Contents

INTRODUCTION TO JAAP SAHIB............................................................................................ 2

JAAP SAHIB: LITERARY HISTORICAL CONTEXT ............................................................... 2

SOURCE OF JAAP SAHIB: DASAM GRANTH ................................................................... 8

DASAM GRANTH: LITERARY HISTORICAL BACKGROUND .................................... 8

DASAM GRANTH: FROM AND CONTENT ...................................................................... 12

DASAM GRANTH: THEMATIC ANALYSIS ..................................................................... 19

JAAP SAHIB IN MANUSCRIPTS OF DASAM GRANTH ................................................ 23

THE CONCEPTION OF JAAP (MEDITATIVE REPETITION OF DIVINE NAMES) 27

ELEMENTS OF JAPA ........................................................................................................... 29

THE CONCEPTION OF JAAP IN SIKHISM..................................................................... 34

BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................................................................................................... 38
 INTRODUCTION TO JAAP SAHIB

JAAP SAHIB: LITERARY HISTORICAL CONTEXT

Guru Gobind Singh’s multifaceted and multi-perspective composition, Jaap Sahib, is

included in the Dasam Granth. It is part of the nitnem (repetition of a rule) banis (poetry of the

Sikh Gurus)1 of the Sikh tradition and code of conduct.2 The opening line of the poem,

manglacharan3, declares that God has no shape, no caste, no creed, or color, and that His

1
regular ritual of chanting particular prayers at predetermined times.
2
According to Principal Satbir Singh, “The restriction of Sikh rules and the act of living according to the
rules of Sikhism is called Sikh Rahit Maryada. Sikh Rahit Maryada can also be called the collective
personality of the Sikhism. it is the same which has been issued under the name of The Shiromani
Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee, the elected organization of the Sikhism. The rest of the rehatnamas
have been written by the loving Sikhs according to their intellect and determination. The number of
rehtnamas is said to be up to 37.
A Sikh Rahit Maryada for the entire Sikh society was implemented by the SGPC only after deep
consideration and debate by various Sikh sects, institutions, deras of sant-mahatmas and scholars. The
Sikh Rehat Maryada, published by the SGPC, states that the SGPC in 1931, in order to properly regulate
the Gurmat-Maryada in gurdwaras, had given representation to various Sikh sects, institutions, Nihang
Singhs and Sikh scholars to prepare a draft of the Sikh Rahit Maryada. A member sub-committee was
formed. The other prominent scholars of this committee include the Head Granthi of Sri Harmandir
Sahib, Jathedar of all the four Takhts, Akali Kaur Singh, G.P. Singh and Others. Thakar Singh, Bhai
Budh Singh, Sant Sangat Singh Kamalian, Bhai Kanh Singh Nabha, Bhai Veer Singh, Sant Gurlab Singh
Gholia, Pandit Basant Singh Patiala, Giani Hira Singh Dard, Ganga Singh, Jodh Singh, Pandit Kartar
Singh Dakha, the names of Sant Man Singh Kankhal and Bhai Randhir Singh are noteworthy.
The draft prepared by this sub-committee was discussed at special meetings of renowned Sikh
scholars, historians and Singh Sahibans of the time on 8 May 1932 and 26 September 1932. The sub-
committee submitted the draft to the SGPC on October 1, 1932. The approval of this draft was given by
the ‘All India Sikh Mission Board’ vide its Resolution No. 1, dated 1-8-1936 and the SGPC vide its
Resolution No. 14, dated 14-10-1936 and again the ‘Religious Advisory Committee’of the SGPC
considered it at its meeting dated 7.1.1945 and recommended some enhancements and losses in it.
On February 3, 1945, the Special General Assembly of the SGPC gave its approval to increase it
as per the recommendation of the Religious Advisory Committee. It was only after this that this Sikh
Rahit Maryada was implemented. The ‘Rahu-Reeti Sub-Committee’ and the ‘Religious Advisory
Committee’ were also sent their written suggestions from many Sikh organizations, scholars, historians,
journalists and granthis and administrators of gurdwaras from all over the country, which were deeply
considered.
3
Praise of deity in the beginning of scripture or any book. It the Indic way of declaration of dedication.
complexion, clothing, or other physical features are unremarkable.4 Jaap Sahib offers a

conceptual framework for understanding the Sikhism’s ultimate truth. It has a lyrical quality.

According to Harjeet Singh Gill, Jaap Sahib “vibrates, its resonance can only be understood via

these rhythmic phrases, which move like the beat of a drum, sometimes a war drum, and at other

times like a musical orchestration imbued with blissful harmony, Sanskrit or Persian language

proficiency is not required.”5

At Anandpur Sahib, Guru Gobind Singh completed Jaap Sahib, his first composition, in

1677 AD. Chaupa Singh asserts that the composition was initially dictated by the Guru when he

was about sixteen years old.6 This obviously explains why the Jaap Sahib is the Dasam Granth’s

first composition. Despite being intended for Sikhs, the character of veer rasa (heroic aesthetic) 7

is strongly shown in Jaap Sahib. It symbolizes the rhythmic devotion of God that need to be

recited or thought about. Although Braj Bhash (Braj language) is the most often used language in

Jaap Sahib, there are also several Persian and Arabic names for God, as well as Prakrit and

Sanskrit phrases like Parmesvar, Gobind, and Allah.8

Jaap Sahib: Medieval Indic Literature

Punjabi literature can be dated back to the eighth and ninth centuries. Many scholars

regard the time from the 8th and 9th centuries to 1500 AD to be the beginning period, and the

4
Cakra Cihana aru barana jÁti;
aru pÁti nahina jiha.
rçpa raVga aru reKa BeKa;
koç kahi na sakati kiha.
5
Harjeet Singh Gill and Danielle Gill, Jap Sahib: Phonetic Transcription, Renderings in English and
French (Patalia: Punjabi University Patiala, 2012), 68.
6
Gurnam Singh. Khalsa in Chaupa Singh’s Rahitnama. Sikh Review, 49(4), Apr Mar 2001, 28–36.
7
Veer rasa (heroic aesthetic) is one of the nine rasas major rasas. When a permanent emotion like
heroism is originated from a composition or sentence etc., it is called veer rasa. Veer rasa is said in the
feeling of enthusiasm that is awakened in the heart to do war or any work.
8
Dharma Singh and Jodh Singh, trans., Sri Dasam Granth Sahib: Text and Translation (Patiala: Haritage,
1999), 32.
period from 1501 to 1850 AD to be the mediaeval period.9 The mediaeval period, according to

Kirpal Singh Kasel, lasts from 983 A.D. to 1849 A.D. The time period is known as the mediaeval

period.10 Medieval Punjabi literature is regarded as a magnificent aspect of history. During this

time, various literary movements and streams reached their pinnacle of development. That is

why mediaeval Punjabi literature is known as the ‘Golden Age’. Sufi poetry and the Bhakti

stream were born in the early time, but they advanced only after the mediaeval period. Guru

Nanak Dev and following Sikh gurus expanded on the spiritual and nirguna poetic heritage

established by the Bhakti movement. Shah Hussain, Sultan Bahu, and Bulleh Shah breathed new

life into Sheikh Farid’s Sufi poetry heritage. A new genre presenting the true sensation of logical

love. The Qissa poets, who artistically recounted the love of man and woman alongside the

spiritual love of God and man, gave birth to a new genre presenting the feeling of rational love as

true. Spiritual and logical periods were also created throughout this time era to show thoughts of

bravery. Varan Bhai Gurdas should be mentioned in this context. Along with the Goshti tradition

in prose literature, new kinds of Janamsakhi literature, such as tikka, rehatnama, and

Hukamnama, arose. Thus, in terms of both substance and form, mediaeval Punjabi literature

advanced significantly.11

Jit Singh Sital has properly stated that the Guru Nanak period, a distinctive period of

mediaeval Punjabi literature, is not only a golden period of Punjabi language and literature, but

also a moment of rebirth of Punjabi civilization, Punjabi nationalism, and Punjabi religion.12

Punjab gave rise to pride, pride, and practical conduct for the first time. Science and technology

