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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

ALLAMA IQBAL

OPEN

UNIVERSITY

ISLAMABAD

ASSIGNMENT NO: 01

Submitted By Anila Zafar

Registration No 0000090833

Course Title Curriculum Development

Course Code 8603

Level B.ed( 1.5 years)

Semester Autumn 2021

Assignment No.1

(Units: 1-4)

Question No#1 What are the deficiencies in the existing curriculum of the grade VIII? Discuss

principles of curriculum construction and suggest strategies to upgrade the existing

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curriculum.

Answer:

Curriculum

Curriculum is a standards-based sequence of planned experiences where students practice and

achieve proficiency in content and applied learning skills. Curriculum is the central guide for all

educators as to what is essential for teaching and learning, so that every student has access to

rigorous academic experiences. The structure, organization, and considerations in a curriculum are

created in order to enhance student learning and facilitate instruction. Curriculum must include the

necessary goals, methods, materials and assessments to effectively support instruction and learning.

Goals

Goals within a curriculum are the standards-based benchmarks or expectations for teaching and

learning. Most often, goals are made explicit in the form of a scope and sequence of skills to be

addressed. Goals must include the breadth and depth to which a student is expected to learn.

Methods

Methods are the instructional decisions, approaches, procedures, and routines that teachers use to

engage all students in meaningful learning. These choices support the facilitation of learning

experiences in order to promote a student’s ability to understand and apply content and skills.

Methods are differentiated to meet student needs and interests, task demands, and learning

environment. Methods are adjusted based on ongoing review of student progress towards meeting

the goals. 

Materials

Materials are the tools selected to implement methods and achieve the goals of the curriculum.

Materials are intentionally chosen to support a student's learning. Material choices reflect student

interest, cultural diversity, world perspectives, and address all types of diverse learners.
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Assessment

Assessment in a curriculum is the ongoing process of gathering information about a student’s

learning. This includes a variety of ways to document what the student knows, understands, and can

do with their knowledge and skills. Information from assessment is used to make decisions about

instructional approaches, teaching materials, and academic supports needed to enhance

opportunities for the student and to guide future instruction.

DEFECIENCIES IN EXISTING CURRICULUM

Outdated version of curriculum:

To address issues problems curriculum development Pakistan, it would be wise to see our new

generation is getting the same level of knowledge as our previous generations were getting.

Because each new age demands extra or advanced form of knowledge. We should keep our

curriculum compatible with current needs of society.

Curriculum to compete with world

We need to compete with the world. We need a tech based syllabus that can fulfil our business

needs. We also need to make sure the unity and same implementation of curriculum in each

province. The persons who are in development process must be well capable and professional so

that a better form of curriculum we may have for our future generations.

Other deficiencies and problems in curriculum

The study showed that teachers used to face issues in English curriculum implementation at higher

secondary level schools such as lack of communication skill, inappropriate teacher trainings,

teaching method and methodology, multicultural society, lack of social and ethical development of

students, lack of teaching resources and aids, inappropriate assessment procedures, misalignment of

the content of textbook, insufficient institutional resources, inappropriate government policies

regarding curriculum implementation and immeasurability of students learning outcomes written in

curriculum document. 
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In curriculum development, we think about the type of learning experiences to be given to a child at

various age and grade levels. It needs systematic and sequential planning to widen the sphere of the

learning experience at each level by keeping in view the principles of integration and correlation.

The curriculum is usually concerned with two questions

1. What should we teach? What should be the content of education?

2. How should we organize it and how should we teach?

To answer these questions we should now discuss the principles of curriculum development.

PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

A curriculum must be established on the following principles:

(a) Suitability to the age and mental level of the children

What is to be given to the children in the form of learning experiences at a particular age and grade

level should suit their age and mental development. The capacity for understanding, how children

grow with age. The content of the study in any subject should be formed to suit their mental ability.

(b) According to the specific interests of students

Children will be able to learn better in fields where they have special tastes and inclination of the

mind. It is also found that at different stages of age groups, children have different interest patterns.

Interests of children also change according to circumstances and situations. Therefore learning

experiences should be designed to suit the interests and tastes of the age group of students.

(c) The curriculum should be environmentally centered

The content of the learning experiences for children should be linked with the needs of the

environment in which they live. For example, children from rural areas can understand and grasp

easily the information which is directly concerned with their experiences in their own rural

environment.

