BIOLOGY

CHAPTER 3: TRANSPORT
DEFINITION
Transport is the movement of substances from one part of an organ or organism to another.

Importance of transport

1. It enables plants to absorb water and mineral salts from the soil.
2. It carries oxygen from the organ of respiration to the cells.
3. It enables uniform distribution of water, salts and other substances in the body.
4. It carries waste product of metabolism to excretory organs.
5. It t carries digested food from the site of production to areas where needed.
6. It ensures even distribution of heat throughout the body of an organism.
7. It carries hormones from endocrine glands to target organs.
8. The transport system plays a role in defending an organism from infections.

I- TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
Substances are transported from one area of the plant to another by the vascular bundles made up of
xylem and phloem. Xylem transports water and mineral salts while Phloem transports food
substances.

Uptake of water and mineral salts by plants.

a) Uptake of water.

Water moves from the soil to the root hair, the root, the stem and finally to the leaves which are the target
organs. This is done as follows,
- The sap of root hair is more concentrated than water in the soil thus, water moves from the soil to
the root hair by osmosis under the influence of osmotic pressure.
- The adjacent cells become less concentrated compared to the cells in the root hair making water to
move from the root hair into the root by osmosis and this occurs in three ways:
 Some water move along cell walls and is called apoplast pathway,
 Some water move in the cytoplasm and is called symplast pathway,
 The rest of the water move from the vacuole to vacuole and is called vacuolar pathway.
These three pathways finally carry water to the xylem vessels of the root.
- Water is carried to the xylem vessel of the root to the xylem vessel of the stem by root pressure.
As water accumulates in the xylem vessel of the stem, three forces push water through the stem to
the leaves. These forces are:
 Cohesion force which is the force that binds water molecules to one another making movement
easy.
 Adhesion force which is the force of attraction between water molecules and the walls of the
xylem.
 Transportation pull which is the force exerted when water is lost through the stomata of
leaves by transpiration.

b) Uptake of mineral salts.

Mineral salts are obtained in the soil in the form of soluble ions. This is done in two ways: passive
transport and active transport.

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i) Passive transport.
The concentration of mineral salts in the soil is greater than that in the cell sap of root hair therefore
mineral salts move into the plant by diffusion.

ii) Active transport.

The concentration of mineral salts already in the root hair is higher than that in the soil but root hair
absorb the mineral salt against concentration gradient using energy from ATP.

Translocation
This is the process by which soluble food substances like glucose, amino acids etc. are transported from
the leaves to other parts of the plant like storage organs, growing region. This is done by the phloem.
Phloem contains pores in which food moves easily down the plant.

Experiment to demonstrate translocation: The ringing experiment

Aim: to show that phloem transport food downward from the leaves.
Materials: a mature tree, a knife.
Procedure: the bark of a tree is cut such that it makes a ring. The plant is allowed for few weeks.
Results:
After a few weeks the ringed region is seen to swell above the ring than the lower part of the stem at the
base of the ring. The leaves and branches are still fresh
Explanation:
The fact that the leaves and the branches are still fresh show that water is conductor from the roots and
distributed the rest of the plant. The upper part swells because food is transported downward by the phloem
but could not go beyond the cut area since there is no phloem to transport food. Food accumulates above
the cut region leading to swelling.
Conclusion:
Phloem transports food downward from the leaves.
Setup:

Importance of translocation.

1. It provides the growing of plants with proteins for growth and formation of new tissues.
2. It supplies the vacuole with sugar which enables plants to take in water by osmosis.
3. It provides plants with glucose for the production of energy.
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4. It transports variable materials for storage as food.

Transpiration.
It is the loss of water vapour to the atmosphere from the living cells and tissues of plants.

Types of transpiration.
There are three types of transpirations.

1. Stomatal transpiration: It is loss of water vapour through the stomata of leaves.

2. Cuticular transpiration: It is the loss of water vapour through the upper surfaces of leaves called
cuticle.
3. Lenticular transpiration: It is the loss of water vapour from lenticels of stems and fruits.
Lenticels: are small holes on the surface of some tissues of stems and roots.

Guttation.
It is the process by which water is lost from the leaves of plants in the form of water droplets. It usually
occurs in herbaceous plants where the root pressure is high and transpiration rate is low. Water is forced
out of the leaves in the form of droplets from the margin or tips of leaves. Guttation takes place in
specialised pores called hydathods situated at the end of veins.