9
Parminder Singh, Punjabi Saht Da Itihaas (Patalia: Punjabi University Patiala, 1988), 28.
10
Parminder Singh, Kirpal Singh Kasel, and Gobind Singh, Punjabi Sahit Di Uttpati Te Vikas (Ludhiana:
Lahor Book Shop, 2011), 311.
11
Singh, Punjabi Saht Da Itihaas, 244.
12
Jeet Singh Setal, Punjabi Sahit Allochna Da Itihas (Patalia: Pepsu Book Depu, 2000), 152.
did not advance during the medieval era. As a result, the person understood very little about the

diverse aspects of nature. Individuals used to worship natural forces or forms such as the moon,

sun, earth’s movement, wind, seasons, and fire as gods and goddesses. Individuals gradually

began to realize that all of nature’s powers are subject to another great power in the same way as

numerous officers are subordinate to one monarch or a great king. This immense force came to

be worshipped by bestowing the name of God onto it. God was regarded as the originator,

nurturer, and destroyer of the human form. Adherence to excellent beliefs and deeds is referred

to as human life’s success and authenticity. Thus, in mediaeval times, man was regarded as

supernatural rather than folk. In this way, paralogic concerns have remained the primary unit of

all literary styles developed during the medieval period. From the standpoints of experience,

ideology, narrative approaches, and style-vocabulary, the literature of this era is founded on

some common foundations and universally accepted paradigms. Although each writer is distinct

in terms of adding to the tradition, there are many common traits in the emotive and expressive

art of the writers who were creative throughout this period. Some characteristics of mediaeval

literature can be found.

The religious-oriented view

The other world was more vital and relevant to mediaeval writers than our ordinary

world. They see the commonplace world as a training ground for entering the world with a smile

on their face. As a result, before performing any deed, everyone should consider if the deeds they

are performing will benefit them when they enter the world or not. God has sent a person into

this world solely to assist him in his life path through ways such as divine name recital, bhakti,

and so on. Gurbani, Sufi, and Qissa poetry: The same message has been repeated in all of this

period’s major poetic streams. Even in the Sikh poetic tradition, the person is motivated to let go
of the perishable form of the world and turn towards the spiritual world. Man has been cautioned

that the fundamental reason for coming into these people is to forever break the connection of

birth and death by remembering God.13

The Lord’s Sovereignty

Another element shared by mediaeval literary traditions is God’s supremacy, omnipotence, and

impartiality. God is seen as the creator and orchestrator of all creation in various beliefs. Beings

enter this world at his command, behave, and go at his direction. The entire world’s living beings

and natural forces are obeying that God’s order. This theme of God’s absoluteness may be found

in every literary trend written during this time period.

Prema Bhakti (love devotion)

Prema bhaki was very significant during this time period. The topic of love is not heavily

emphasized in ancient literature. Physical means, karma-kandas, and hatha yogic practices,

among other things, are given higher prominence during this period. However, in mediaeval

period, bhagat poets, Sufi dervishes, and gurus made it clear that no rituals, pilgrimages, baths,

or hathyoga-sadhanas were required for God’s achievement. Only through love and devotion

can one approach the God. Therefore, it looks that the entire mediaeval literature worships love

or love.14

Communal harmony

The Maulanas and Brahmins who ruled over mediaeval society’s religious domain were adamant

about their distinct religious sentiments. They never passed up an opportunity to demonstrate that

their faith was superior to others’ religions. However, mediaeval writers are revered because they

13
Ishwar Dayal Gaur, History, Historiography and Punjabi Folk Literature: Issues of Canons and
Cultures, Cultural Studies in India (Routledge, 2017), 145–68.
14
J. S. Grewal, Love and Gender in the Rig Veda and Medieval Punjabi Literature (Shimla: Indian
Institute of Advanced Study, 2010), 211–20.
never preached or promoted communalism. Rather, these people used to dismiss religious outer

appearances, disguises, and rituals as fixed and meaningless. Amarjit Singh Kang, in explaining

this feature of mediaeval literature, says that the reality presented is that of a united Punjab, in

which Hindus, Muslims, and people, despite disparities in race and cultural memory, are joined

in an inescapable bond at the communal and human level.15

Human Equality: The Refutation of Caste

Contrary to Hindu society’s caste structure, mediaeval poets stood firm on the principle of

human equality. In their poetry, Bhagat Namdev, Sant Kabir, and Bhagat Ravidas have often said

that all human beings are made up of that one God and, as a result, all are equal to each other.

One does not become great or small because of caste or birth, but by worshipping the Lord and

performing good deeds.16

Guru Amar Das elaborates on the notion of human equality. He himself states that

anyone who takes pride in caste is a fool because everyone is joined up in brotherhood with one

another because they all emerge from the holy center.

Narrative methods and morphological traits

The narrative strategies and metaphorical characteristics of mediaeval literature are also

strikingly comparable. Wars, tales, jangnamas, goshtas, barahamaha poetry, bavan-akhris, and

siharfis are all prevalent throughout this time. These are all analogies for Britanatyam-kavi. The

poets employ the ‘mangalacharan’ approach at the start of these metaphors. Mangalacharan

refers to a section or stage of a poem in which the poet expresses his gratitude to his deity, God,

15
Surindar Singh Kholi, History of Punjabi Literature (Delhi: National Book Shop, 1993), 52–76.
16
Shafqat Tanviir Mirza, Resistance Themes in Punjabi Literature (Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications,
1992), 133–46.
or guru and wishes him an experience. This approach is widely used in wars, jangnamas, stories,

and some other examples of ordered poetry.

Many genres of mediaeval Punjabi literature have glorified this woman. He has received

accolades. The woman is greatly revered in Sikh poetry.

As a result of the foregoing, it is obvious that there are numerous commonalities as well

as some variances in mediaeval Punjabi literature. The examination of all genres of Punjabi

literature written throughout the mediaeval period reveals that these genres share many common

elements. Every stream of Panjabi literature has reached its apex during this period. During this

time, Sikh poetic tradition, Sufi poetic tradition, Qissa poetic tradition, and Bir poetic tradition,

reached the zenith of their creative ability. This is the achievement of Punjabi literature in the

medieval period. Prior to the medieval period, these streams either did not exist or, if discovered,

could only be referred to as primary endeavors. These sentences, and some of them, ceased to

exist after the medieval period. This time is a golden period in terms of mediaeval Punjabi

literature achievement, representing the progress and development of Punjabi literature.

AUTHOR OF JAAP SAHIB: GURU GOBIND SINGH

SOURCE OF JAAP SAHIB: DASAM GRANTH

DASAM GRANTH: LITERARY HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

All historians agree that Guru Gobind Singh was a remarkable poet who knew various

languages (such as Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, Braj, and Punjabi etc.). According to Gur Pratap

Suraj Granth, Guru Gobind Singh’s court had fifty-two poets.17 Compilation of these writings

17
According to Bhai Kanh Singh Nabha, the names of 52 poets are as follows- 1. Udayaraya 2. Aniram 3.
Amritraya 4. Allu 5. Asa Singh 6. Alam 7. Ishar Das 8. Sukhdev 9. Sukha Singh. 10. Sukhia 11.
Sudamas 12. Senapati 13. Shyam 14. Heer 15. Hussain Ali 16. Hansraj 17. Kalu 18. Kuvaresh 19. Khan
Chand 20. Gunia 21. Gurdas 22. Gopal 23. Chandan 24. Chanda 25. Jamal 26. Tahikan 27. Dharam Singh
was given the name of Vidya Granth, The Scripture of Knowledge.18 However, according to oral

tradition, the collections drowned in the Sarsa river during the battle of Sarsa (river in northern

India). Guru Gobind Singh wrote numerous pieces. Dasam Granth contains all of Guru Sahib’s

compositions. There is also disagreement concerning who wrote some of Dasam Granth’s

compositions. However, there is no disagreement on who wrote compositions such as Jaap

Sahib, Akal Ustat, Gian Prabodh, Shabad Hazare, Khalsa Mahima, and others.