The same thing applies to children in a various environments like urban areas, hilly areas, etc.

(d) The principle of the comprehensive curriculum

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The curriculum must have the necessary details. List of topics to be covered does not solve the

purpose.

Both teachers and students should know clearly what is expected of them, what is the beginning and

what is the end of the topic for the particular class. Material, aids, activities, life situations etc.

should be listed in the curriculum.

(e) Principle of co-relation

The curriculum should be such that all the subjects are correlated with each other. While designing

the curriculum, it must be kept in mind that the subject matter of various subjects has some relation

to each other so that they help the child eventually.

(f) The principle of practical work

Children are very active by nature. They like new things and can learn more by doing or by activity

method. Therefore curriculum should be designed in such a way that it provides maximum

opportunity to the child for practical work with the help of concrete things.

(g) Principle of flexibility

Instead of being rigid curriculum should show the sign of flexibility. The organization of the

curriculum should be on the basis of individual differences as every child is different from the other.

Apart from these conditions of society go on changing, therefore, the curriculum must be flexible

enough to address the needs as aspirations of the society.

(h) Principle of forward-looking

This principle asks for the inclusion of those topics, content and learning experiences that may

prove helpful to the students in leading their future life in a proper way.

(i) The principle of consultation with teachers

Teachers play a key role in the implementation of the school curriculum of any grade or stage. It is

therefore quite essential to seek the proper involvement of the teachers in the construction and

development of the school curriculum.

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(j) The principle of the joint venture

It is necessarily a joint venture where various experts are involved like educational psychologists,

educational technologists, curriculum specialists, evaluation specialists, teachers, subject matter

experts etc.

(k) The principle of availability of time and other resources

Curriculum is the means to realize the outcomes of the educational objectives of the school.

Implementation of the curriculum is equally important as curriculum construction. While

developing curriculum experts should also keep its implementation in mind. They should be aware

of the conditions of the schools and possible availability of time and resources available.

STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE CURRICULUM

Here are some of the ways to improve existing curriculum:

 Staff Development: the District reserves an amount of the basic revenue to provide staff

opportunities to attend workshops and in-services to improve their teaching practices.

 Teaching strategies are methods and techniques that a teacher will use to support their pupils or

students through the learning process; a teacher will chose the teaching strategy most suitable to

the topic being studied, the level of expertise of the learner, and the stage in their learning

journey.

-----------------------------------------------Q#1 THE END--------------------------------------------------

Question No#2 Define the concept of content selection in curriculum development. Discuss the

different elements which usually affect the selection of curricular contents.

Answer:

SELECTION AND ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULUM CONTENT

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Curriculum design is deciding about the ‘shape’ of a curriculum plan. It involves selection of

content in line with the goals and objectives of the curriculum. The selected content will have to be

arranged in a form that will help teacher in choosing and organizing appropriate learning

experiences for the classroom. In this case, the focus of curriculum design based on selection and

organization of content (or subject matter) for learners and learning experiences (activities).

Obviously, the selection of content and learning experiences will be based on sound theoretical

framework. Criteria for the Selection of Subject-matter or Content of the Curriculum According to

Ornstein & Hunkins (1998) the selection of subject matter for curriculum employs the seven criteria

below.

1. Self-sufficiency

To help learners attain maximum self-sufficiency in the most economical manner is the main

guiding principle of subject matter or content selection. Although the economy of learning implies

less teaching effort and less use of educational resources, students gain more results. They can cope

up with the learning outcomes effectively. This criterion means that students should be given a

chance to experiment, observe, and do field study. This system allows them to learn independently.

With this principle in mind, when the students return, they should present outputs from the activity.

2. Significance

The subject matter or content is significant if it is selected and organized for the development of

learning activities, skills, processes, and attitude. It also develops the three domains of learning

namely the cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills and considers the cultural aspects of the

learners. Particularly, if your students come from different cultural backgrounds and races, the

subject matter must be culture-sensitive. In short, select content or subject matter that can achieve

the overall aim of the curriculum.

3. Validity

Validity refers to the authenticity of the subject matter or content you selected. Make sure that the
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topics are not obsolete. For example, do not include typewriting as a skill to be learned by college

students. It should be about the computer or Information Technology (IT). Thus, there is a need to

check regularly the subject matter or contents of the curriculum, and replace it if necessary.