Differences between transpiration and guttation.

Transpiration Guttation
Usually occurs in the day. At night and early hours of the morning.
Water is lost in the form of vapour. Water is lost in the form of droplets.
Only pure water is lost. Water lost contain organic and inorganic
compounds.
Water lost is true stomata, lenticels and cuticle. Water lost is through hydathods.
It reduces the temperatures of transpiring surfaces. No such relationship is seen.

II- TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS

Introduction.
Animals are multicellular organisms whose surface area to volume ratio is very low. Most of their cells
are far away from the surface but they need nutrients. Diffusion alone is insufficient to carry these nutrients
and other materials to the cells. For effective transport of these materials to all body parts, animals need a
transport system called the circulatory system which carries water, food, oxygen, waste product of
metabolism, etc. these substances are carried by blood around the body in blood vessels. In human, the
circulatory system is said to be closed because other organs of the body are not in direct contact with blood
since blood moves in blood vessels.

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BLOOD
Blood is a red tissue fluid found in the body of man and some other animals. Blood is also called a
connective tissue because it provides communication between cells and other parts of the body.

Components of blood.
Blood has two main component namely; blood plasma and blood cells.

i) Blood plasma

Blood plasma is the liquid part of blood which is yellowish in colour. It is made up of the following:
- Blood proteins like fibrinogen, prothrobin, antibodies, albumin etc.
- Food substances like glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol and oxygen.
- Dissolved minerals like chloride ion (Cl-), hydrogen carbonate (HCO3), Potassium ion (K+),
sodium ion (Na+), calcium ion (Ca2+), etc.
- Enzymes for metabolic activities.
- Hormones which help to regulate the body’s growth rate, temperature, level of sugar in blood and
reproduction.
- Bile pigment like bilirubin, biliverdin which gives odour to my faeces.

ii) Blood cells

There are two types of blood cells found in blood namely: red blood cells (RBCs) and white blood
cells (WBCs). These blood cells are produced in the bone marrow of mature bones. In the foetus,
blood cells are produced in the liver. The process of blood formation is called haemopoeisis.

a) Red blood cells (RBCs)

They are also called erythrocytes. They are formed in the red bone marrow of adults in the process
called erythropoiesis. A healthy adult has about 5 to 5.5 litres of blood in the body with about 5000
to 5500 red blood cells per cm3 of blood (5000-5500/cm3).

Characteristics of red blood cells

1. They are red in colour due to the presence of an iron pigment called haemoglobin.
2. They have a biconcave shape to increase surface area for easy diffusion of gases.
3. They lack a nucleus at maturity to provide enough shape for accumulation of haemoglobin.
4. They are small in size and elastic in nature to enable them move easily in blood vessels with the
smallest diameter.
5. They have a moist, thin and partially permeable membrane to reduce the distance over which gases
will diffuse.
6. They have an average lifespan of 120 days after which they are destroyed in the spleen.

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Structure of red blood cells

b) White blood cells (WBCs).

They are also called leucocytes. They are also found in bone marrow of matured bone. Their main role is
to defend the body against pathogens and other foreign bodies. They increase in number when a foreign
body or pathogen gets into the blood system.

Characteristics of white blood cells.

1. They are colourless.
2. They have a nucleus at all stages.
3. They are irregular (amoeboid) in shape.
4. They are smaller in number compared to RBCs i.e. 1:600WBCs/cm3.
5. They have a short lifespan of 13-20 days after which they are destroyed in the lymphatic system.

Classification of white blood cells.

White blood cells are grouped into two major groups depending on whether they have granule in their
cytoplasm or not. White blood cells whose cytoplasm have granules is called granulocytes while white
blood cells whose cytoplasm have no granules is called agranulocytes.

1. Granulocytes
There are three types of granulocytes:

i) Neutrophil
They are phagocytes, i.e. they engulf and digest foreign bodies. They have a U-shaped nucleus which is
trilobed.

Neutrophil

ii) Eosinophil

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They play a role of detoxification i.e. they render harmful substances harmless. Their granules are stained
red they pigment called eosin. They are bilobed.

