin walled cylindrical packaging is used that induces defor-
mation under the influence of pressure. Beryllium bronze (C17000) having elasticity coefficient
of 1.3 × 1011 Pa and Poisson’s ratio μ of 0.35 was the material used for making thin walled
cylinder. Before fixing the FBG to the thin wall cylinder it was pre-stretched. Pressure sensitivity
of 0.7944 nm∕MPa was achieved. The FBG was pulled off after applying pressure of 40 MPa.
In the health sector, monitoring of vital signs such as blood pressure can also be monitored
using FBG,142 where pressure in human arteries was observed as pulse waves and sent to plastic
optical fiber-fiber Bragg gratings (POF-FBG). The pulse wave signal from arteries could be
detected with signal to noise ratio eight times higher with POF-FBG than with silica-FBG.
Similar studies on pressure sensor based on various optical sensors for biomedical applications
have been reviewed in Ref. 143. In hydraulic and pneumatic system, there are chances of valve
malfunction thus requiring continuous monitoring of pressure change in valves. A pressure sen-
sor was proposed in Ref. 144 using fiber Bragg grating based on thin film for dynamic response
measurement of water pressure in tank. The FBG is simply glued to thin film of round substrate
for detecting linear variation of pressure without the requirement of hosting material for enhance-
ment of sensitivity. Shift in Bragg wavelength due to change in pressure is calculated using
coupled mode theory and thin plate theory. The proposed sensor works well for static,
quasi-static, and dynamic water pressure monitoring and is based on static theory of elasticity.
Change in wavelength shift with varying pressure levels was linear in relation. Resolution of 2 Pa
was obtained for dynamic pressure measurements. The proposed FBG based pressure sensor was
able to work for a wide range of 0–10000 Pa. Continuous monitoring of concrete pipelines
widely used in industries or municipal is required for proper functioning, which can be done
with FBG as studied in Ref. 145 where bourdon tube-based FBG pressure sensor was employed,
which resulted in pressure sensitivity of 1.414 pm∕kPa in range of 0 to 1 MPa.
Using fused deposition modeling (FDM) with three-dimensional (3-D) printer in Ref. 146,
FBG-based pressure sensor was fabricated for measuring vertical pressure. Fused deposition is a
method that is fast, cost effective, and easy to encapsulate optical fiber into sensing structure
using raw material. In this study, the raw material used was polyactide (PLA), which is derived
from a renewable resource. Using this method, no extra part is wasted during fabrication process.
Time required to fabricate the whole sensor structure using FDM was only 50 min. Inside the
pressure sensor, an inner sensing unit was fabricated to ensure high sensitivity of FBG vertical
pressure because its small cross sectional is able to generate large deformation. FBG gets elon-
gated when vertical pressure is applied on the sensing unit. FBG was able to survive even at
200°C during FDM process making the sensor feasible for temperature, pressure, or strain sen-
sor. During the process of calibration, the maximum vertical pressure measured was 800 kPa,
and the pressure sensitivity obtained was 4.26 kPa∕pm. Table 7 compares various FBG-based
pressure sensors.
6.6 FBG-Based Displacement Sensor

Fiber Bragg grating sensors can be used to measure precious parameters such as displacement
for enhanced safety and reliability of structures. Especially for maintenance of dynamic
performance of structures, it is very essential to monitor shape of the structure at real time.
Inclinometer is the most efficient, common, and widely used instrument for measurement of
inclined displacement, which can be used in monitoring of infrastructure slopes. Mostly, dis-
placement with an inclinometer is not measured directly but it is calculating in form of strain.
Commonly used methods for strain-displacement conversion are conjugate beam method, beam
element method, trapezoidal integration method, and difference equation method and are

Table 7 Various FBG-based techniques for pressure sensing.
140 Nickel-plated FBG Able to monitor pressure Nickel coating by Thermoelectric

of 200 bar at 300°C electroless method power plant engines
146 FBG using FDM Pressure sensitivity of FBG fused inside Monitoring of soil
4.26 kPa∕pm achieved melted PLA pressure
141 Thin walled cylinder Pressure sensitivity of FBG pasted on —