4. Interest

This criterion is true to the learner-centered curriculum. Students learn best if the subject matter is

meaningful to them. It becomes meaningful if they are interested in it. However, if the curriculum is

subject-centered, teachers have no choice but to finish the pacing schedule religiously and only

teach what is in the book. This approach explains why many fail in the subject.

5. Utility

Another criterion is the usefulness of the content or subject matter. Students think that a subject

matter or some subjects are not important to them. They view it useless. As a result, they do not

study.

6. Learnability

The subject matter or content must be within the schema of the learners. It should be within their

experiences. Teachers should apply theories in the psychology of learning to know how subjects are

presented, sequenced, and organized to maximize the learning capacity of the students.

7. Feasibility

Feasibility means full implementation of the subject matter. It should consider the real situation of

the school, the government, and the society, in general. Students must learn within the allowable

time and the use of resources available. Do not give them a topic that is impossible to finish.

FACTORS WHICH AFFECT SELECTION OF CONTENT

A second element is the content of the curriculum. It contains information to be learned at school. It

is an element or a medium through which the objectives are accomplished. Content or subject

matter refers to the body of knowledge that the student will take away when the course is done. It
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must assure that the curriculum objectives are properly met.

One of the important considerations is the selection of content for a subject. At the time of subject

matter selection, the following factors are to be kept in mind:

1. Available sources and resources

2. Demand of the society

3. International needs

4. Level and age of the learner or student

5. Methods of content organization

6. Number of courses offered

7. Quantity and qualification of teaching staff

8. Scope of subject matter

9. System of examination

10. Type of society and culture

In organizing the learning contents, balance, articulation, sequence, integration, and continuity of

the subject matter to develop a sound content.

Scope

Scope refers to both the breadth and depth of content and includes all topics, learning experiences

and organizing threads found in the curriculum plan. Scope not only to cognitive learning but also

affective learning and some would argue spiritual learning.

Content of the curriculum is a critical phase in the curriculum-development process. Even if all the

steps are followed in the development process, it is when the curriculum is implemented that it

becomes clear whether or not the objectives have been met and to what degree the students have

made progress academically. This is a meaningful, but complicated process.

--------------------------------------------------Q#2 THE END-------------------------------------------------

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Question No#3 "Economic Foundations of Curriculum can accelerate the development".

Justify this statement with specific arguments.

Answer:

FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

Foundations are the forces that influence the minds of curriculum developers.

In this way they affect the content and structure of the curriculum. The five most important

foundations of the curriculum are;

1.      Philosophical foundation of Curriculum

2.      Psychological foundations of Curriculum

3.       Socio Cultural Foundation of Curriculum

4.       Historical Foundations of Curriculum

5.       Economical Foundations of Curriculum

Economical Foundations

Economic foundation of education refers to those factors of individual and collective economic

development which are considered during the formulation of a system of education for a nation.

A struggle for the fulfillment of material needs of the individuals is the fundamental subject of

economics. Education develops the potentials and abilities of the individuals for the fulfillment of

these needs. It can be clearly seen that there is a close relationship between education and

economies. Education is playing important role to control unemployment throughout the

world ’’One of the best ways to tackle youth unemployment and to support economic and social

growth is through education''

It focuses on:

•        Job or market oriented curriculum

•        Skill learning
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The economical foundation of curriculum gives importance to the vocational aspect of the

curriculum. The economic  condition of a nation or a society guide the curriculum of the country,

because the stakeholder of the education wants to employ such a curriculum which help them to

build their economy and the people have better jobs when they finish their schooling. In this kind of

situations the curriculum become job or market oriented. In this curriculum the curriculum

developer gives importance to skills acquisition which is the demands of the time.

Relationship between Education and Economies

Education paves the way to the fulfillment of the economic needs of the individual and society. This

close relationship between education and economic needs has been acknowledged by the leading

educational economists of the world.

Education trains the individual of the society and. prepares them participate in the economic-

oriented activities in the society. This training provides necessary skillful manpower.

A trained and skillful society is, basically a economically stable society.

Research in education has brought about many new theories of economic development. These

theories have opened new vistas of economic growth.

Education uplifts the standard of living of the individuals.

Economic prosperity leads to the social stability. All these changes are the product of education. A

financially satisfied person performs his social role effectively and efficiently.

Scope of economic foundation education

Education economics or the economics of education is the study of economic issues relating to

education, including the demand for education, the financing and provision of education, and the

comparative efficiency of various educational programs and policies. From early works on the

relationship between schooling and labor market outcomes for individuals, the field of the

economics of education has grown rapidly to cover virtually all areas with linkages to education.

IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION ON THE ECONOMY

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Education is one of the key drivers of growth performance, prosperity, and competitiveness in

national and global economies.

Universities and other institutions not only deliver tertiary education and ongoing skills training, but

also provide a bustling research environment that produces innovations with valuable commercial

applications. There are many importances of economic education such as.

1) Create a Quality Workforce

The modern workplace is in a constant state of evolution. Even within the last decade, job roles and

the skills required to succeed in them have changed enormously, with technological

advancements being a key factor. The higher education sector is pivotal in

delivering training to student at all stages of their careers.

2) Drive Innovation

A key role of education institutions is to drive innovation, with the aim of finding solutions to

global challenges in areas that matter to society. The wider economy benefits from university

research and innovation as it drives investment. 

3) Increase Employability

Higher education institutions are critically important here. Universities should be proactive in

arranging opportunities for current students to develop industrial expertise through work experience

and internships.

Thus it is justified that economic foundation of education or curriculum can accelerate the

development.

Here are some economical factor which influence the curriculum development process

Economic Factors

1. Allocation of funds

 The financial condition of a country reflects its curriculum because without proper funding one

can’t achieve the outcome of a good curriculum. It is the financial aspect of a country which guide
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them to adopt which type of curriculum, for example activity base or learner center curriculum need

more money in the process of the implementation of the curriculum then subject matter

curriculum.                                                                                                                                

Because activity base and learner center curriculum need more space and money then subject

matter, for that reason in Pakistan we adopted subject base curriculum because we have shortage of

schools, classrooms in schools, trained teachers. In economical sound countries they have

implemented all kind of curriculums in their schools according to the need of the school and that

society. Without proper funding once can’t implement a good curriculum in the country and achieve

the benefits of that curriculum.

Lack of resources due to finical constrains effect the developing and planning of the curriculum.

There are different factor in curriculum development, planning and implementation process which

need financial support e.g. Schools lack physical facilities including buildings, classrooms,

furniture, Hostel, Play grounds, mats and even very basic necessities like blackboard, chalk, and

charts. Lack of other resources water, Fan, Electricity

Lack of skilled manpower

The lack of skilled manpower due to financial restrains, without proper financial support it is hard

to train the people to support the teaching learning process. Only through proper funding and the

establishment of training institutions for teachers and support staff. Teachers are the core of

education system and without proper training one can’t implement a curriculum and to support the

curriculum one need to train the entire teacher on that style of curriculum. To develop skills in the

teachers need funds.

Lack of labs due to financial problems

The lack of labs and libraries also affect the curriculum development process because without

proper computer labs in cities and villages one can’t implement computer education curriculum all

over the country. In the same way without proper libraries in all school one can’t implement a
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curriculum which needs supporting or reference books.

Also without proper health care system in the schools lot of activities can’t part of the curriculum

due to the risk factor to the health of the students and teachers.

The overburden of the population is also one of the factors that affect the financial support of the

curriculum development, lack of facilities and implementation of the curriculum in the country.

In short we can say that economic play a vital role in the curriculum development and

implementation process in the country and it is the foundation of the successful curriculum, without

a good economic background a country can’t afford a curriculum which needs huge financial

support. 

-------------------------------------------------Q#3 THE END--------------------------------------------------

Question No#4 Prepare guidelines for writing textbooks of grade II learner.

Answer:

Once students reach 2nd grade, they’re often ready to accelerate their learning. That’s because at

this point, they've adjusted to the more rigorous learning environment initially encountered in 1st

grade, and are able to further expand their skills and knowledge in every subject area.

In 2nd grade, your child becomes a more experienced writer and reader by practicing their skills in

more complex and comprehensive ways. Students read bigger and more complicated books, and

write longer and more in-depth pieces.

Guiding Principles for Textbooks

Students can learn in different environments and through different ways. Learning may take place

beyond the boundary of textbooks and the classroom; it may take place through a diversity of

learning materials and experiences. Though textbooks are not the only learning resources, they still
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play an important role in student learning. Textbooks are not only teaching materials for teachers,

but also students’ self-directed learning materials for preparation and revision purposes.