There are thirty-two manuscripts available of Dasam Granth, but four manuscripts are

historically important. Apart from these, the content of all other manuscripts varies in terms of

content and sequence of content of the scripture. After reviewing thirty-two Dasam Granth

manuscripts, the Gurmat Parchar Sabha Amritsar produced a report in 1897. Bhai Javahar Singh,

Kirpal Singh, Mai Sewa Bazar, Amritsar published a standard canon of Dasam Granth based on

this information. This version is now available and can be found in Sikh religious institutions.19

The Dasam Granth is an important scripture associated with the Guru Gobind Singh, who

provided a fresh and effective turn to religion and culture of Punjab. This Granth is revered in the

Sikh world after Guru Granth Sahib. Many of its manuscripts have been written since its

compilation. It was disclosed in gurdwaras until the beginning of the twentieth century, but due

to reformist movements and new consciousness that developed at the end of the nineteenth

century, a sense of compassion for this Granth began to develop among Sikhs. As a result, its

illumination in gurdwaras has nearly ceased.20

28. Dhanna Singh 29. Dhayan Singh 30. Nanu 31. Nischaldas 32. Nihal Chand 33. Nand Singh 34. Nand
Lal 35. Pindidas 36. Ballad 37. Ballu 38. Bidhichand 39. Buland 40. Brikh 41. Brijlal 42. Mathura 43.
Madan Singh 44. Madangiri 45. Mallu 46. Man Das 47. Mala Singh 48. Mangal 49. Ram 50. Rawal 51.
Roshan Singh 52. Lakkha
18
Darshan Singh, Poetics of Dasam Granth (Amritsar: Gurparsad Publications, 2011), 54.
19
Singh, 40–51.
20
Robin Rinehart, Debating the Dasam Granth (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 34–40.
 According to Sikh history, Guru Gobind Singh’s writings and the poetry of his court were

incorporated in a compilation called Vidyasar or Vidyasagar, which weighed nine ponds. This

text was written using the chalanta or kutal script (special script). Along with the works that

were to be included in this granth, there were also unloads that the devotees treated with care.

The Vidyasagar Granth was yet to be completed.

When Guru Gobind Singh left Anandpur fort in December 1705, the open letters of that

granth became entangled in the flooded Sarsa River. Traditionally, some of those blocked letters

slipped into the hands of Sikhs, who became known as ‘khas patras’ in the Sikh world.

Following Guru Gobind Singh’s death, a few scholars and renowned Singhs set out on their own

to acquire books or copies of the works composed in the Guru’s court. Among those who took

such an initiative, Bhai Mani Singh, Baba Deep Singh, and Bhai Sukha Singh Patnawale deserve

special notice.21 Because they compiled this treatise while living in different countries and

running their own businesses, the number and order are arbitrary. Because they compiled this

treatise while living in different areas and running their own organizations, the number and

sequence of the works included in them differed. The manuscripts of the scriptures made in this

manner are kept in towns such as Delhi, Sangrur, and Patna, among others.

As far as the name Dasam Granth is concerned, it has also changed a lot. There are very

variations in the name of Dasam Granth. Most of the ancient recensions have been named

Bachitra Natak. One reason is that Bachitra Natak or Avatar Lila composition is the biggest of

all this composition.

The name Dasam Granthis not very old. In the past, it has been written in many ways.

Such as: -

21
Singh, Poetics of Dasam Granth, 61.
 (1) Bhai Mani Singh Vali Bir,22 in a way, entire scripture is called Bachitra Natak

Granth.

‘tatkara sri bachitra natak granth ji ka mukharabind patachi 10’

(2) Misal Patnass copies of Recension, which is the Akal Takht, is marked as follows:

‘suchi pothi da tatkara sri bachitra natak granth ji ka, shri mukh vaak patsahi 10’.

(3) It is recorded on other ancient recensions as follows: -

‘tatkara likha granth ji ka patsahi 10’.

(4) In the Sangrur Vali Bir

‘tatkara giranth ka sri mukhbak patachi 10’.

(5) The 1214-page recension with a stone print is recorded as follows:

‘tatkara sri guru ka dasam patsahi ka likha suchi pat ka’.

(6) Another stone print is printed on page 1158 of The Gyaan Press Gujranwale, on

which it is written- ‘sri granth sahib dasve pat sahib ji ka’.

(7) The 1389-page typed recension printed by The Mufid Aam Press Lahore has the title-

‘Sri Guru Granth Sahib Ji Dasam Patsahi’.

(8) The Anglo Sanskrit Press Anarkali’s 1286-page recension of Lahore as follows: -

‘tatkara sri guru granth sahib dasam patsahi ji ka likhayate’.

(9) The 1281-page recension printed by Guru Khalsa Press Amritsar it is written: ‘Sri

Dasam Granth Sahib Ji’

(10) With the initiative of Pandit Sukhlal preacher Bharat Dharma Maha Mandal

Banaras Walia, an 892-page recension was printed in an Urdu script at Rajput Printing Works

Lahore, which is also named ‘Dasam Granth Sahib’.

22
Recension is English translation of Punjabi word Bir.
 It is evident from this description that the name Dasam Granth came into vogue in the

early 20th century, which means ‘a scripture composed by the Guru Gobind Singh.’

DASAM GRANTH: FROM AND CONTENT

This prepared granth was first known as bachitra natak granth, and afterwards as the

dasve patshah ka granth. Later, the short name Dasam Granth gained popularity, and it was

renamed Adi Granth to differentiate it from Guru Granth Sahib. Because of the theoretical

diversity of the works in this scripture, there was debate in the Sikh community about whether

they should be gathered in this manner or split. This scripture was allowed to remain in shape,

according to tradition, because to the intervention of Bhai Mehtab Singh Mirkotiye. The debate

regarding its author, however, is far from ended, and it continues to this day. There have also

been discrepancies in the writings at times when making collections or manuscripts in various

methods, as well as afterwards preparing their ups and downs. To fill these gaps, the ‘Gurmat

Granth Pracharak Sabha’ of Amritsar collected 32 recensions and contested the lessons, and the

Revising Committee’s report was completed in 1897. The recension of the Dasam Granth weas

first printed in response to this report.23 The verses in the Dasam Granth, now printed, are as

follows:

1. Jaap Sahib: This composition appears first and foremost in all forms of Dasam-

Granth’s recensions. Purpose of this composition is to chant. It is frequently

repeated first thing in the morning. It’s also among the banis recited at the

ceremony of kahde di pahul. Many different styles of verse, large and little, have

been utilized in this 199-stanza work. God’s praise goes through like a chain of

23
Kamalroop Singh and Gurinder Singh Mann, Granth of Guru Gobind Singh: Essays, Lectures and
Translations (India: Oxford University Press, 2016), 89–115.
 names. It has been stated that that God has no sign, varna, caste, or tribe, and that

nothing can be spoken about his form, color, line, or disguise.

2. Akal Ustat: It is an astotra (song of praise) of the glory of Akal in the Dasam

Granth. This is the second bani recorded after Jaap Sahib. At the beginning it is

written that ‘utar khashe dasatkhas ka’.

It is written, ‘ahead is writer’s signature’. This means that first four verses

are written by Guru Gobind Singh’s own handwriting, but the next text has been

scribed by the other person. The Guru himself did not give any title to this bani.

The first word of ‘akal purakh ki rachha hum nai’, and the last line ‘ustati

sampoorna’, with the custom of upakarma and upa-sanhar, it was named ‘Akal

Ustat’ by the Sikh scholars so that it could express the whole bani at the end of

the title etc. It has a total of 271 complete verses and the last number 272 is

incomplete. This bani composed by Guru Gobind Singh is not in raga, but in

different types of verses. These are chhand chaupai, kabit, Savaiye and tomar

chhand etc.

In Akal Ustat, there is a mention of living of peoples, which was prevalent

in India during the time of Guru Gobind Singh. Akal Ustat refers to the deities,

deities, heroes, demons and related stories described in many Hindu scriptures,

especially in the Puranas and Stotras. Through these references to ancient Hindu

texts, Guru Sahib gave information about these texts to the general public. In this

way, he especially brought the basic issue of the Vedas, the praise of Akal

Purakh, before the people. This bani can also be called a kind of dictionary of the

cultural and religious heritage of India. Guru instilled a sense of conscience

among the people and put them on the simple and important path of ‘jin premu

kiyo tin hi prabhu payo’, the basic essence of religion. In front of the gods like

Brahma, Vishan-Mahesh, Indra, Upindra, etc., he elevated the one akal purakh .