Eosinophil
iii) Basophil
They function by producing two important substances namely
Heparin which is an anticlotting protein and; Histamine for inflammations.
They have a lobe and their granules are stained blue with the pigment called methylene.

Basophil

2. Agranulocytes
There are two types of agranulocytes.

i) Monocytes.
They are also phagocytic and are present in large quantities in the lymphatic system.

ii) Lymphocytes.
Lymphocytes could be T-lymphocytes or B-lymphocytes which produce a large amount of antibodies
that react with antigens in a specific way to fight infections.

Platelets.
There are also called thrombocytes. They are fragments of blood cells found in the bone marrow. They
perform two major roles.
- They ensure blood clotting.
- They protect the body against the entry of dirts and microbes.
NB: A reduction in the number of platelets in blood leads to clotting disorder and excessive bleeding when
one is injured.
People whose blood doesn’t clot lack platelets thus suffer from a disease condition called haemophilia.

Mechanism of blood clotting.

- When you wound yourself, blood vessels are damaged and blood flows out of the wound.
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- The enzyme called thrombokinase (thromboplastin) is released from the breakdown of platelets
on exposure to air.
- Inactive prothrombin is converted to thrombin in the presence of calcium ion.
- Thrombin converts soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin.
- Fibrin forms a network of fibres of mesh that prevents any entry of bacteria and further bleeding.
The clot that forms later dries up to form a scab which after peeled off becomes a scar.

Differences between white blood cells and red blood cells.

Red blood cells White blood cells

They are called erythrocytes
They have a biconcave shape
Small in size (varies from 6-8µm in diameter)
Lifespan of about 120 days
Do not have a nucleus at maturity
Red in colour due to the presence of haemoglobin
Only one type of red blood cell exists
Help in the transport of respiratory gases to the different Help in producing antibodies to fight against disease-
parts of the body
They are produce in the red bone marrow
Its components are haemoglobin
Low count results in anaemia
They make up around 36-50% the human blood
They are called leucocytes
They have an irregular or amoeboid shape.
Large in size (varies from 12-17µm in diameter)
Lifespan is around 12-20 days
Characterised by the presence of a large central
nucleus
Colourless as they do not have any pigment.
Different types of white blood cells are found in
blood
causing microbes
They are produce in the red bone marrow, lymph
nodes and spleen
Its components are antibodies with the presence of
MHC antigen cell markers
Low counts results in leukopenia
They make up around 1% of the human blood

Functions of blood
The functions of blood are grouped under three main headings as transport, protection and regulation.

i) Transport
- Blood transports oxygen which combines with haemoglobin to target tissues for cell activities and
carbon dioxide from tissues as bicarbonate to the lungs for secretion.
- Soluble end product of digestion like glucose, amino acids etc. are carried by blood from the
intestines to cells that use them or storage organs e.g. liver.
- Waste product of metabolism from tissues are carried to the kidney and other secretory organs for
elimination.
- Blood carry hormones from ductless glands to target organs.
- Antibodies and white blood cells which help for protection against infections are carried
throughout by blood.

ii) Protection
- Leucocytes are the body’s natural defenders that produce antibodies to attack and destroy foreign
bodies.
- During an injury, platelets produce a clot which prevents further bleeding and also spot bacteria
from entering the womb.
- Phagocytes engulf and digest microbes making the body free from microbes.

NB: Dead tissues phagocytes and bacteria accumulate to form pus.

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iii) Regulation
- Heat produced in the body is evenly distributed by blood throughout the body.
- Blood ensures a constant maintenance of water content in the body in a process called
osmoregulation.
Blood vessels.
There are three main types of blood vessels namely: arteries, veins and capillaries.

1. Arteries: They are blood vessels that carry blood from the heart to other parts of the body. Their
walls are made up of three layers: outer layer, middle layer and inner layer (endothelium).
Arteries carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary and umbilical arteries that carry deoxygenated
blood. Arteries lack valves thus, transport blood under high pressure.

2. Veins: They are blood vessels that carry blood from tissue and organs to the heart. Veins also have
three layers but the middle layer is smaller compared to arteries. Veins have valves to prevent
backflow of blood. Blood flows in veins with low pressure.

3. Capillaries: They are the smallest vessels with thick layers which are readily permeable to water,
dissolved food and waste product. Their diameter is changeable i.e. their diameter can become
wide in a process called vasodilation or reduced in a process called vasoconstriction. These
process help to maintain a constant body temperature.