Quality textbooks, including both printed and electronic textbooks (e-textbooks), which support a

learner-focused curriculum, contain the core elements of the subject curriculum, as well as learning

strategies useful for the study of the subject. Being important sources of reading for students,

quality textbooks help develop students’ ability to learn through reading. The amount and quality of

the texts to be included therefore deserve greater attention. Other desirable features of a good

textbook include interactivity, the ability to arouse the interest of students, and the capacity to

actively engage and involve them in the learning process. In other words, good textbooks tell,

involve and interact with students.

The purposes of developing the Guiding Principles for Quality Textbooks are -

  to provide criteria for teachers in selecting quality textbooks for their students;

 to serve as a reference for textbook writers and developers of learning materials

The Guiding Principles include criteria for quality textbooks in areas such as Content, Learning and

Teaching, Structure and Organisation, Language, Textbook Layout.

Following are the guidelines for writing textbooks:

A textbook of a particular subject area manifests or translates the four components of the curriculum

(aims, content, learning/teaching strategies, assessment) for the purpose of student learning.

 The aims, targets and objectives align with those laid down in the relevant curriculum or subject

guide.

 The content is self-contained and sufficient to address effectively the learning targets of the

curriculum without requiring the use of additional supplementary materials associated with the

textbooks. The core elements of the subject curriculum are included. No superfluous information is

covered, in order to leave room for students to learn how to learn.

 The content is current. Information and data are relevant and accurate. The sources of information
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are appropriately indicated.

 Concepts are correct and precise. Ideas are coherent. There are adequate examples and illustrations.

Such examples and illustrations are interesting and relevant to students’ experience. In the

development of concepts, new ones are built on old ones and are introduced when and where

appropriate.

 There is an appropriate balance between depth and breadth in the treatment of the subject content.

 The level of difficulty of the content is consistent with the curriculum requirements and the

cognitive level of students.

 Appropriate consideration is given to students’ prior knowledge and learning experience. There is

continuity in the development of concepts and skills to facilitate a smooth transition between

different key stages of learning / year levels. Connections between related topics or concepts are

highlighted. There is no unnecessary repetition in content.

 There is no bias in content, such as over-generalisation and stereotyping. The content and

illustrations do not carry any form of discrimination on the grounds of gender, age, race, religion,

culture, disability etc., nor do they suggest exclusion.

 To encourage and facilitate students to read larger amounts of materials on their own, selected

further reading lists or related websites are included to let students read extensively. An index is

included to make easy reference.

--------------------------------------------------Q#4 THE END-------------------------------------------------

Question No#5 Explain briefly the approaches adopted for the development of educational

objectives.

Answer:

Over the years many theories have been developed to examine the processes involved in learning. 

Most learning theories concentrate on the significance for the way that learning is delivered.
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There are many different ways of learning both formally and informally: as part of a group, such as

in a classroom setting, one-to-one, such as in a mentoring or coaching arrangement, and self-

learning. Furthermore people learn differently at different times in their lives and in different

circumstances.

APPROACHES OF EDUCATION/LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Basically there are two approaches: either start by selecting content or topics that what you want

students to know (the cognitive approach) or start with what you want students to do (the behavioral

approach). In effect the cognitive approach moves from the general to the specific, and the

behavioral approach does the opposite. Each approach has advocates, as well as inherent strengths

and problems. In practice, teachers often combine or alternate between them in order to give

students some of the advantages of each.

These learning approaches are:

 The Behavioral Approach

which is concerned with learners responding to some form of stimulus.

 The Cognitive Approach

based on knowledge and knowledge retention.

Behavioral Approach to Learning

This approach to learning is based on the idea that learners respond to stimuli in their environment.  

The role of the learning facilitator, therefore, is to provide relevant and useful stimuli so that the

learner responds to and gains the required knowledge or experience.

Compared to the cognitive approach, the behavioral approach to instructional planning reverses the

steps in planning. Instead of starting with general goal statements accompanied by indicator

examples, it starts with the identification of specific behaviors—concrete actions or words—that

students should perform or display as a result of instruction. Collectively, the specific behaviors

may describe a more general educational goal, but unlike the indicators used in the cognitive
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approach, they are not a mere sampling of the possible specific outcomes. Instead they represent all

the intended specific outcomes.

The behavioral approach to learning centres around the belief that appropriate behaviour can be

taught through constant repetition of a task combined with feedback from the facilitator.  Positive

feedback encourages and reinforces success while negative feedback and immediate correction

discourages the repetition of a mistake or undesirable behaviour.