Similarly, the basic issues of the Vedas, The Quran and the gospels, by showing

the advice of the akal purakh, stating their same purpose, emphasized the need to

build an organized human equality society without discrimination. In this

composition, Guru Sahib has described the unborn and self-existent, form of God,

the inaccessible and unfathomable form, the infinite and unique form in many

ways and through many illustrations. He is not only the creator of the earth, the

sky, and the abyss and the infinite nature in them, the doer, the doer, and the

conductor, but also Brahma, Vishnu, Mahesh, Maya and all other types of gods,

demons, and all kinds of physical, mental and gabby or supernatural powers, He is

also the creator of virtues and vices. This fact has been confirmed by the historical

and mythological evidence found in many texts and puranas. Then he is depicted

as the source of all kinds of knowledge, meditation, jog, siddhis, naad, beauty,

brilliance and serenity and completely dominate them. Where he himself is the

form of abhuta, sunn and nirguna, he has been described as being a sarguna

form, in the water, sky, abyss, land, time, forest, triune and mountain. Jog, hatha,

jat, his identity and experience take a person into a state of awe and he becomes

absorbed in it and starts singing ‘you’ ‘you’ ‘you’ ‘you’. It is a mystery that is not

experienced by an action or attainment, can only be understood by his grace. In

the 17 ragas of ‘Akal Ustat’, he has been praised by describing 17 different parts
 of Akal Purakh. Taran Singh is of the view that stanza no. 272 has been left

incomplete because the praise of Akal Purakh cannot be fulfilled.24

3. Bachitra Natak: This is the third work compiled in the Dasam Granth. As is

evident from the concluding remarks made at the end of the chapters of this

composition. chandi charitras and brahma-rudra avatar these are all part of the

Bachitra Natak. This work has been named Bachitra Natak, it is not only a

description of the character-hero Guru’s own story, but also the depiction of the

stories and references of the heroes who appeared in different eras on the stage of

this world. Thus, it is a large-scale work which has been expanded into 634 pages

of the Dasam-Granth and which describes the wonderful deeds of Guru. In view

of its large size, in ancient times, Bachitra Natak has been considered to be the

synonym of Dasam-Granth. 25

It is clear from the above facts that the Bachitra Natak is a large-scale

composition, but its name which is now commonly given is only related to the

part of ‘Apni Katha’ of the Guru Gobind Singh and which is actually only the role

of the rest of the Bachitra Natak. There are a total of 14 chapters of this work, of

which the total number of verses is 471.

This composition describes the thirty-two-year life of Guru. It gives the

description of historical events before the creation of Khalsa, not the rest. In this

sense, it is not complete. A total of 13 types of stanzas have been used in it. Most

of the use has been in the composition of chaupai.

24
Harbhajan Singh, Akaal Ustat Darshan (Ludhiana: Lahor Book Shop, 2000), 20–46.
Indubhushan Banerjee, “Bachitra Natak,” in Evolution of the Khalsa, vol. Vol. 2. (Calcutta: A
25

Mukherjee, 1972), 80–85.

 There have been 115 changes in it, which is indicative of the vast

information about the rhyme of writer. Its principal language is Braj and

somewhere there is influence of Awadhi and Rajasthani.26 The war-picture is very

vivid. The figurative language is also found somewhere. This is a beautiful

example of self-portrait story.

4. Chandi Charitra-1: It depicts in 233 versus the battles fought by the goddess with

the demons to help the gods based on the narrative context of ‘Durga

Saptashati’.27

5. Chandi Charitra-2: In this composition of a total of 262 verses, only the narrative

context of ‘Durga Saptashti’ has been taken. The difference between it from the

first character is the method of fighting. The first talks of war by adorning it with

analogies by long verses but it has a straight-spot description of the war.28

6. Chandi di Var: Written in a total of 55 stanzas, this war is written in Punjabi, in

addition to the earlier characters written in Braj language and Awadhi language.

Its first stanza (pritham bhagauti simar ki guru nanak ke liye dhiyai) is the part of

daily Sikh prayer. It depicts the war in a very vivid way.29

7. Gian Prabodh: This composition of a total of 336 verses has two parts. The first

part ends on the 125 stanzas. It depicts the form of God. The second part is

incomplete. At the outset, the soul asks questions about God in his form. Then the

soul has asked about the four religions— raj dharma, daan dharma, bhoga

26
Jodh Singh, Wonderous Play—Bachitra Natak (Patalia: The Sikh Hertiage Publications, 2003), 34–38.
27
Diwan Singh, Glimpses of Chandi Chritra (Mohali: Dewan Singh, 1996), 30–45.
28
Singh, 56–68.
29
Gurbhagat Singh, “Chandi Di Var.,” in Encyclopaedia of Sikhism, ed. Harbans Singh (Patalia: Punjabi
University Patiala, 1992), 434–36.
 dharma and mokh dharma. But in this, the talk of state religion has started, which

ends in the context of muni raja. The next lesson is not given. It may have been

lost or not written down.

8. Chaubis Avatar: In this large-sized composition, references to the 24 avatars of

Vishnu have been depicted. The legends of Sri Krishna, Ram Chandra and

Nihakalanki avatars are very long. In this work, light has been shed on the life and

deeds of the avatars. The war narrative has been very beautiful. The purpose of

these stories is to encourage the Sikhs for a crusade.

9. Upp-Avatar: It has two parts. The first describes the incarnations of Brahma and

the second depicts the avatars of Rudra. The root cause of Brahma assuming the

incarnation is to destroy his ego. According to the order of Akal Purakh, Brahma

assumed seven incarnations - Balmik, Kashyapa, Sukra, Baches, Beas, Shastra

Udhak and Kalidasa. All of them are acharyas, scholars or rishis etc. The second

part describes Rudra’s avatars. The basic reason for their incarnation is to destroy

his ego. Rudra has a total of two avatars - Dattatreya and Paras Nath. Dattatreya

has a description of assuming twenty-four gurus and Paras Nath depicts the

struggle of mental retardations. This composition is incomplete.

10. Shabad Hazare: There are ten words under this title which are written under

ragas in the style of bisanpadas. In these, the beliefs and beliefs of the outward

pomp, hypocrisy, incarnation and idol worship of yoga have been refuted and the

emphasis has been placed on good deeds.30

30
M.L Peace, trans., Sri Guru Gobind Singh’s Shabad Hazare, the Ten Sawaiyas and 33 Sawaiyas
(Amritsar: Cheif Khalsa Diwan, 1967), 10–25.
 11. Savaiye: A total of 33 swayaes correspond to the spirit of ‘Akal Ustat’. In addition

to the praise of the formless God, there has been a refutation of the practices of

yogis, sannyasis and there has also been opposition to idol-worship. They also

look at the misdeeds of masands.

12. Khalsa Mahima: The importance of Khalsa has been shown in the four stanzas

under this title.

13. Shastra-nam-mala: There are a total of five chapters in this composition of 1318

verses. In this, the names of the weapons are written in the style of riddles by

looking at the background of the weapons. By such names, on the one hand, there

is an awareness of the main warriors who use weapons and weapons, and other

enemies can be avoided from giving accurate information about the weapons they

have.

14. Charitropakhian: A total of 405 character-stories have been included in this

large-sized composition. The way a woman in a state of crisis manifests herself

has been portrayed in different contexts. The social and religious conditions of

that time are also understood during such paintings. At the end of its last character

is also written ‘kabiowach chaupai’ which is included in the five banis of Amrit

ceremony of Sikhs.

15. Zafarnama: Written in Persian, this is the historical letter written by Guru Gobind

Singh to Aurangzeb from Dina-Kangar village and details the atrocities

committed by the emperor and his officials on the family of Guru Sahib and the

Sikhs.31

Jeet Singh Setal, “Zafarnamah,” in Encyclopaedia of Sikhism, ed. Harbans Singh (Patalia: Punjabi
31

University Patiala, 1988), 451–52.

 16. Hikaitan: These are a total of 11 instructions written on the line of the

composition named ‘Charitropakhian’. They are written in Persian.

Of the above, 1, 2, 7, 10, 11, 12 numbered works are related to devotional feeling.

