Transmission line

Transmission line should be made by a conductive material (Ag, Au, Cu, Al). Aluminum is preferred over
other material for construction of Transmission Lines due to the following reasons:

● Light in weight due to which it is easier to use it for Overhead Lines.

● Low cost.
● More resistivity than copper.
● For same value of resistance, if resistivity is high, then area of cross section is higher. Due to increased
cross sectional area the current density reduces for same value of current and by Ohm’s Law the Electric
Field Intensity also reduces.
● Since electric field Intensity is less in Al, so charge ionization is less & hence corona is less.

In a Transmission line following characteristics are desirable,

● Power loss should be as low as possible such that efficiency is high.

● Voltage drop in Power line should be as low as possible such that line should have good voltage
regulation.
Rating of Transmission Line
The following ratings are usually specified for any Transmission Line:
● Voltage rating which is actually Line to Line RMS Voltage for 3-phase systems.
● MVA Rating which is 3 – phase apparent power capacity of Transmission line.
○ S = 3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 only for balanced 3 phase system
○ S = 3𝑉𝑃ℎ 𝐼𝑃ℎ only for balanced 3 phase system
From MVA Rating and the Voltage rating we can determine the current rating as given below,
Current rating,
○ 𝐼𝐿 =
𝑆
3𝑉𝐿
● Current Rating
○ Area of cross section of conductor ∝ current rating
Classification of Power line voltage levels
● High voltage (HV) – it is 11kV, 33kV
● Extra High voltage (EHV) – 66kV, 132kV, 220kV
● Modern extra high voltage (MEHV) – 400kV
● Ultra high voltage (UHV) – 765kV or above
Types of Over-voltages
● Lightning Overvoltage ● Switching Overvoltage
Skin Effect
● This effect can be explained in terms of skin depth. The current
density as we move inwards from the surface of the conductor is
given by,
−𝑥
𝐽 = 𝐽𝑚𝑎𝑥 ⅇ 𝛿

Where x is measured from the surface of conductor

● Current density reduces exponentially as we move inwards from

the surface of the conductor. Hence, current density is maximum
at the surface of conductor and minimum in the interior of the
conductor
● 𝛿 is called as skin depth of the conductor. It is the distance from
the surface up to where current is effectively concentrated.
Parameters affecting Skin Effect
So, as frequency is increased the skin depth reduces and current gets concentrated in smaller area around the
surface. Hence, skin effect is more predominant at higher frequencies.
● Ideal conductors have max skin effect
● Dielectric materials have less skin effect
● Magnetic materials will have more skin effect as compared to electrical conductors.
● In case of DC transmission, 𝜔 = 0 and 𝛿 = ∞ hence so current density is given by, 𝐽 = 𝐽𝑚𝑎𝑥 . So, the
current density is uniform in case of DC transmission and conductor is more efficiently utilized as
compared to AC transmission where current does not flow through the inside region of conductor.
Types of conductors
● There are four types of conductors which are commonly employed and they differ in their
construction. Each configuration has its own advantages and disadvantages.
● Solid Conductor / Single Strand Conductor
● Stranded Conductor
● Composite Stranded Conductor
● Bundle Conductor Systems
Stranded Conductors
● It is used to reduce skin effect
● Number of strands are taken & twisted together to get the required current carrying capability.
● Number of strands depend on final shape of stranded conductors.
● Homogenous Stranded Conductor
Diameter=same; material=same
● AAC → All Aluminum Conductor (all conductors are made of Al)
● A stranded conductor with 7 strands has been shown in the figure below,
Composite Stranded Conductors
● It is used to increase tensile strength or reduce Sag.
● Central or internal strands of normal AAC will be replaced with the new strands having good
mechanical & tensile strength.
● Here, the central strand is made of a different material usually steel.
● Steel has more tensile strength as compared to Aluminum so tensile
● Strength of conductor increases.
● ACSR → Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced
● Steel strands only provide mechanical strength & it will not carry any amount of current.
Bundled Conductors
● We can often see the transmission lines where instead of a single conductor per
phase multiple conductors per phase are being used. A metallic structure called
spacers groups the conductors of a phase. Each phase can have two, three, or
four conductors.
● We generally use such a configuration when a bulk power is being transmitted to
long distances at very high voltage level.
Advantages of Bundled Conductors
● Bundling of conductors leads to reduction in line inductance.
● On the similar argument for decrease in inductance of line, we can say that the capacitance of the line
increases.
● Now since we have L decreased and C increased the net SIL of the line also increases.
● The most important advantage of bundled conductors is its ability to reduce corona discharge.
● Reduction in the formation of corona discharge leads to less power loss and hence improved
transmission efficiency of the line.
● Reduction in communication line interference due to reduction in corona.
● The ampacity i.e. the current carrying capacity of bundled conductors is much increased in comparison
to single large conductor owing to reduced skin effect.
● As the bundled conductors have more effective surface area exposed to air, it has better and efficient
cooling and hence better performance compared to a single conductor.
Calculation of Inductance of Power Lines
● The Inductance of Power Lines can be calculated by the expression given below,