Differences between arteries, veins and capillaries.

Arteries Veins Capillaries
Blood moves in pulses No pulses No pulses
Carries blood away from the heart Carries blood to the heart Carries blood to and from the heart
High blood pressure Low blood pressure Pressure lower than arteries and
higher than veins
Low blood volume Much blood volume than capillaries High blood volume
and arteries
Situated very deep into the skin Situated superficially on the skin Situated in the terminals of artery or
veins
Carries oxygenated blood except Carries deoxygenated blood except the Carries oxygenated and
the pulmonary artery pulmonary veins deoxygenated blood
Thick wall (muscle present) Thinner wall (muscle present) Thinnest wall (no muscle)
More elastic tissue Less elastic tissue No elastic tissue
No valves except in the pulmonary Valves present No valves
artery
Smaller lumen Larger lumen Largest lumen
Can constrict Cannot constrict Cannot constrict
Not permeable Not permeable Permeable

Blood group
When an individual suffers from severe loss of blood, blood transfusion is done to make up for the quantity
of blood lost. The blood that is given must be of correct (compatible group) if not the tissues will reject
the new blood by clotting or coagulating; this is called agglutination.

Red blood cells have antigens on their surfaces while blood plasma has antibodies. Some antigens react
with antibodies to form a clot (agglutination). Two types of antigens are present on the surface of red

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blood cell namely: antigens A and B. Two types of antibodies are present in blood plasma called antibodies
‘a’ and ‘b’. This makes blood to be classified into four groups which are blood grouped A, B, AB, and O.

NB: an individual’s blood may contain antigens A or B or AB or none while the plasma may contain
antibodies ‘a’ or ‘b’, ‘a’ and ‘b’, none.

Blood group Antigen on red blood cell Antibody in plasma

A A b
B B a
AB A and B None
O NONE a and b

If blood from an individual of group A is transfused into another individual of group B, the antibodies
from the plasma of blood group A will recognise and react against the antigens on red blood cells of blood
group B and agglutination will occur, thus, the two blood groups are not compatible.
Similarly an individual with blood group B cannot receive blood from blood group A.
Blood group AB having no antibodies can receive blood from any group except O.
Blood group O can only receive blood from another individual with blood group O.
AB can only donate blood to individuals having blood group AB while group O can donate to all groups.

Conclusion
1. Blood group O is called universal donor.
2. Blood group AB is called universal recipient.

Blood group Can donate blood to Can receive blood from

A A, AB A, O
B B, AB B, O
AB AB EVERYONE
O ALL GROUPS O

Rhesus factor.
Another factor that must be considered before transfusion is done is the Rhesus factor. Naturally, no
antibody occur in blood plasma. The first transfusion of blood from a Rhesus positive (Rh+) to a Rhesus
negative (Rh-) is harmless.

When Rh+ enters Rh- for the first time, blood is made to develop antibodies against the Rhesus factor.
The second transfusion becomes dangerous because the Rh- person is sensitised during the first
transfusion.

NOTE BETTER:
When a Rh+ man marries a Rh- woman, some of their children will be potential or Rh+. If the blood of
the foetus enters into the blood of the mother, the mother’s blood will develop antibodies against the blood
of the foetus. This will not harm the child but when the second child is conceived and the Rh+ blood from
the child enters into the blood of the mother, there is the rapid production of antibodies which will cross
the placenta and damage the blood of the foetus leading to jaundice or anaemia after birth.
This situation can be remedied (solved) if the child is quickly given blood transfusion with Rh- blood.

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The Mammalian Heart.

LOGITUDINAL STRUCTURE OF A MAMMALIAN HEART

The mammalian heart is the muscular pumping organ which is located between the lungs in the thoracic
cavity. The heart is surrounded by a tough sac or membrane called the pericardium. The pericardium is
elastic and helps to prevent the heart from being over stretch is it is overfilled with blood. The space
between the heart and the pericardium is the pericardial cavity which is filled with a fluid called the
pericardial fluid. This fluid lubricates the surfaces of the heart and prevents friction during pumping
action.
The walls of the heart are divided into three main layers as follows:
- The outer pericardium
- The middle myocardium
- The inner endocardium
The heart has four chambers:
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- Two upper chambers called auricles or atria

- Two lower, larger and more muscular chambers called ventricles.