0.079 nm∕MPa with circumference of
linearity of 0.999 was thin walled cylinder
achieved
145 Bourdon tube Pressure sensitivity of Bonded with epoxy Pipeline leakage
1.414 pm∕kPa in the range resin detection
of 0 to 1 MPa achieved
200 Rubber-based Pressure sensitivity of FBG bonded on Low-pressure

diaphragm 117.7 pm∕kPa for range rubber diaphragm detection
of 40 kPa was achieved
144 Thin film Static pressure of range FBG bonded on Monitoring of water
within 5 Pa with resolution thin film pressure in tank
of 2 Pa achieved
169 Plane diaphragm Pressure sensitivity of FBG pasted using Mining and civil
46.62 pm∕MPa achieved epoxy resin engineering
applications
201 Piston-like diaphragm Pressure responsivity of FBG encapsulated Pressure detection

7 nm∕MPa is achieved in metal cylinder in hydrophone
202 Femtosecond laser- Pressure range from 15 to FBG sealed in Fossil fuel and
induced 2000 psi was measured stainless steel tube nuclear energy
microstructured FBG at 800°C temperature application
203 Femtosecond laser- Hydrogen pressure sensor Palladium coating Hydrogen pressure
induced tapered-FBG having sensitivity of detection
0.15 pm∕kPa was obtained
for 0 to 780 kPa range
discussed in Ref. 147. Vibration sensing of structures is another aspect of monitoring displace-
ment, which again needs strain-displacement relation. In Ref. 148, structural vibrations were
monitored using four FBG with aluminum and acryl beam specimen where strain-displacement
relationship was formed.
Sensing of displacement at mili-, micro-, or nanoscale is difficult to achieve with high res-
olution. For instance monitoring of soil displacement as discussed in study149 was based on FBG
was developed for measurement of soil deformation. A single FBG fixed between two anchorage
plates was designed to sense minor displacement of soil deformation causing the two anchorage
plates to displace, which induces strain on the fiber Bragg grating. FBG was encased in PVC for
protection. FDM was used to fabricate the anchorage plate and fix FBG onto it. As discussed
earlier, FDM is a very easy and quick method to fabricate certain models or structures. Polyactic
acid was used as a raw material to make anchorage plates with FDM process. Calibration test
was also performed where range of FBG displacement was found to be 0 to 0.9 mm, and res-
olution of minimum displacement obtained was 0.0747 mm. The maximum displacement
obtained for horizontal direction was <0.03 mm using FBG-based displacement sensor. This
type of sensor can be used very effectively for indicating the flow of vehicles on road and also
the type of vehicle depending on the amount of wavelength shift. Fabrication of such sensor
greatly helps researchers and engineers for better understanding of soil underlying used in vari-
ous applications. Vertical displacement is very crucial and difficult to estimate for various heavy
structures such as buildings, dams, and bridges. Displacement measurement of long bridges can
be easily monitored using FBG and its distributed sensing property as discussed in Ref. 150,
where a set of FBG-differential settlement measurement sensors, connected by a hydrostatic