Compositions 3, 4, 5, 8 and 9 are actually part of the Bachitra Natak. This is evident from the

words at the end of these works. There is only one composition of Punjabi in this scripture is

Chandi di Var. The purpose of composing most of the banis of this scripture was to alert and

prompt the Sikh society of that time to resist the tyranny of the regime.

DASAM GRANTH: THEMATIC ANALYSIS

In the Dasam Granth, mythology has been used as a medium to create accurate, clear,

and complete communication. For example, when Durga has created new meanings by

transforming the symbolic existence of goddess Durga into Chandi. This can be called a directly

transformed application of mythic symbolic existence.32 Indirect transformed experimentation is

when in this treatise, for the correct expression of the message of poetic communication, the new

environment has been introduced by using cultural, philosophical, mythic symbolic existences as

context and perspective, such as namo trimane, namo kaal kale, namo sarb pale i.e., Akal

Purakh of the three worlds. The god of kaal, salutations to the sarvapalanahara

(brahma/master), has been used indirectly. The creator’s message is based on his or her caste

experience. This experience of his emerges from the immediate situation and historical

perspective. He resorts to the grammar and vocabulary of his language to communicate the

immediate and historical symbolic existences of his unity. The grammar of his language is

composed of definite and limited rules, but his vocabulary is limitless. It contains standard

32
Som P. Ranchan, Durga Rahasya: A Key to the Eternal Feminine (New Delhi: Munshirm Manoharlal
Pub Pvt Ltd, 2001), 34.
conceptual vocabulary encompassing philosophical, intellectual, religious, folkloric, cultural

meaning in addition to ordinary material existences and concepts. It also has popular words with

a conservative meaning. During the creation process the creator selects words in this entire

vocabulary universe that have the ability to communicate his message. These elements become

part of creation with their own semantic circles. According to the nature of the message and the

context of the experiment, the creator transmits the message through certain parts of its semantic

circles. One common thread in the spiritual works and mythological re-narratives in the Dasam

Granth is the concept of Akal Purakh is the central unit at work in these works. Although all

these works are accepted to belong to different creators, in these works only Akal Purakh is

considered to be the supreme, master and transcending the limits of time. Therefore, it is natural

to accept the supremacy of Akal Purakh in these worlds.

Although the main theme of the mythological works is to re-describe Hindu mythology,

their purpose is to mark the mythical elements in the view of the grace of Akal Purakh. In the

spiritual works, while praising the Akal Purakh of Guru Gobind Singh, they use linguistic and

philosophical concepts to make the human being understand the religious and philosophical

complexity. In order to describe the philosophical concept, he attributes the origin of man’s

existence, behavior and phenomena and all the features of its nature to the perspective of the

Akal Purusha. They make the man aware of the existence of akal purakh through the

rejection/negation of all the positive values of his existence. Thus, in negative

religiosity/negative theology, when an absolute existence is denied in a particular

element/perspective, that absolute existence becomes easily universal.

Guru Gobind Singh describes Akal Purakh as one of the two bilaterality associated with

the purkh and makes the purakh realize the unity of the Akal Purakh. In the spiritual works, all
the qualities of the world, of the man with a philosophical description, have been proved to be

kaal-yukta and the Akal Purakh has been called the transcendental purusha from the limit of

time. Apart from the man’s world, the creators also use elements of Hindu mythology to explain

all the characteristics and existences of his thinking within the realm of time. After their literary

interpretation, it has come to light that the following Hindu mythological elements have been

used; Indra, three worlds , sur, nar, asura, kaal, Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Krishna, jogi and

bhogi, chand, surya, nihakalanki, shastradhari, lok mata, char chakor, prithvi, ishwar, danvas,

narak, swarag, maya, Bhavani, chauda lok, upinder, phanindra, char khanis, jachha,

gandharva, urga, kinnar, pischa, pret, sharda, mangala mridani, the forms of Krishna (Bal

Gopal, Madhava, Gauan Charanwala, Bansi Wala), naga, Narayan , Gopi Nath, Mondi,

Ashwani Kumar, Mandheep, Dalip, Dara, Duryodhana, Kinnar, Dev Vidya, Daint Bani, Devi

Kanya, Danvi, Achhra, Machhra, Pachhra, Kubera, Sanak, Sankesh, Sain, Narada, Beas,

Chaturanan, Rama, Mahadin, Kama Ban, Durga, Ishwari, Saraswati, Sati, Neelkanth, Rahim ,

Veda, Purana, Shastra, Smriti, Ganesha, Kateb, Prahlad, Prithvi, Akash, Ganika, Rasool ,

Mahadin, kateb and rasool etc.33

In addition to the spiritual works in the Dasam Granth, there is a large part of the works,

in which some elements of Hindu mythology have been re-described. These are compositions;

Bichitra Nataka, Akal Ustat (from 211 to 230 stanzas), Gyan Prabodh (from 126 stanza to end),

Chandi Charitra1, Chandi Charitra 2, Var Durga Ki, Chaubis Avatar, Shashtranam Mala. In

‘Bichitra Nataka’, the lineage of the hero of the composition has been drawn with brief

descriptive descriptions of kaal, Suraj vanshis, Raghu dynasties.34

33
Manmohan Jit Singh, Dasam Granth vich myth rupantran: rup te arth da chinh, vigianak vishleshan
(Loksahit, 1997), 35.
34
Singh, Poetics of Dasam Granth, 66–78.
 At the same time, it has also been pointed out that the karmabhoomi of the physical,

metaphysical and mythological existences of the human world is in the middle of time. Every

worker is born, grows and becomes a slave in time. In the meantime, he takes measures to avoid

the call by being aware of the power of the call. It includes a variety of rituals, rituals and rituals,

but no one puts a human being out of the realm of time. In Akal Ustat (from 201 to 220 stanzas),

Chandi Charitra Ukti Bilas, Chandi Charitra and Var Durga Ki, is presented as creation of Akal

Purakh. Secondly, an attempt has been made to transmit this understanding. Secondly, an

attempt has been made to convey the understanding that this creation of Akal Purakh destroyed

the demons, sorrows, hells, evils, sinners and egoists and made creation habitable to man.

Goddesses and demons are Hindu mythological truths. Their description of the mythical war has

become a poetic narrative rather than a myth, as the gods and goddesses fight with weapons

instead of the miraculous powers of their existence. The use of miracles is a sign of triviality.

The superiority of the weapons has been presented in place of miracles. Gods and

demons are entities with opposing tendencies. Demons can be entitled to a boon by worship and

deities may lose their right due to actions contrary to their nature. Therefore, gods and demons

cannot always be called good and evil entities respectively. In these works, in order to show the

excellence of the symbol of the swords/weapons, the composer presents the mythological

existences in poetic transformation, using cultural, philosophical, mythological truths as a

medium of communication according to his or her verbal ability. The composition of Chaubis

Avatar is mainly a re-description of Hindu mythology. After studying Chaubis Avatar (twenty-

four incarnations of Vishnu), Brahma avatars (six avatars, ten kings and six sages), Rudra

avatars (Datta and Parasnath), it becomes clear that the creator of Hindu mythology has written

the incarnations of Vishnu, Brahma and Shiva, three gods of Hindu mythology. The poetic
narrative of text is presented by adapting the text of the mythological narrative of the sub-

incarnations. The incarnations of Vishnu, Brahma and Rudra are represented respectively in the

sense of karmayogi, jnanayogi and bhaktiyogi as well as creator, nurturer and destroyer. These

three actions, knowledge and devotion are not separate from each other, they are in the other.

The wives of these three deities, Lakshmi, Saraswati and Parvati respectively, are the symbols of

wealth, knowledge and power. Creation without knowledge, adherence without wealth and

destruction without power is not possible.