One of the main ways to use the behavioural approach to learning in training and teaching is to

specify clear behavioural objectives at the start and then supply learning opportunities that ensure

that the objectives are met. The approach is also based on the view that there is one right way, one

truth that the student needs to learn, and that knowledge is the same for all learners.  For this reason

it emphasizes teacher or trainer control; the trainer employs external reinforcement to motivate and

encourage trainees to reach the stated objectives.

A more recent proponent of the behavioral approach can be found in the work of Gagné.  In his

theory of instruction, Gagné suggests that learning takes place in a hierarchical way.  He proposes

an eight-stage model, each stage of which is associated with a type of learning that influences the

way that instruction is delivered.  Gagne says that learning at one level is only possible if learning at

a previous level has already taken place. 

Behavioral objectives have obvious advantages because of their clarity and precision. They seem

especially well suited for learning that by their nature they can be spelled out explicitly and fully,

such as when a student is learning to drive a car, to use safety equipment in a science laboratory, or

install and run a particular computer program. Most of these goals, as it happens, also tend to have

relatively short learning cycles, meaning that they can be learned as a result of just one lesson or

activity, or of just a short series of them at most. Such goals tend not to include the larger, more

abstract goals of education. In practice, both kinds of goals—the general and the specific—form a

large part of education at all grade levels.

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Cognitive Approach to Learning

Behaviorist theories of learning essentially stress the importance of the assertiveness of the tutor,

and the passive participant who is not given a great deal of choice other than to respond in a

predetermined way. In contrast cognitive theories are concerned with the role of the active mind in

processing learning opportunities and developing. 

The cognitive approach assumes that teachers normally have a number of long-term, general goals

for students, and it begins with those goals. It also assumes that each student work toward long-

term, general goals along different pathways and using different styles of learning. Because of these

assumptions, it is necessary to name indicators, which are examples of specific behaviors by which

students might show success at reaching a general learning goal. But it is neither desirable nor

possible for a list of indicators to be complete—only for it to be representative.

Using a strictly cognitive approach to planning, therefore, a teacher’s job has two parts. First she

must identify, find, or choose a manageable number of general goals—perhaps just a half dozen or

so. Then the teacher must think of a handful of specific examples or behavioral indicators for each

goal. Then, at last, thoughtful planning for individual lessons or activities can begin. This approach

works especially well for learning goals that are relatively long-term—goals that take many lessons,

days, or weeks to reach. During such long periods of teaching, it is impossible to specify the exact,

detailed behaviors that every student can or should display to prove that he or she has reached a

general goal. It is possible, however, to specify general directions toward which all students should

focus their learning and to explain the nature of the goals with a sample of well-chosen indicators or

examples.

The work of two well-known classical cognitive theorists is summarized below:

John Dewey

Dewey (1938) believes learning involves 'learning to think'.  He says the process of learning is more

than doing a task or activity; it also requires reflection and learning from this.  To Dewey, the
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purpose of thought is attaining a state of equilibrium, enabling an individual to solve problems and

to prepare them for further inquiry. 

Often associated with 'progressive education', Dewey rejected traditional forms of education based

on the reinforcement of information where the student has a passive role, suggesting that this type

of learning was superficial.  He said that learning only occurs if the student plays an active role in

the process.  For learning to take place it must be meaningful to each individual, with students

critically reflecting on information presented; they have to be able to 'experience' the information

and the way to facilitate this is to draw on past experience.  It could be argued, therefore, that

Dewey was one of the foremost proponents of experiential learning. 

Teachers or trainers employing Dewey's approach to learning play a key role in learner's

development, but in a more indirect way than that implied in the behaviourist model.  For example,

planning sessions that encourage interaction with the material presented and reflective thinking, as

well as creating a climate whereby students or trainees can structure their own learning.

B. S. Bloom

Another theorist who developed the cognitive approach, Bloom, considered learning occurred in

both the ‘cognitive domain’, that associated with memory and understanding, and the ‘affective

domain’, how feelings or emotions change as a result of learning.  Bloom suggests that parallel

learning between the cognitive and the affective domains takes place in a cumulative way

depending of the degree of difficulty.  The degree to which learners use the cognitive and affective

domains will depend on the individual.

The cognitive, general-to-specific approach is reasonable on the face of it, and in fact probably

describes how many teachers think about their instructional planning.

---------------------------------------------------Q#5 THE END-------------------------------------------------