The heart is divided have two sides which are left and right side by a longitudinal structure called the
septum. The septum prevents deoxygenated blood and oxygenated blood from mixing.

NB: The left ventricle is thicker than the right ventricle because it pumps blood to the whole body.

Functions of parts of the heart

1. Auricles: The right auricle receives deoxygenated blood from the vena cava while the left auricle
receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary vein. Auricles contract and pump blood to the
ventricles.

2. Ventricles: The right ventricle receives deoxygenated blood from the right auricle while the left
ventricle receives blood from the left auricle. Ventricles pump blood to the lungs and the entire
body. They create a high pressure which helps in the processes of ultrafiltration, reabsorption,
tissue fluid formation and diffusion.

3. Septum: It separates the left side of the heart from the right side. It transmits electrical stimulation
from the auricles to the ventricles.

4. Bicuspid valve: It is found between the left auricle and the left ventricle. It controls the amount of
oxygenated blood from the left auricle to the left ventricle. It prevents the backflow of blood from
the left ventricle to the left auricle.

5. Tricuspid valve: It is found between the right auricle and the right ventricle. It controls the amount
of deoxygenated blood from the right auricle to the right ventricle. It prevents the backflow of
blood from the right ventricle to the right auricle.

6. Aorta: it is the largest artery with thick walls to withstand the high pressure generated by the
pumping action of the left ventricle. It carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the
body.

7. Vena cava: It receives deoxygenated blood from all parts of the body. It transports the
deoxygenated blood from the body to the right auricle.

8. Pulmonary vein: it receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and transport it to the left auricle.

9. Pulmonary artery: it is located between the right ventricle and the lungs. It receives deoxygenated
blood from the right auricle and transport it to the lungs for oxygenation.

10. Pulmonary valve: it is located between the pulmonary artery and the right ventricle. It controls
the amount of blood entering into the pulmonary artery. It prevents the backflow of deoxygenated
blood into the right ventricle.

11. Aortic valve: It is located the aorta and the left ventricle. It controls the amount of blood leaving
the left ventricle and also prevents backflow of oxygenated blood into the left ventricle.

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12. Tendon supporting valve (Chordae terdinae): These are strong tendons originating from the
papillae of the valves. They hold the valves in position. They prevent the valves from turning inside
out when the ventricles contract.

Differences between the right side of the heart and the left side of the heart

Right side Left side

Thin walls
Contains deoxygenated blood
Receives blood from the head and the body
Receives blood through the anterior and posterior vena
cava
Pumps blood to the lungs
Pumps blood through the pulmonary artery
Has a tricuspid valve between the auricle and the
ventricle
Pumps blood at a lower pressure
Thicker walls
Contains oxygenated blood
Receives blood from the lungs
Receives blood through the pulmonary veins
Pumps blood to the head and the body
Pumps blood through the aorta
Has a bicuspid valve between the auricle and the
ventricle
Pumps blood at a higher pressure

The Cardiac Cycle (working of the heart)

The working of the heart is also called heartbeat. This heart beat is due to the rhythmic contractions or
relaxation of the auricles and ventricles. The heart beats about 72 times/min. but the heartbeat could
increase depending on the condition.
The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events that take during each heartbeat. The heartbeat is divided into
diastole and systole.
Diastole is the relaxation of the auricles and the ventricles.
Systole is the contraction of the auricles and the ventricles.

Auricular diastole
The auricles relax simultaneously and the heart becomes large and volume is increased. The cuspid valves
close and deoxygenated blood enters the heart through the vena cava while oxygenated blood enters
through the pulmonary vein.

Auricular systole
The auricles contract to create pressure and the cuspid valve opens. Deoxygenated blood from the right
auricle enters the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve while oxygenated blood from the left auricle
enters the left ventricle through bicuspid valve.

Ventricular systole
The ventricles contract and deoxygenated blood passes through the pulmonary valve and pulmonary artery
to the lungs for oxygenation while oxygenated blood passes through the aortic valve (semi lunar valve)
and aorta to the rest of the body. Pressure exerted on the cuspid valve generates the first heartbeat that
makes the sound ‘cub’.