Therefore, in Hindu mythology, there is a combination of Vishnu/Lakshmi,

Brahma/Saraswati, Shiva/Shakti. Shiva/Shakti is also a symbol of re-creation along with

destruction. Gian Prabodh (126 stanza to end) re-describes many myths clarifying the concepts

of the creator, charity, tegh and raj and moksha religions. His purpose is to point out that the

workers of charity, bhoga, raj and moksha religions are the best beings, but there are

intermediary entities in the bondage of time. In Asphotak Kabita, the creator has reproduced the

myth of Krishna. In Shastranam Mala, the description of the use of mythological elements for

the creation of the names of weapons has been recorded. At the beginning of the composition,

khanda/kharag or tegh i.e., the power of the weapons is praised as a symbol.35

JAAP SAHIB IN MANUSCRIPTS OF DASAM GRANTH

Dasam Granth is collection of many works of Hindi, Persian and Punjabi written by

Guru Gobind Singh. It can also becalled Guru Gobind Singh Granthavali. The first compilation

was under the supervision of Guru Sahib. it was prepared. The Sikhs thought that it should be

merged with the Adi Granth, but Guru Gobind Singh did not do so.

35
Singh and Singh, Sri Dasam Granth Sahib: Text and Translation.
 But during the invasion of Anandpur Sahib by the hill kings and the Mughal forces, this

manuscript disappeared somewhere, or it was looted in the loot of Anandpur and could not

remain in one place in a homogenous way. Since Bhai Mani Singh had been with the Guru all his

life, and for a long time, he was fully aware of which composition was guru sahib’s own and

which was of the court poets.

After the death of Guru Sahib, when Bhai Sahib saw the compositions of the Guru Sahib

scattered in two different places, on the inspiration of Mata Sundari, he planned that all the

received Guru-compositions should be compiled and incorporated in on scripture. So, he

collected the manuscripts from place to place with a very long work and collected it from the

writers like Bhai Shihan Singh etc. and prepared the Dasam Granth. There are well written

accounts of Bhai Sahib’s search activity from Amritsar to Delhi, Mata Sundari, a letter written

by him (April 1713 AD).

Therefore, with the efforts of Bhai Mani Singh, the received work of Guru Gobind Singh

was preserved in the form of Dasam Granth.

The differences of the manuscripts of the Dasam Granth, Giani Gian Singh have written

about.

The ancient manuscripts of historical importance of Dasam Granth are as follows: -

1. Anandpuri recension (8 signature sheets attached), 403 pages.

2. Bhai Mani Singh Vali Bir (including Adi Granth and 9 special letters), 1096 pages.

3. Akal Takht Amritsar (copy from Misl Patna), 626 pages.

4. Diwan Khana Sangrur (from 601 to 1166 letters), 466 pages.

5. Moti Bag Vali Bir (With seven special letters), 401pages.

6. Toshkhana Takht Patna Sahib (with several special letters attached), 713 pages.
7. Patna’s Granthi Bhai Sukha Singh Vali Bir

8. Baba Deep Singh Vali Bir, Damdama Sahib, 971.

In the above description, almost all these four come up and in addition to this, some other

manuscripts are also of historical importance. The details of some of the special manuscripts are

given here: -

1. Anandpuri Recension- This is the most ancient Recension, Paira Singh Padam study this. It is

based on the sanchis prepared by the writers of Guru Gobind Singh’s presence. These were

writers Bhai Darbari, Darbari Singh Chota, Haridas, Nihala and Bala etc. These names are given

at the corner outside the margins at the beginning of every composition. In fact, due to the

inspiration of Mata Sundari, due to the efforts of scholars Bhai Mani Singh, Bhai Shihan Singh

etc. prepared it in Delhi. This is also confirmed by the letter of Bhai Mani Singh to Mata Sundari

Ji and Bhai Kesar Singh.

Therefore, the Anandpuri recension of Guru Gobind Singh included compositions like as

Jaap Sahib, Gyan Prabodh and Ramavatar have been copied by Darbari Singh Chota, Nam

Mala, Var Durga Ki etc. Much of Krishnavatar is a copy of the courtier and some (war

arrangement) is a copy of Haridas’s pen and the character pakhayan is taken down by Nihala and

Bala etc. Recension is in 12*15 dimension, there are 8 signature sheets with 24 lines on them.

There are about 34 lines on each of the remaining sheets. Guru Gobind Singh’s portrait is given

in the beginning and also the portrait of Guru as hunting a lion. The first pages of each original

manuscript have been revised and then again, a single page of recension has been made. In the

end, the written text of another pen is added later, but these pages are lost.

(2) Recension Bhai Mani Singh: - this manuscript is now preserved with the family of late Raja

Gulab Singh Sethi, Hanuman Road, New Delhi. It is prevalent in history that Mani Singh ji
planned to unite the two scriptures, it is possible that it was the invention of another writer. The

Dasam Granth section on the total sheets 1096 is from 537 to 1028 pages with nine special

letters attached

After Charitropakhyaan, comes the creation of Bhagat Bani and Bhattas. At the end

there is the call of lakhi jungle on the Persian Zafarnama.

(3) Akal Takht Amritsar recension: - When Bhai Mani Singh was editing the Dasam Granth, at

the same time or shortly thereafter, at Patna Sahib some learned Sikh also prepared recension,

which is famous as recension Misl Patna Ji. This recension is not available but its 1822 B.C.

landing in Jammu is preserved in the Toshekhana of Akal Takht Amritsar. Which has a total of

626 pages.

(4) Diwan Khana Sangrur: - Diwan Khana Sangrur has a very beautiful recension that Maharaja

Sarup Singh received from Delhi at the time of Ghadar movement. Bhai Nandan Singh Granthi

had told that a Pathan had given this recension along with Gurj, Kharag and Katar. Now it is

preserved come up in The Recension State Archives Library, Patiala.

The content of this recension is given in below mention order.

(5) Gurudwara Moti Bagh, Patiala: - The arrangement of the recension at Moti Bagh Gurdwara,

Patiala is preserved now in Sikh Reference Library, Amritsar, Punjab. The content of this

The India Office Library (in addition to the 8 recensions of Adi Granth) also has three Dasam

Granth recensions.

Comparative chart of four recension of Dasam Granth Sahib, content wise.

Serial No. Bhai Mani Motī Bāg V Sangrur Vali Paṭna Vali Published Bir
Singh Vali ālī Bīṛ Bir Bir
Bir
(1) Jaap Jaap Jaap Jaap Jaap
(2) Bachitra Bachitra Shastra-nam- Akal Ustat Akal Ustat
Natak Natak mala
 (3) Chandi Chandi Akal Ustat Savaiye 32 Bachitra
Charitra 1 Charitra 1 Natak
(4) Chandi Chandi Bachitra Bachitra Chandi
Charitra 2 Charitra 2 Natak Natak Charitra 1
(5) Chaubis Chaubis Chandi Chaubis Chandi
Avatar Avatar Charitra 1 Avatar Charitra 2
(6) Brahma Brahma Chaubis Chandi Var Sri
Avatar Avatar Avatar Charitra 1 Bhagoti Ji Ki
(7) Rudra Avatar Rudra Avatar Brahma Brahma Gian
Avatar Avatar Prabodh
(8) Parasnatha Parasnatha Rudra Avatar Gian Chaubis
Prabodh Avatar
(9) Shastra-nam- Shastra-nam-
Gian Chandi Chaubis
mala mala Prabodh Charitra 2 Avatar
(10) Gian Akal UstatChritro Rudra Avatar Rudra Avatar
Prabodh Pakhyaan
(11) Akal Ustat Gian Samahar Bisanpade Ramkali
Prabodh Sukhmana Patshahi Das
(12) Var Durga Ki Var Durga Ki Malkaus ki Chhakka Savaiye
Var Bhagauti
(13) Chritro Chritro Chhakka Shastra-nam- Khalsa
Pakhyaan Pakhyaan Bhagauti mala Mahima
(14) Zafarnama Sphoṭak Bisanpade Var Durga Ki Shastra-nam-
Kabit mala
(15) Sad Savaiye 33 Zafarnama Chritro Chritro
Pakhyaan Pakhyaan
(16) - Bisanpade Savaiye 33 Sphoṭak Zafarnama
Kabit
(17) - Sad Sphoṭak Bhagavant Hikaitan
Kabit Gita
(18) - Zafarnama Some verse Samahar -
with title Sukhmana
(19) - - - Some verse -
(20) Malkaus ki -
Var
(21) Var Bhagauti -
Ji Ki

THE CONCEPTION OF JAAP (MEDITATIVE REPETITION OF DIVINE NAMES)

Jaap/Japa: This is the term for the name recitation practice. In Indian culture, the practice

of japa has a long history. Vedic and Puranic literature, as well as other genres, have all

established its importance. The Mantrayana tradition of Buddhism has a specific place for
mantra-japa.36 The Narada Bhakti-Sutra refers to it as Sammaran-Asakti.37 Three different

categories of chants are discussed in Manu-Smriti: Vachak, Upaanshu, and Manas. Superiority

has been assigned to these three. Vachik-japa is the japa in which mantras are clearly recited.38

Upaanshu is a chant performed in such a slow tone that even a person sitting nearby

cannot hear it; just the lips are visible moving. Manas-japa is concerned with mental pondering.