leveling system of communicating vessels were used for displacement measurements along a
large-scale prestressed concrete beam. This experiment was demonstrated on a highway bridge
in Taiwan.
Even in SHM of offshore structures such as wellheads, flow-lines, jumpers, and subsea mani-
folds, positioning of sensors becomes very vital for measurements because of complex struc-
tures. Therefore, FBG can be very helpful in maintaining the alignment of various sensors with
high precision,151 using cantilever beam with which displacement of microscale can be achieved.
The amount of displacement is calculated mathematically from the strain–wavelength relation
of FBG.
Next-generation robots are being developed using soft robotics, which generally involves
flexible actuators and structures. Soft robotics can be applied to various biomedical applications
such as prostheses or orthosis. In a biomedical area, stiffness reduction of robots is of prime
concern, which can be achieved by a series of elastic actuator conventionally. Similar output
can be obtained using polymer optical fiber-FBG reported in Ref. 152, where multiple FBG
written in CYTOP were employed in a series elastic actuator spring for displacement measure-
ment. Assessing the movement of joint in body is crucial in medical practice and the latest study
was conducted where stiffness and angular displacement of first metatarsophalangeal joint was
recorded using FBG and load cell.153 This technique opens up future investigation in the medical
field due to enhanced accuracy. For accurate results, high resolution is required, which can be
obtained using wavelength scanning laser,154 which works on scanning of radio frequency sig-
nal. This method measures displacement at a microscale level and gives resolution of nanometer
using two FBG, which forms FPI cavity. Similarly, a submicrometer resolution was obtained
along with additional advantage of no chirping failure caused due to FBG pasting process.
This was achieved in a study155 where T-shaped cantilever and wedge-shaped sliding block were
employed in the setup that helped in transferring the displacement to FBG sensor precisely. The
results showed resolution of 0.48 μm for 1 to 2 mm range. A nearly equal amount of resolution
of 0.495 was achieved in Ref. 155 again for submicron displacement using FBG. Also, temper-
ature compensation was provided by keeping a free FBG near to sensing FBG. Chirp phenome-
non was also removed in Ref. 156, using two FBG on two cylindrical rods prestretched.
Sensitivity of 3304.7 pm∕mm and resolution of 20 μm were achieved in this study. Apart from
SHM of various structures, FBG can also be used in biomechanical application such as displace-
ment monitoring of tendons and ligaments.157 Since conventional implantable transducers for
strain measurements on tendon or ligament are costly and difficult to implement, FBG serves as a
good alternate that is cheap and easy to implement. Variation in length of ligament and tendon
under load was measured using etched FBG embedded in microshaped memory alloy tube.
Table 8 compares various FBG-based displacement sensors.
6.7 FBG-Based Shape Sensing

Fiber Bragg grating has recently emerged in the area of shape sensing, which is very crucial in
medical applications. Biopsy, colonoscopy, cardiac procedures, and many more diagnostic pro-
cedures require accurate spatial information of instruments used on patients. Ultrasound and
fluoroscopy are also used in some cases such as in epidural administration, but these procedures
are harmful as the patient is exposed to radiation. Optical fiber sensors can be used as an alternate
to these methods that can provide better spatial information. Endoscopes and many catheters
comprise optical fiber that goes well with medical instruments as they are small in size and free
from radiation. A review on developments recently made in shape sensing using optical fiber is
present in Ref. 158. Placing of a catheter in epidural, urinary tract, displaying shape of colon, or
real-time imaging of needle shape involves critical shape monitoring, which can be achieved by
FBG sensor that can convert force arising between tissues while aiding the medical instrument.
Fiber Bragg gratings convert the change in curvature of fiber to wavelength shift given as159
ΔλB ¼ ki λB ð1 − Pe Þd∕2;
where ki is the curvature, Pe is the effective elastic coefficient of the fiber, ΔλB is the wavelength
change, and d is the distance of the fiber grating to the neutral plane.

Table 8 Various FBG-based techniques for displacement sensing.
Optical Engineering

204 FBG with linear variable As loading increased, cracks appeared and FBG is fixed in groove structure Dam displacement monitoring
displacement transformers displacement was obtained at the joint of dam model with epoxy resin
154 Hybrid fiber Bragg grating-FBI Sensitivity achieved for the proposed sensor is — Monitoring of microdisplacement
35.7 MHz∕μm with ultrahigh resolution
155 Wedge-shaped sliding block and Sensitivity of 2086.27 pm∕mm with high resolution Prestressed FBG bonded on Submicron deformation
T-shaped cantilever of 0.48 μm achieved frame from ends detection
205 Balloon-shaped bent single-mode Displacement sensitivity of −306 pm∕μm for range 0 Silica capillary tube encapsulation —
fiber in long period gratings to 80 μm was achieved