Ventricular diastole
The ventricles relax (pause). High pressure exerted in the aorta and pulmonary artery force some of the
blood backward towards the ventricles causing the aortic valve to close and the second sound ‘dub’ is
produced.

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CIRCULATION OF BLOOD

Circulation of blood in humans is said to be doubled because blood passes through the heart two times in
a single complete circuit. Circulation of blood occurs in two pathways called pulmonary and systemic
circulation.

1. Pulmonary circulation
It occurs between the heart and the lungs. Deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle enters the lungs
through the pulmonary artery for oxygenation. Once oxygenated, blood returns the left auricle through the
pulmonary vein.

2. Systemic circulation
Contraction of the left ventricle forces blood into the aorta where it is distributed to the rest of the body
through the arteries, arterioles and finally to capillaries in organs and tissues where exchange of nutrients
takes place.

Tissue fluid and Lymph

1. Tissue fluid: It is the fluid formed from the plasma by the process of ultrafiltration.

Composition of tissue fluid: Tissue fluid is made up of the following substances: sugar, amino acids,
fatty acids, mineral salts, hormones, neurotransmitters, waster product and water.

Functions of tissue fluid.

i. It baths the cell.
ii. It supplies cells with water.
iii. It supplies cells with food like glucose, amino acids, mineral salts, hormones and oxygen.
iv. It supports the cell.

2. Lymph: It is tissue fluid drained by the afferent vessel into the lymphatic system. It is clear and
watery. The lymphatic system manufactures lymphocytes and phagocytes to form macrophages
which engulf and digest microbes and other foreign bodies from the circulatory and lymphatic
system.

Importance of lymph.
1. It assists in the distribution of nutrients and oxygen to cells and tissues.
2. It helps in the elimination of nitrogenous waste and CO2 from tissues to blood.
3. It transports fatty acids and glycerol to areas that need them.
4. It transports antibodies and antitoxins to the general circulatory system.
5. It helps in the distribution of heat in the body.
6. It assists in the control of protein content in the body.

Functions of the lymphatic system.

1. It produces phagocytes which constantly engulf and digest pathogens, debris and their toxins from
the lymph.
2. It produces antibodies that destroys foreign bodies and their toxins.
3. It transports excess tissue fluid back into the blood.

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Differences between blood and lymph.

Blood Lymph
Contained within blood vessels. Contained within lymphatic vessels.
Has more digested food e.g. proteins. Has less digested food e.g. proteins.
Has platelets. Lack platelets.
Moves due to pumping action of the heart. Moves by contraction of skeletal muscles surrounding
lymphatic vessels
Red in colour Creamy of milky white
Has less lymphocyte Has more lymphocyte
Has red blood cells Lacks red blood cells
Has less waste materials Has more waste materials
Moves to and from the heart Only moves from tissues to heart
Has more oxygen Has less oxygen

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CHAPTER 4: EXCRETION AND OSMOREGULATION

INTRODUCTION

For organisms to stay alive, many chemical reactions must occur in their body. These chemical reactions
form products, which can be useful to the body or useless. Those that are useless could be harmful to the
body and needs to be removed. This removal is known as excretion.

A. EXCRETION.
Definition.
Excretion is the removal of waste products of metabolism which if allowed to accumulate will poison
the cells of the body.

N.B: excretion is different from defecation and secretion.

 Defecation is the sending out of undigested food material through the anus.
 Secretion is the production and release of useful substances from the process of metabolism.
Such substances include hormones, mucus, enzymes.

Importance of excretion
1. It enables a constant balance of water in the body.
2. It ensures that the pH level of the body is kept constant.
3. It ensure a constant osmotic pressure of blood a tissue fluid.
4. It enables the removal of metabolic waste so that the chemical reaction proceed in the right
direction.
5. It enables the ionic balance of the body tissue fluid.
6. It helps a fair keeping of the various materials found in the body.

Excretion in plants.

Plants manufacture organic molecules, as they need them. There are few excess organic molecules,
which are not required by plants and are usually broken down for the production of new organic
molecules. Plants are very much less active than animals and produce waste product at a slower rate,
therefore they do not need a specialized excretory organ like animals.

Excretory products, their origin and methods of elimination.