With the differentiation of varnas and padas, the meaning of the mantra should be understood

through intelligence. In mind-chanting, the tongue remains motionless. Manas-japa is the best of

all three chants because, in vachik-japa, the seeker focuses his power more on the action of the

outward utterance than on the sensation, whereas upaanshu lends more weight to the feeling than

the external activity. However, with manas-japa, the external action is completely abolished,

allowing the feeling to take center stage. This is also known as the samadhi state.

In addition to the three japas mentioned above, there are numerous other japa methods in

use, including nit-japa, naimitik-japa (which is performed on special occasions), kamna-japa

(which is done to fulfil a desire), nishidh-japa (which is done contrary to the law or in an impure

manner), atonement-chanting (if done for the repentance of a bad karma). Chants such as akal-

japa, chal-japa, bhramar-japa, akhand-japa, pradkhna-jap, and others are also mentioned.39

According to the Bhagavad-Gita (10/25), the japa-yuga is the highest.40 Patanjali

theorized japa in the Yogasutra (1/27-28), stating that japa practice is a highly beneficial

36
Maria Kozhevnikov, “Enhancing Human Cognition Through Vajrayana Practices,” Journal of Religion
and Health 58, no. 3 (June 1, 2019): 65, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-019-00776-z.
37
William K. Mahony, Exquisite Love: Reflections on the Spiritual Life Based on Narada’s Bhakti Sutra
(India: Sarvabhava Press, 2014), 84.
38
Deepali Bhargava, Manu Smriti: A Sociological Analysis (New Delhi: South Asia Books, 1990), 87–
103.
39
Harvey Alper, Understanding Mantras (New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1991), 120–47.
40
maharṣhīṇāṁ bhṛigur ahaṁ girām asmyekam akṣharam
yajñānāṁ japa-yajño ’smi sthāvarāṇāṁ himālayaḥ
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, The Bhagavadgita (Aquarian, 1995), 103.
technique of approaching God.41 The belief in the immortality of japa has been reflected in

tantric literature, whether Vaishnava or Shakta.

Thus, in Indian culture, there is a long tradition of chanting, which began with the

chanting of mantras or their meaning and feelings during the Vedic period, but Patanjali placed

more emphasis on the feelings, and in the Tantra-yuga, all the importance of the meaning was

removed from the chanting, and only emotion and devotion were used. The importance of nam-

japa has been extensively discussed in the puranas and sub-puranas, either separately or through

upmana-vidhana. Clearly, the mediaeval saints and devotees had a long heritage of chanting,

which has three methods: vachik (in which the swara is lifted), kayak (in which only the lips

move), and mental (which is only in the mind). Pitambar Dutt Barthwal gave these three titles to

them: japa, ajpa-japa, and anahat jap.42

There is a lot of emphasis on nam-japa in Gurbani. Guru Amar Das ji has considered the

name-chanting done from the heart to achieve salvation as the best means – Mukhhu Hari Hari

Sabhu Ko Kare Virle Hrirdayi Basaya. Nanak, who lived in the heart of the heart, attained

salvation. (G. Gr. 565) । In Gurbani, three methods of chanting have been established- japa

(simple), ajpa-japa and live-japa.

ELEMENTS OF JAPA

In the context of above discussion on japa, the following elements are visible: individual or

collective effort, words (slokas, sutras or mantras), pronunciation, continuity and desired aim.

41
tasya vācakaḥ praṇavaḥ
tajjapaḥ tadarthabhāvanam
Edwin F. Bryant, Edwin Francis Bryant, and Patañjali, The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: A New Edition,
Translation, and Commentary with Insights from the Traditional Commentators (California: North Point
Press, 2009), 209.
42
Pitambar Dutt Barthwal, Hindi Kavya ki Nirgun Dhara, First Edition (Lahore: Taxshila Prakashan,
1994), 108.
 (a) Individual or collective efforts: Out of the mortal (human) world, man is the only

conscious and intelligent being. Therefore, japa is a conscious effort of practitioner of

spirituality. Through japa man tries to understand the indirect basis-source of the apparent

natural phenomenon. In this, individual’s intellectual and religious traditions pour out for him.

With the help of his tradition and individual’s present understanding, man first determines the

basis-source of natural, non-natural and human beings and phenomena, then strives to achieve

his harmony with it.

In todays present era, man has an institutional level system under the formal education

system for the education and communication of knowledge and science. Such a system was

absent in ancient human society. Therefore, this deficiency was made up by the social systems

associated with religion in order to educate and alert man. Persons with a simple intellect were

first made to practice the recitation of sutras and mantras derived from tradition at an informal

level, then it became a part of their daily life in the form of japa. Special emphasis was laid on

purity to maintain the originality of chanting of sutras and mantras. For this purpose, with their

pure pronunciation, many types of daily rituals and beliefs also came into existence. He also

contributed to establishing in seed-form the fields of study of the compulsion of oral

communication and tradition, nirukta, lexicography, grammar and philosophy. Thus japa comes

across as a human effort on a practical level. This effort can be individual as well as collective.

In both cases it provides a healthy direction to the society and proves to be beneficial for the

individual and the group.

(b) Shabad (Word): The word japa is the main element of the process. The entire subconscious,

semi-conscious and conscious world of man is based on the word (Shabad), according to Indian

tradition. Indian grammarians and modern linguistics agree with the fact that language is what
creates the world in human consciousness. The existence of the physical and material object-

world, when it becomes part of man's intellect through signographic processes, makes language

the medium. That is why it has been said that the word is the world and the language (word) acts

as a guide for social reality. So, the second main element of individual or collective chanting is

the ‘word’. The ‘word’ is always chanted. This ‘word’ can be a noun in the unit form or an

adjective and then the adjective-noun together can also take the verbal form.

In the tradition, since oral practice was the only means of communication, the ‘word’

prescribed for chanting was mostly in a rhymed form. The poetic form with a rhymed rhythm not

only became a part of memory, but also provided the practitioner with pleasure through the

waves of music emanating from the rhythm and rhythm. This main element (word) of japa is the

product of the human creation process in verse and poetic form. Therefore, the thought

transmitted through it transcends ordinary linguistic utterances and rhetorical statements. When

simple and conceptual terminology is used in created contexts to transmit consciousness,

knowledge and cognition gained through human practice and cosmic observation, the word takes

the form of sutras and mantras. But if the person making such a linguistic creation is the holder

of the highest and revered place of the devotee or guru, then this creation of his is accepted and

respected as ‘revelation’. The japa of the reveled words is not only makes the individual and the

group aware of the reality of life, but also makes them stand in front of the base-source of the

entire natural and human life and also makes clear the way to achieve harmony with it.

(c) Pronunciation: The word is pronounced under chanting. Human language is primarily

the existence of speech-level. The person first listens to the words and then practices speaking to

them. After continuous practice, he not only learns to repeat the words heard, but also

subconsciously absorbs the grammatical rules in these words. Then with these adopted rules, he
begins to communicate his own feelings, needs and thoughts. Therefore, even in the japa, the

pronunciation of the prescribed word or mantra is heard first, then with the practice of its

pronunciation, he (the word, sutra or mantra) is made a part of the memory. The pronunciation

and practice of a definite word is also instrumental in making the meanings transmitted through

the semantic circles of the units in them and the contexts created by them a part of

consciousness. The chanter chants with audible pronunciation at the first stage. At the next stage,

his lips seem to move, because after his attention is focused, he does not need to hear the

pronunciation of the word through his ear, but he accepts the word asleep. His lips do not even

seem to move from the outside at the developed stage of the exercise. At this stage, his japa

becomes such a human effort, in which there is a word as well as a pronunciation, but this

pronunciation of his becomes an inter-centered utterance in intuition rather than an outward

appearance. At this stage he does not have to resort to physical organs to concentrate. He

pronounces and recites the word with inter-attention. At this stage, he does not have to depend on

physical organs to see, because his spiritual visible doors are opened. This stage becomes the

next step in achieving that one’s harmony, i.e., the visible of the unseen. In this way, this element

of chanting (pronunciation) serves to educate the person (the seeker) and alert the surat

(conscious).