Significance of ‘L’
● It is used to represent reactive power Q absorbed by the line.
● It represents flux linkages in a conductor. There are two types of flux linkages in conductors
○ Internal magnetic flux linkages
○ External magnetic flux linkages
● For Inductance calculation we neglect skin effect.
Internal Inductance of a Conductor
External Inductance of a Conductor
GMD
Let us assume two composite conductors used in Transmission Line as shown in figure below.

For getting the GMD, first we need to calculate the distance between the strands of Go and Return
conductors.
Let,
● D11 = Distance between the 1ststrand of Go and Return conductor
● D12 = Distance between the 1ststrand of Go and 2nd strand of Return conductor
● D21 = Distance between the 2nd strand of Go and 1st strand of Return conductor
● Dmn = Distance between the mthstrand of Go and nth strand of Return conductor
GMR
Let us assume two composite conductors used in Transmission Line as shown in figure below.

For calculating GMR, first we find the distance between the individual strands. Thus if there are n strands in a
composite conductor then obviously there will be n2 distances between the strands.
Flux Linkage
Transposition of Transmission Lines
● Transmission Lines are transposed to reduce radio interference on communication lines. Transposition
makes the GMD of all the conductors equal.
● In transposition the position of conductors will be changed such that all 3 conductors have to
experience all 3 positional GMDs.

● Since, each conductor experiences all the positional GMDs the inductance of each conductor is given
by,
Inductance in Single Phase two wire line
Inductance of Stranded Conductors
For Stranded Conductors we calculate GMR in same way as Self GMD.

GMR of stranded conductors is less than Solid Conductors so, GMR < 0.7788r.
Three Phase Single Conductor System
Three Phase Bundled Conductor System
Calculation of Capacitance for Power Line
● The capacitance of a Power Line can be calculated as,

Significance of Capacitance
● It represents reactive power (Q) supplied by line.
● It represents changing current carried by line.
Calculation of Capacitance for Power Line
Capacitance in Single Phase two wire line
Effect of earth on Capacitance Calculation
Three phase Single Conductor System
Three phase bundle conductor system
Steady State Performance of Transmission
Line
● To know whether the equipment is working properly, we need to study the steady state behavior of
Transmission Line. Generally the performance indices that are studied are:

Efficiency
● Power efficiency
● Energy Efficiency or All Day Efficiency

The various losses in a Transmission Line,

● I2R Losses: These losses are variable with the load.
● Corona Loss: These losses are variable with atmospheric conditions.
● V2GLoss: This is due to leakage current in the insulator.
Steady State Performance of Transmission
Line
Regulation
● Static Regulation
○ Apparatus giving electrical energy as output e.g. Transformer, Generator, Transmission
Line etc.
● Dynamic Regulation
○ Apparatus giving mechanical energy as output e.g. Motor
ABCD Parameters
● Transmission Lines when modelled in terms of 2-port network is represented in terms of
ABCD parameters or
● Transmission Parameters. These parameters relate the sending end and the receiving end
parameters.
 Classification of Transmission Lines
● Short line
○ For 50Hz frequency, length must be less than 80km for a line.
○ L < 80km, Lf < 4000
○ For a short Transmission line, we neglect any shunt element i.e. Conductance and Line
Charging Current.
● Medium line
○ For 50Hz frequency, length must be more than 80km and less than 200km for a line.
○ 80km< L < 200km, 4000 < Lf < 10000
○ For a medium Transmission line, we neglect shunt conductance.
● Long line
○ For 50Hz frequency, length must be more than 200km for a line.
○ L > 200km, Lf > 10000
○ If the frequency of operation is changed, the length criteria for classification will be changed.
Here, we use distributed parameter model of a Transmission Line.
Note: Always steady state analysis is done on lumped model & transient
analysis on distributed model.
Short Transmission Line
● In case of Short Transmission Line, we lump the resistance and inductance, but capacitance
is neglected. The circuit model is shown below,
ABCD Parameters of Short Transmission Line
● In case of Short Transmission Line, we lump the resistance and inductance, but capacitance
is neglected. The circuit model is shown below,
Phasor Diagram of Short Transmission Line
Voltage Regulation in Short Transmission
line
Voltage Regulation
● Maximum Voltage Regulation
Voltage Regulation
● Zero Voltage Regulation
Medium Transmission Line
In Medium Transmission Line, the line charging current is appreciable and thus Shunt
Capacitance cannot be neglected. But there can be various configurations based on where the
Shunt Capacitance is placed. The parameters are distributed so when we lump them we can
connect them in different manner
● Receiving end “C” model
Medium Transmission Line
● Sending end “C” model ● Nominal T-model
Medium Transmission Line
● Nominal 𝝅- model
Receiving end “C” model
Receiving end “C” model
Ferranti Effect
Under No load or light load conditions, the magnitude of receiving end voltage may be more
than sending end voltage, which is called as Ferranti Effect. This is due to charging current carried
by the line
Sending end “C” model
Nominal T – model
Nominal 𝝅 - model
Long Transmission Line
● For Long Transmission Line analysis, we use distributed model instead of Lumped Parameter Model.
So, we try to model a small region of long line of length Δx .
Long Transmission Line
Long Transmission Line
Equivalent Networks of Long Transmission
Line
● Equivalent 𝝅 - model
Equivalent Networks of Long Transmission
Line
● Equivalent T – Model

● ABCD parameters of Nominal T & Nominal 𝝅 model are different but parameters of
Equivalent T and equivalent 𝝅 model are same.
● Thus, equivalent T-model and equivalent 𝝅 model can be obtained from each other by Star-
Delta Conversion.
Approximate ABCD parameters of long power
line
Per Unit ABCD Parameters
● A, B, C, D are always per-phase & these are complex numbers. In per unit
Complex Representation of ABCD Parameters
Static Power Transfer Equation
Condition for Maximum Power Transfer (P max)
Power Angle Characteristics of Power Line
Power Angle Characteristics of Power Line
Surge Impedance / Characteristic Impedance
/ Natural Impedance
Zc = impedance offered by an apparatus for surges, travelling waves / Transients. It is the voltage to current
ratio on Power line during wave propagation
Surge Impedance / Characteristic Impedance
/ Natural Impedance
Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)
Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)
● Note: When Loading = SIL, flat voltage profile is obtained on Transmission Line and hence SIL is called
as ideal loading capability of the line.
Characteristics of Transmission Lines
● The equivalent circuit of a Long Transmission Line is shown below. Here each section of the line is replaced by
equivalent circuit, so each parameter is per unit length.