149 Anchorage plate and PVC tube Minimum displacement resolution of 0.0747 mm FBG sealed with PVC tube Soil deformation monitoring
060901-24
obtained for maximum displacement range of 0 to
0.9 mm
156 FBG in cylindrical rods Sensitivity of 3304.7 pm∕mm achieved with Prestressed FBG bonded from Crack monitoring
accuracy of 20 μm ends only
152 Elastic actuator spring using Sensitivity is increased by eight times using FBG pasted on spring with Flexible structures, soft robotics
CYTOP fiber CYTOP-based fiber grating thermoplastic glue
206 Three point bending technique For displacement of 6 mm and calibration factor of FBG bonded on beam Crack monitoring
−0.495 μm∕mm, wavelength shift of 12.12 nm was
obtained
150 Differential-settlement Able to measure displacement with fully loaded four Acrylate-coated FBG Bridge displacement monitoring
June 2020
measurement trucks encapsulated in container
•
Vol. 59(6)
In Ref. 63, a real-time shape monitoring FBG sensor was presented having space division
multiplex-wavelength division multiplex sensing network of 20 FBG for colonoscopy. Many
studies have been conducted using single-core FBG for shape sensing160 since they are cheap
but recently multicore FBG sensors have started replacing them even though they are more
expensive. The reason is smaller cross-section of multicore fibers that allow them to function
precisely in medical environment. Also, the shape sensing was earlier performed using three
fibers in triangular configuration161 on the structure, but it introduces certain error in measure-
ments due to change in core geometry, which now has been overcome by use of multicore fiber.
In multicore fiber, multiple single core fibers are mechanically coupled inside the fiber keeping
relative distance between them constant. In Ref. 162, multicore-based FBG was used in shape
sensing of flexible instruments used the in medical field. The strain induced on FBG is converted
to torsion, bend, or curvature for measurement of shape of instrument on which FBG is bonded.
The shape of instrument is usually obtained by solving Frenet–Serret equation,163 but this equa-
tion fails for shape sensing of flexible instruments since torsion is not defined in flexible struc-
tures. Parallel transport method164 and circle segment method165 were proposed to resolve this
problem. Also, in Ref. 166, using multicore FBG, flexible shape sensor for endovascular nav-
igation was designed. Tools required for robotics, biomedical for invasive surgery, or health
monitoring application need be to mechanically durable and therefore in Ref. 167, a polyimide
coated multicore FBG was proposed for shape sensing in harsh environment. The durability of
this sensor was made high by coating the fiber with polyimide and also by fabricating the gra-
tings using a femtosecond laser that mechanically strengthened the fiber sensor. To improve
shape reconstruction accuracy, which is critical in medical instrument, many algorithms are
implemented, such as piecewise constant curvature and torsion assumption with FBG.168
Recently, an updated reconstruction algorithm was proposed based on single-point recursive
reconstruction159 in which error in curvature calculations was greatly improved. Such algorithms
can be used not in medical applications but also in potential applications such as real-time meas-
urement of soil deformation or wing deformation structure.
7 Temperature Compensation Techniques in FBG

Fiber Bragg gratings are sensitive to all the external stimulus, such as temperature, strain, and
pressure at the same time. If strain is applied on FBG with varying ambient temperature, Eq. (16)
is obtained which indicates combined effect of temperature and strain:
ΔλB ¼ ½λB ð1 − Pe ÞΔε þ ½λB ðα þ ᶓÞΔT:

In Eq. (13), the second term induces additional shift in wavelength that will present mis-
calculated shift in Bragg wavelength. Therefore, problem of cross-sensitivity can occur, which
can create error in sensing the parameter of interest. Due to temperature cross-sensitivity of
FBGs, the wavelength shift of an FBG sensor is generally a coproduct temperature and the
parameter being measured. Therefore, temperature compensation is required. Below are a few
techniques described that were successfully performed by researchers in compensating
temperature.
In Ref. 169, FBG-based temperature compensated pressure sensor was designed using plane
diaphragm. In the sensor design, two FBG are used to separately calculate the wavelength shift of
temperature and pressure (with temperature effect also). The FBG for temperature measurement
only is connected to pressure sensing FBG through a coupler. Both FBG were placed very close
to each other so that the same magnitude of temperature can be recorded.
In Ref. 170, different encapsulation methods were discussed for temperature compensation.
In the first method, two similar FBG were pasted on the opposite side of elastomer, which would
result in positive and negative strain induced due to compressive and tensile strain. Also, the
wavelength shifts would include shift from temperature. The subtraction of both wavelength
shifts will result in shift from temperature, which can be thus removed. Another method is simply
the modification of the first method where the two FBG were prestretched before being pasted on
both sides of elastomer. Prestretching helps in removing the chirping phenomenon, which is
caused in FBG due to nonuniform distribution of strain. Second method showed better results.

Adding one reference FBG in close proximity to sensing FBG was also one method discussed
where reference FBG records the shift from temperature only as it is left free with no influence of
strain.
In Ref. 171, a discrimination technique for strain and temperature was implemented simply
by writing FBG over EDF’s core. FBG was written over EDF using phase mask technology after
the core of EDF was hydrogenated to increase photosensitivity. The gain of EDF is a linear
function of temperature. Therefore, as the temperature is varied, the dips in wavelength trans-
mission spectrum will vary linearly. Strain values are discriminated by the amount of shift in
wavelength. Temperature and strain sensitivities observed in this study were 12 pm∕°C and
0.8 pm∕μm, respectively.
In Ref. 172, temperature compensated pressure sensor was designed with pressure sensitivity
of 1.8 × 10−2 per MPa. Here, FBG was strained axially by surrounding pressure, and temper-
ature is compensated using effect of bimetal. Initially, FBG is tightly stretched and when temper-
ature rises, blueshift is produced. Thermally induced redshift compensates for the blueshift,
which results in pure pressure measurement.
In Ref. 173, Kalman filter was used to compensate the effect of temperature in FBG-based
manometer. Two FBG were used to construct a catheter for manometry, one for temperature only
and other for pressure sensing. Autoregression model was developed to compensate temperature
by fitting this model to the difference between the two signals from different FBG and using
Kalman filter corresponding coefficients were measured. Autoregression model estimates the
signal from the pressure signal measured and the difference signal, which is then added to the
temperature signal to estimate compensated signal.
In Ref. 174, Bragg gratings were inscribed in MOF and subsequently reduced thermal varia-
tion in Bragg wavelength. Temperature was compensated by adding a liquid of refractive index
having appropriate thermal dependence in the holes of MOF. Using this method, thermal var-
iations were reduced by a factor of 4 in a six-hole MOF for temperature >20°C.
In Ref. 47, CFBG was used to discriminate temperature with strain using it partially with
glass tube made of silica. A portion of longer grating of CFBG was embedded and attached with
silica tube, and the shorter grating portion was left uncovered. A glass tube made of silica has the
same temperature response as that of CFBG but does not respond to strain perturbations. Strain
response is given by unattached CFBG portion, which also include the combined response of
temperature. The temperature response from the attached glass tube can be subtracted from the
combined response of unattached CFBG will give only strain response.
In Ref. 175, an FBG strain sensor was proposed based on cantilever beam made of bimetallic
material to compensate temperature. Such a package sensor is very simple and compact, with no
additional circuitry or component involved. Such a sensor is able to reduce the wavelength shift
induced due to temperature by more than one order of magnitude. Two bimetallic strips of differ-
ent coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) were joined together in parallel, and FBG was
attached at two points (ends of FBG) onto the metal having lower CTE. Strain is transferred
from metal having higher CTE to metal having lower CTE and further transferred to FBG when
temperature is applied. Using this technique, temperature dependence of Bragg wavelength was
reduced by −0.4 pm∕°C.
8 Conclusion
Fiber Bragg gratings rapidly shifted from the interest of research laboratories to actual imple-
mentation in optical sensor systems after its development. It may become tough to think of sen-
sor systems without implementation of fiber Bragg gratings owing to its attractive features. In
this review paper, an overview of fundamentals of fiber Bragg gratings and its progress in design-
ing of sensor for various physical parameters, such as temperature, strain, pressure, liquid level,
refractive index, and displacement, was reviewed. Because of inherent advantages of FBG such
small size, high sensitivity, dynamic range, fast response, and electrical isolation, it becomes a
promising technology in area of sensing. Employing FBG along with other advance optical tech-
nologies will result in overall enhancement of sensor design in terms of sensitivity, performance,
cost, and size.