(c) Continuity: Japa is such a human process, which is of a regular nature like physiological

processes. Just as continuous balanced diet and practice is required for the growth, development

and well-being of the body, in the same way, the act of chanting for the development and well-

being of the mind, intellect and consciousness is also made a part of the daily processes and

efforts. There is a constant effort of practice to make it a part of the power. During this process,

human reproduction is not only limited to a physical process, but it also becomes the source of
the creation of an intellectual and mental consciousness. With the words of japa, when they

constantly become a part of human thought, they affect both the mind and body of man.

Society and order can also give man a very effective position and can also push him into

a state of severe suffering. It is self-inflicted in both cases. His self (self) is tied to the mind

centered in the body. The ups and downs of life make him ascend to the sky and the ups and

downs bring him to the abyss. This action happens continuously in the life of a human being.

Therefore, the continuation of japa makes a major contribution to keeping the human body and

mind fixed from the heights of the sky and the depths of the abyss to the flat surface of the earth.

In this way, in the human nature of chanting, the continuous pronunciation of the word has a

short-lasting significance as well as a long-lasting significance.

(h) Desire goal: No human process or effort is unplanned. All efforts for the social and material

development of man have been determined. As discussed above that at the early stages of human

society, the purpose of japa was to perform the function of the informal education system. At the

next stage, this human effort became the basis of philosophical and religious thinking. A person

living on developed social stages is constantly striving for physical pleasures and social prestige.

While their achievement gives him the satisfaction of fulfilling the set goals, it also gives him the

opportunity to be meaningless. But the failure of these goals pushes man into a quagmire of

misery. Both situations are unusual.

A state of consistency is necessary to get out of these and to see the reality of life.

Therefore, the main purpose of japa is to provide such a physical and mental state to the

individual and the group, so that they can acquire a position of equality in human life. By

reaching such a position, he comes out of his self-oriented thinking and becomes not only the

holder of altruistic thinking but can also acquire harmony with the whole cosmic reality. Self-
oriented thinking takes man into the quagmire of the confines of the animal world, while

transcendental thinking gives him cosmic and spiritual heights. In this way, the purpose of

chanting is concentrated not only in the human circles, but also in the entire cosmic and spiritual

circles.

THE CONCEPTION OF JAAP IN SIKHISM

According to Punjabi grammar, the term nam is a noun that provides information about

an object, place, or person. In general, it is used to represent the qualities, nature, and form of an

object, among other things. “The name is the word that gives sense of an object, because of

which the meaning is recognised,” explains Bhai Kanh Singh Nabha.43 The name’s major secrets

are two: one is an object such as a person, a bull, a mountain, etc. However, in Sikhism, the word

nam does not simply mean noun.

In Sikhism, the term refers to the creator as all-encompassing, all-powerful, nurturing,

fearless, fearless, unborn, ever-constant, ever-truth, and light. The nam refers to an all-

encompassing power that pervades all of existence. According to Sikhism, the literal meaning of

the name does not correspond to the definition of the nam. In Gurbani, the nam is associated to

the inner and total meanings as well as the external sense. The nam is a hidden and enigmatic

aspect based on the power of eternal existence. In Gurbani, this is referred to as sat/truth. This

power pervades the entire world as the cause and basis.

Nam, according to Gurbani, is a spiritual practice that purifies the soul and illuminates

subtle wisdom. As a result, the potential and wisdom to judge sin, good and evil, religion and

iniquity develops.

Bhai Kahan Singh Nabha, “Mahan Kosh - Gurushabad Ratnakar,” in Gurushabad Ratnakar Mahan
43

Kosh (Ludhiana: Lahore Book Shop, 2018), 2451.

 Although the term nam is extensively used in Gurbani, there are three distinct meanings in

the primary form that may be identified with certainty.

(1) The name of an object. (3) chanting, simran (a form of

(2) the name of God in its direct and repetition of a name) and liv. The

indirect form name is not just a sangya, it is a

spiritual practice.

The nam is blessed in Sikhism, the provider of happiness, the source of life, the sin-

destroyer, the sorrow-breaker, the destroyer of dread, the gem, the maha rasa, niranjan (the

Immaculate), the eighth tirtha, the one who breaks off the bond, removes the fear of yams, and

removes the ailment. It is supposed to be the destroyer of illusion and duality, the giver of

salvation, the wishing tree, kamadhen (Hindu cow deity), and the bringer of harmony.

These are brief details, the name has been used very widely in Gurbani, this proves that the

nam is helpful in the people’s paradise and no single word can be a name.

That is, the name of God is the expression of God. The whole creation of creation is derived

from His name. The whole world, all the heavens and the heavens, are all his name. All this is an

expression of his name. His ability and his gifts through which we know him. God’s name is his

expression for his devotees, he is merciful and makes his devotees realize their existence to their

slaves. Whatever subtle or non-trivial thing exists is its name.

The names that human beings have kept knowing that God according to their own thinking,

such as some Indian names Agam, Agochar, Sarva Saksham, Karta, Harta, Hari, Ram, Nirankar,

Parabraham, Avinashi, Niranjan, Nirban, Sargun, Aparampar , Ajuni, Saibhan, Akal Murti,

Murari, Gopal, Gobind, Kartar, Prabhu, Mohan, Madho, Narayan, Vasdev, Banwari, Gosain,

Allah, Qadir , Karim, Raja, Parvardgar, Rahim, Maula etc. Guru Nanak Dev has also used some
names with his personal experience, such as Knt, Sajan, Priya, Pir, Var, Sai, Sohag, Pritam,

Pyara, etc.44

According to Bhai Jodh Singh “the nam is therefore the all-pervading existence which is full

everywhere and is assuming less. The name means not only name of God, but it includes all-

pervading form of God.”45

According to Sher Singh “the nam is unspeakable and unspeakable. So, the nam was not

given. The nam is not a matter of the senses of knowledge, the nam is an experiential experience.

It is a feeling, a taste. So, it cannot be stated in letters.”46

According to Duncan Greenless “He (God) deigns to reveal himself by taking some manifest

form that the creature may become aware of Him, and that manifest form is called the nam. The

Nam is God himself adapted to our power of perception”47

44
Gulzar Singh Kang, Shabad Anubhav Te Darshan (Sri Amritsar: Naad Pargaas, 2014), 156–60.
45
Jodh Singh, Gurmat Nirney (Punjab: Language Department Punjab, 1990), 34.
46
Sher Singh, Gurmat Darshan (Amritsar: Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee, 1982), 377–78.
47
Duncan Greenless, The Gospel of the Guru-Granth Sahib, Third Edition (Theosophical Publishing
House, 1968), 133.
 1.1.1 Jaap Sahib and Sahasranāma Tradition

1.1.2 Jaap Sahib and Indic Devotional Tradition

1.1.3 The Conception of God: Jaap Sahib and Japuji Sahib

1.1.4 Jaap Sahib: Poetry and Revelation

1.2 Jaap Sahib: Form and Structure

1.2.1 Language of Jaap Sahib

1.2.2 Poetic Style

1.2.3 Poetic Meters

1.2.3.1 Poetic Meters: Definition and Importance

1.2.3.2 Poetic Meters: Types

1.2.3.3 Poetic Meters in Dasam Granth

1.2.3.4 Poetic Meters in Jaap Sahib

1.3 Jaap Sahib: Thematic Analysis

1.3.1 The Conception of God as Immanent and Transcendent (kal purakh and

akal purakh)

1.3.2 Jaap Sahib: Names of God

1.3.3 Jaap Sahib: Metaphors, Symbols and Meaning

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