● Here, each section of the line is assumed to have different length and thus the value of their lumped parameters is
different.
● The value of distributed parameters is R/km, L/km, C/km, G/km.
Flat Line or Infinite Line
If the voltage magnitude and current magnitude remains same at all points on the Transmission Line but the
phase may be different, then it is termed as Flat Line or Infinite Line. A Transmission Line terminated in
Characteristic Impedance is termed as Flat Line or Infinite Line.
Distortion Less Line
If the wave in the Transmission Line does not suffer any distortion in the wave shape as wave propagates in
the
Transmission Line, it is called as Distortion Less Line. The condition of Distortion less line is,
Time constant of series part = Time constant of shunt part

As shown in the figure above that due to resistance and conductance of the line the wave may be attenuated
i.e.
amplitude may change but wave shape should remain constant.
Lossless Transmission Line
● If R=G, G=0, in each section of Transmission Line then the wave amplitude remains same and does not
decrease as the wave propagates forward in a Transmission Line.
● If R≠ 0, or G ≠ 0, then it is called as lossy line or attenuated line.
● If RC=LG, R ≠ 0, G ≠ 0 then wave magnitude decreases without any distortion.
Propagation Constant ( 𝛾 )
Wavelength of Transmission Line ( 𝜆 )
Wave Propagation Phenomenon
● When a DC voltage is impressed on a Transmission Line in the form of Surge or
● a Lightning Discharge it propagates as a surge in Transmission Line.
Wave Propagation Phenomenon
(lossless Transmission Line)

Suppose the voltage waveform looks like as shown at t=0

there will be no change in the shape and magnitude of
the waveform as it is propagating in a lossless
transmission Line.
Wave Propagation Phenomenon
(lossless Transmission Line)
Time variation for f1

So, as the time progresses the right shift in the function increases
and thus we can say that wave travels forward.
Wave Propagation Phenomenon
(lossless Transmission Line)
Time variation for f2

So, as the time progresses the left shift in the function increases
and thus we can say that wave travels backward
Wave Propagation Phenomenon
(lossless Transmission Line)
Wave Propagation Phenomenon
(lossless Transmission Line)
Current Equation
● The forward and backward travelling current and voltage waves are related as,

● Thus, forward current and voltage are in same phase whereas backward voltage and current are in opposite
phase.
Open Circuited Transmission Line
The surge voltage is induced almost instantaneously and thus is modelled as a step voltage source.
Since, receiving end is open circuit,
Transmitted Current, I2 = 0
At sending end side, due to constant voltage source
Open Circuited Transmission Line
Surge Voltage and Surge Currents are impressed on the Transmission Line as shown below,
Open Circuited Transmission Line
Open Circuited Transmission Line
● Current Coefficients

● Voltage Coefficients
Open Circuited Transmission Line
Steady state Open circuit of the line

● For AC supply of frequency ‘f’

● Incident Voltage = VS = V

● Receiving End Open Circuit Voltage

● For the case of transients, the supply is DC

Short Circuited Transmission Line
Short Circuited Transmission Line
Surge Voltage and Surge Currents are impressed on the Transmission Line as shown below,
Short Circuited Transmission Line
Short Circuited Transmission Line
● Current Coefficients

● Voltage Coefficients
Short Circuited Transmission Line
Steady state Open circuit of the line
Thevenin Equivalent
To draw the Thevenin Equivalent of the Transmission Line for the surges at the time of first reflection, we
need to determine the Open Circuit Voltage and Short Circuit Current.
Reflection and Refraction Coefficients
Important Points
● If surge voltage enters from high surge impedance, medium (OH) line to low surge impedance medium
(cable) then surge voltage magnitude reduces.
● If surge voltage travels from low surge impedance medium to high surge impedance medium then
surge voltage magnitude increases.