Waste products Origin/formation Methods of elimination

Carbon dioxide Tissue respiration Stomata of leaves, lenticels of young stems.
Oxygen Photosynthesis of plants. Stomata, lenticels.
Water Tissue respiration, condensation By transpiration through stomata, cuticle
reaction and soil. and lenticels.
Mineral salts Soil in solution. Stored in vacuoles and cell walls and is
eliminated when these parts die.
Nitrogenous compounds Protein, nucleic acid metabolism. Stored in petals and sepals and is eliminated
when these parts die.
Glycosides Tissue respiration Stored in fruits, petals and sepals. There are
eliminated when these parts die.
Oxalate, tannins and Complex metabolic pathways in cells Stored in leaves and bark of trees and are
alkaloids. eliminated when these parts die.

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Excretion in animals.
Excretory products, their origin and methods of elimination.

Excretory products Origin/formation Organ and methods of elimination

Carbon dioxide Tissue respiration, breakdown or urea. It is carried by blood to the lungs and is
eliminated during expiration.
Lactic acid Anaerobic respiration in cells. Removed in sweat by the skin and by the
stratified cells of the vagina.
Excess salt Nutrient metabolism Expelt in sweat and urine by the skin and
kidney respectively.
Excess heat Tissue respiration Through sweat by the skin.
Urea Deamination of amino acids in the Through sweat and urine by the skin and
liver. kidney respectively.
Bile salts Breakdown of worn out RBCs. In faeces.
Bile pigments Metabolic breakdown of lipids, RBCs Through bile discharged into the duodenum
or haemoglobin. and passes out in faeces through the anus,
some by vomiting through the mouth.
Excess water Heavy consumption of water, tissue Through sweat and urine by the skin and
respiration. kidney respectively.
Uric acid Breakdown of nucleic acid in the liver. Through excretory organs like kidneys.

The Mammalian excretory system.

Human urinary system.

Structure: the urinary system of a mammal of the following parts: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder
and the urethra.

The mammalian urinary system.

Functions of the parts of the urinary system.

1- Kidney: It is the organ of excretion and osmoregulation.
2- Renal artery: it carries oxygenated blood to the kidney.
3- Renal vein: it carries deoxygenated blood from the kidney.
4- Ureter: it carries urine from the kidney to the bladder.

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5- Bladder: it stores urine temporally.

6- Urethra: it carries urine from the bladder to the exterior.
7- Sphincter muscle: it regulates the amount of urine that is sent from the bladder to the exterior.

The Kidney.
i. Appearance: it is a reddish brown and bean-shaped structure measuring 12cm long and 7cm
wide.
ii. Location; the kidneys are located in the abdominal cavity one on each side of the vertebral
column (back-bone).
NB: In man, the left kidney is higher up than the right kidney due to the weight of the heart on the right
kidney.

Longitudinal section of the

kidney.
Internal structure of the kidney.
The internal structure of the kidney shows two zones called the cortex and medulla. The cortex is the
outer dark zone and the medulla is the inner zone with con-shaped structures called pyramids.
Inside each kidney are millions of functional units called the nephron.
- Nephron: is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. Each nephron has two regions
namely: Malpighian body and uriniferous tubule.
1. Malpighian body: it is found inside the cortex and has the following parts:
i- Glomerulus: it is made of blood capillaries supplied by arteries from renal artery.
ii- Bowman’s capsule: is a cup-shaped structure with thin double walls. The space between the
two walls is called capsular space.

2. Uriniferous tubule: it is a tube made up of three parts as follows:

i- Proximal convoluted tubule: which is coiled and located just below the Bowman’s capsule.
ii- Loop of Henle which is a u-shaped tube that continuous from proximal convoluted tubule.
iii- Distal convoluted tubule: it is the second set of coiled tube which ends with the collecting
duct of the nephron.

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Diagram of a kidney nephron.