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Jasjot K. Sahota is a PhD research scholar at Punjab Engineering College (Deemed to be

University), Chandigarh. She received her BE degree in electronics and communication engi-
neering from U.I.E.T., Panjab University, in 2014 and her MTech degree in electronics and
communication engineering from Punjab Engineering College (Deemed to be University),
Chandigarh, in 2017. Her area of research includes optical sensing and communication. She
has contributed in a few scientific journals.
Neena Gupta is a professor in the Electronics and Communication Engineering Department at

Punjab Engineering College (Deemed to be University), Chandigarh. She is a senior member of
IEEE and has a vast teaching and research experience. She received her BE degree in electronics
and communication engineering in 1988 and her ME (electronics) degree from Punjab
University in 1992. She received her PhD from Punjab University in 2002 in optical commu-
nication. Her research interests include optical communication. She has contributed in various
journals and conferences.
Divya Dhawan is an associate professor in the Electronics and Communication Engineering

Department at Punjab Engineering College (Deemed to be University), Chandigarh. She
received her PhD in optical communication in 2017. Her research interests include optical
OFDM, passive optical networks, digital system design, and optical sensors. She has a number
of publications in optical communication. She is member of various technical societies, such as
IEEE (Electronic Devices), ISTE, and IEI.


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Fiber Bragg grating sensors for monitoring of physical

Jasjot K. Sahota,* Neena Gupta, and Divya Dhawan

*Address all correspondence to Jasjot K. Sahota, E-mail: jksahota91@gmail.com;

Optical Engineering 060901-1 June 2020 • Vol. 59(6)

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2 Theory of Fiber Bragg Gratings

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where σ is the dc (period averaged) coupling coefficient, dϕ

Fig. 2 Setup of internal inscription method.

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Fig. 3 Setup of interferometric method.

Fig. 4 Setup of phase mask technology.

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Fig. 5 Setup of point-by-point femtosecond laser inscription.

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Type of grating Grating structure Spectra Description

Uniform FBG Characterized by

Chirped FBG Grating period

changes linearly with

position causing broad

Long period grating Core mode couples

Tilted FBG Tilt in grating allows

with cladding mode

instead of core mode

resulting in fine comb

Phase-Shifted FBG A pi-phase

presented in the FBG

two FBG mirror

Super structure FBG Several FBGs are

Fig. 6 Various types of gratings.

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capability in enhancing sensing applications. Figure 6 differentiates various types of gratings in

3 Sensing Mechanism of FBG

Fig. 7 Wavelength shift due to external perturbation.

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4 Interrogation of FBG Sensor

5 Multiplexing in FBG Sensors

Fig. 8 Interrogation of FBG using OSA.

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6 Progress in FBG Sensor Design

6.1 FBG-Based Refractive Index Sensor

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Table 1 Various FBG-based techniques for refractive index sensing.

Reference Technique Inferences

177 Single-mode–multimode–single-mode Sensitivity of 7:33 nm∕RIU obtained for range

120 Micro-sapphire-FBG Refractive index measurement in range of 1 to 1.75 was

6.2 FBG-Based Strain Sensors

where ρa is the stress optic coefficient and is given as

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