● Surge Impedance of Pure Inductor

● Surge Impedance of Pure Capacitor

● Hence, if a shunt capacitor is employed it will bypass the surge by providing a low impedance path and
thus protecting the other devices in the system.
Bifurcated / Parallel lines
Voltage Control
Voltage Control
Types of loads in our system
Voltage Control
Voltage control methods
Voltage Control
Voltage control devices
● Shunt Capacitor
● Shunt Reactor / inductor
● Series Capacitor
● Synchronous Condenser
● Synchronous coil / inductor
● Synchronous phase modifier / advancer
Voltage Control
The reactive power consumer or delivered by various apparatus under different conditions is tabulated
below,
Relation between receiving end voltage (Vr)
& net reactive power Qs or Qshunt

To control receiving end voltage we can,

● Change the value of |Vs| but it requires Internal Voltage Control which is not practical.
● Change the reactance of Transmission Line by Series Compensation.
● Change the net reactive power to be supplied by the system by the use of Shunt Compensation.
Shunt Capacitor
● It is used to correct under voltages in the system i.e. it increases the receiving end voltage.
● Current in Transmission line can be modified to reduce the voltage drop in the line.
Shunt Capacitor
Phasor Diagram Power Triangle
Shunt Reactor or Shunt Inductor
● It is used to avoid over – voltages in the system so it is used for leading pf loads.
● Current in Transmission line is modified to modify the voltage drop in the line.
Shunt Capacitor
Phasor Diagram Power Triangle

QL

𝜃2
Series Capacitor
Series Capacitor
● Impact on Stability
Series Capacitor
● Impact on Fault Current
Series Capacitor Vs Shunt Capacitor
Series Capacitor Vs Shunt Capacitor
Voltage Profile
The voltage drop in a line is approximately,
Series Capacitor Vs Shunt Capacitor
Surge Impedance and Surge Impedance Loading
Surge Impedance and Surge Impedance Loading
Dynamic Voltage Control
The use of Synchronous Motor for Voltage Control is called as Dynamic Voltage Control as it has rotor which
is
rotating part. Based on excitation of Synchronous Motor we can control the reactive power of the motor.

Synchronous Condenser & Synchronous coil

● Synchronous Condenser is an over – excited synchronous motor operating under no-load condition.
● Synchronous coil is an under – excited synchronous motor operating under no-load condition.
Synchronous Condenser
Synchronous Coil
Synchronous Phase Modifier or Phase Advancer
● It is an over – excited synchronous motor operating with some mechanical load.
● pf of phase modifier cos 𝜙𝑚 ≠ 0 leading

The phasor diagram for lagging power factor load

Load Frequency Control
● Power input to a machine must continuously be regulated to match the active power demand,
otherwise the machine speed will change with consequent change in frequency which is undesirable.
● When the load on a generator or a group of generators increases, the rotors slow down resulting in
reduction in frequency. However, the governors adjust the input so as to bring the frequency to the
original level.
● The control of frequency by the action of governors is called the Primary Control. The action of the
governors is automatic. However, frequency control by governors alone is not adequate and secondary
control is required.
● In secondary control loading on different plants is changed. Load Frequency control in an
interconnected system is more difficult as compared to system with one or two machines.
Load Frequency Control
Flat Frequency Control
If two generating stations are connected by tie line and additional load demand is taken
care of by only one station and other station is not regulated. If load at any of the two
stations change, the generation at only one station is changed to maintain a balance
between generation and load.
The drawback of this method is that one station must have enough capacity to absorb load
variations for the entire system.

Parallel Frequency Control

In this method both alternators are regulated simultaneously to maintain the frequency
constant.

Flat Tie-Line Control

In this method of frequency control the increase in load of one area is met by increasing
the generation in that area and thus keeping the power flow through the tie line constant.
This method is used when a small system and large system is interconnected by a tie line.
Load Frequency Control
Area Frequency Response Characteristics
Underground Cables
● Underground Cables are used for Transmission and Distribution of Power where it becomes impracticable to use
overhead construction. Such an area may be congested urban area or crossing wide water bodies where Overhead
construction is not possible. An electric cable may be defined as a single conductor insulated through its full length or
two or more conductors each provided with its own insulation and laid up together under one protective outer
covering.
Construction
Different layers involved in an Underground Cable are shown in the figure below,
Underground Cables
Insulation
To avoid the flow of leakage current to ground (or) other live parts of the system.
Properties of Insulators
● High Insulation Resistance
● High Dielectric Strength
● Non – hygroscopic (less corrosive)
● Free from impurities
● Insulators should be electrically & chemically inactive.
Generally, the following materials are used as insulators and their dielectric strengths are also mentioned
against each material