Formation of urine.
The formation of urine takes place in the kidney nephron using three processes which are
ultrafiltration, reabsorption and tubular secretion.

a) Ultrafiltration.
It is the filtration under pressure. The liquid to be filtered is blood. Ultrafiltration occurs between
glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule. Blood reaching glomerulus is under high pressure because the
afferent vessel is wider than the efferent vessel. The high pressure causes some substances which are
very small in size to pass through the thin wall of the glomerulus and the Bowman’s capsule into the
capsular space. Materials that are filtered include; glucose, water, amino acids, mineral salts,
vitamins, hormones, urea, uric acid, etc. Red blood cells and blood proteins are not filtered because
they are too large to pass through the capillary wall. This leaves a clear fluid in the capsular space called
glomerular filtrate.

b) Reabsorption.
It is reabsorption of useful substances into the blood stream. Glomerular filtrate passing along the
proximal convoluted tubule most water, all food substances, salts like sodium chloride, vitamins are
reabsorbed by the cells of the tubule. Water is reabsorbed by osmosis, urea by diffusion and food by
active transport leaving glomerular filtrate more concentrated. At the descending loop of Henle, some
water is reabsorbed, while at the ascending loop of Henle no water is reabsorbed because it is
impermeable to water. At the distal convoluted tubule, more water and salts are reabsorbed leaving the
fluid more concentrated and is called urine. The urine contains only waste product as it descends down
the ureter to the bladder where it is stored temporally before it is expelt through the urethra to the outside
environment controlled by the sphincter muscle.

c) Tubular secretion.
It takes place in the distal convoluted tubule. Potassium ion and creatin (nitrogenous waste product) are
secreted from blood into the tubule, some drugs like penicillin are also removed from blood. Tubular
secretion also regulates the pH of blood drops (acidic) hydrogen ions are secreted from the distal
convoluted tubule into the glomerular filtrate. If the pH of blood rises, the distal convoluted tubule
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secretes hydrogen carbonate into the glomerular filtrate. Tubular secretion makes the pH of urine to
change from 4.5 to 8.5.

Kidney failure and Dialysis.

An individual can leave with only one kidney. But if both kidneys are damaged, the person will die if
not treated because his/her blood contains dossolved substances. Some which must be removed if not the
cells of the body will be poisoned. There are two ways by which kidneys can be treated namely: kidney
transplant and kidney dialysis.

1. Kidney transplant:
It is the surgical removal of a living kidney from a donor (a person who is steal leaving or recently died)
and putting it into a sick person to replace the damagee one.it is more successful if the donor and
recipient are closely related.
2. Kidney dialysis:
During dialysis, blood is drawn from an artery in the arm through a tube into the dialysis machine. The
machine is surrounded by a special controlled fluid called dialysis fluid has the same composition as
blood plasma but does not have waste product. As blood passes through the machine, waste products of
metabolism are removed and the patient’s blood is returned to the vein in the arm through the second
tube. Blood has to pass through the machine several times for proper clean up. Dialysis process is
supposed to be done every few days and it is expensive.

B. OSMOREGULATION.
It is the maintenance of a constant osmotic pressure of the body fluids by keeping the water and salt
content constant. This helps to control the movement of water in and out of cells.

1. Regulation of water
Water is regulated in the body using two principal mechanisms as follows:
i. When much water (liquid) is consumed.
When we drink water 9fluids) and do not sweat much of our blood becomes dilute. Osmoreceptors in the
hypothalamus of the brain stimulates the pituitary gland to inhibit the release of antidiuretic hormone
(ADH). The kidney reabsorbs less water making the urine to have much water (dilute). The dilute urine
is excreted (sent out) in a process called diuresis.
NB. Drinking of alcohol also leads to diuresis because alcohol inhibits the release of ADH. This
therefore, leads to a production of large volume of dilute urine after alcohol consumption. The alcohol is
said to be diuretic (a chemical the increases the output of urine). Other diuretics include: tea, cola,
coffee.
ii. When little water (liquid) is consumed
When we drink little water (fluids) very little urine is passed out because the pituitary gland releases
ADH which makes much water to be reabsorbed therefore, preventing the loss of water by the kidney.
Substances that will reduce the amount of urine pass out are called antidiuretics e.g. nicotine, some
anaesthetics.
2. Regulation of ions in the body (salts).
The amount of sodium ion in blood is controlled by the distal convoluted tubule. If the amount of
sodium ions drops below a certain level, the cells in the cortex of adrenal gland will release a hormone
called aldosterone into the blood stream. On reaching the distal convoluted tubule, it stimulates the
cells of the nephron to absorb sodium ion by active transport. If the concentration of sodium ion
increases to a certain level, the release of aldosterone is inhibited making of the nephron unable to
absorb sodium ion. The unabsorbed ions are eliminated in urine.

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