● Vulcanized Rubber : 10 – 20 kV/mm

● Poly Vinyl Chloride : 18 kV/mm
● Impregnated Paper : 30 KV/mm
● XLPE (cross linked polyethene) : 20 KV/mm
Underground Cables Vs Overhead Lines
● Insulation placed on surface of conductor in UG cables whereas insulator is connected between
conductor and tower in case of Overhead Lines.
● The radius of conductor is almost same in case of UG cables and Overhead Lines and hence GMR also
remains same.
● From, the figure we can see the distance between conductors is reduced in case of UG cables and thus
GMD of UG cable is less as compared to Overhead Lines.

● The inductance of Transmission Line is given by.

Due to reduction in GMD per phase inductance is reduced in case of UG cables.

● The capacitance in a Transmission Line is given by,

● Due to reduction in GMD the capacitance is increased in case of UG cables.

Underground Cables Vs Overhead Lines
● Due to reduction in Inductance, the reactance of line is reduced and thus maximum power transfer
capability of UG cable is increased as compared to Overhead Line.

● Surge Impedance of a Transmission Line is given by,

Due to increase in Capacitance and reduction in Inductance, surge impedance of UG cable is reduced
as compared to Overhead Lines.

● Surge Impedance Loading of a Transmission Line is given by,

● Due to decrease in Surge Impedance, the Surge Impedance Loading of an UG cable is more as
compared to Overhead Line.
Due to this reason, the loading in case of UG cable is decided on the basis of Thermal Limit and thus
Loading < SIL.
Due to increase in capacitance, the line charging current is more in UG cable as compared to Overhead
Line so Ferranti Effect is more in case of UG cables.
● To reduce Ferranti effect in the cable, Ferranti surge absorber in used or series reactor will be used
whereas in Transmission line shunt reactor will be used.
Proximity Effect
The inductance and current distribution in a conductor is affected by presence of other conductors in its
vicinity,
this is called as Proximity Effect.
If conductors carry current is opposite direction, the magnetic fields tend to increase the current density in
adjacent portions of the conductor and thus current is concentrated in small regions causing an increase in
the
resistance of the conductor just like the case of Skin Effect.
In case of UG cables the conductors are more closely located as compared to Overhead Lines and hence
Proximity
effect is more pronounced in case of UG cables.
Insulation Resistance of cable
● The DC distributed model for a UG cable is shown below,
Insulation Resistance of cable
● The DC distributed model for a UG cable is shown below,
Electrostatic Stress Distribution in Cable Cross
Section
Electrostatic Stress Distribution in Cable Cross
Section
● Since, electric field is inversely proportional to distance so maximum electric field occurs on the surface
of conductor.
● The choice of Insulating material is based on Maximum electric Field as the dielectric strength of the
insulator must be higher than maximum electric field so that it does not breakdown. High Value of
Maximum Electric Field increases the dielectric strength requirement of insulator and thus cost of cable
increases.
Most economical radius of core
Grading of cables
● Potential Gradient is maximum at conductor surface and decreases towards inner surface of sheath. We
want to use different dielectric materials to decrease difference between minimum & maximum
gradient so that electric field is uniformly distributed and dielectric strength requirement of Insulator is
reduced.

● The most ideal condition is if the potential gradient is constant throughout the insulator width. Potential
Gradient at distance x is given by,

We try to obtain approximation of this condition by using 3 or 4 dielectric materials with varying permittivity.

There are two ways to arrange different dielectrics in a cable.

● Factor of safety of all materials is same.

● Working stress of all materials is same.
Capacitance of single core cable
Capacitance of 3 core cable
Losses / Heating in UG
cable
• 𝐼 2 𝑅 loss or core (or) conductor loss in cable I R
• Dielectric loss in cable dielectric
• Sheath loss & Armouring loss
Dielectric Power Loss
There are two major causes of Dielectric Loss in a cable:
● If a dielectric material is placed under the presence of electric field then the dielectric
material will be polarized and the dipoles will be aligned in one specified direction. If the
field direction is reversed than polarization direction & dipole alignment direction will be
reversed. During this process, it consumes some energy called as dielectric loss. The field
direction reverses after every half cycle in case of AC Transmission. So, this hysteresis loss is
only present in AC Transmission and not in DC Transmission.

● The other reason is flow of leakage current through the dielectric due to finite insulator
resistance. Ideally, Insulator resistance should be infinite so no leakage current shall flow.
This loss is present in case of AC as well as DC Transmission.
Dielectric Power Loss

Phasor diagram for RC circuit

representation of dielectric
Overhead Insulators
• Pin type insulators
• Suspension Type Insulators
• Strain Type Insulators
• Shackle Type Insulators
Pin type insulators
● This is one of the earliest designs and used for supporting line conductors.
● It provides the most economic, simple and efficient method of conductor
and bus bar voltages up to 33kV.
● This pin type insulator is mounted on a pin which in turn is secured to the
cross arm of the pole.
● The insulator is placed in the groove at the top of insulator and is tied down
with soft copper or soft aluminium binding wire according to conductor
material.
● Bottom shell is protected by top shell from dust deposition & rain drop fall
i.e. why top shell is widest and bottom shell is narrowest.
● Beyond 33 KV, the pin type insulators become too bulky & hence
uneconomical.
Suspension Type Insulators
● At high voltages pin type insulators become too bulky so it cannot be used for the lines which use
extremely high voltages say 765kV.
● Suspension Type Insulators consist of a number of porcelain discs flexibly connected by metal links in
the form of a string. The suspension insulator hangs from the cross arm of a supporting structure and
the line conductor is attached to its lower end.
● We can increase working voltage by adding extra disc.
● Each unit is designed for low voltage say 11 KV approx.
● If one disc is damaged, whole unit is not damaged.
Strain Type Insulators
● When there is a dead end of the line or there is corner or sharp curve, the line is subjected to greater
tension.
● Pin Type insulators cannot be used in such situations because they cannot take conductor load in
tension which often occurs in such situations.
● To relieve the tension, strain insulators are used.
● Strain Insulators are an assembly of suspension type insulators connected horizontally.
A cable is connected between two transmission lines connected to different insulator units.
● Shackle insulators are used as strain insulators for low voltage lines (V < 11 KV).
Shackle Type Insulators

● Similar to strain insulators but at V < 11 KV.

● Used on sharp curves, end poles & in section poles.
● Every insulator is coated with an extremely hard, smooth glaze that reduces accumulation of surface
deposits.
Number of discs required
Flashover and Puncture Voltage
The voltage at which the air surrounding the insulator breaks down then an arc is formed between the
conductor and the tower. This causes a current to flow between tower and conductor through the arc. It is
called as Arcing Ground or Flashover of the Insulator.
The voltage at which conduction starts taking place through the insulator is called as Puncture Voltage as it
seems that the insulator is punctured and allows the flow of current through it.
Voltage distribution across suspension type string
insulator
● Each string insulator unit behaves like a capacitor having dielectric medium between the two
metallic parts (viz pin and cap). The capacitance due to two metal fittings on either side of
Insulator is called as Mutual Capacitance represented by Cm.
● Further there is a capacitance between metal fitting of each unit and earthed pole or tower.
The capacitance so formed is called as Shunt Capacitance represented by CS.
Voltage distribution across suspension type string
insulator
String efficiency
Methods to improve String Efficiency
● Reduce ‘m’ value
● Insulator Grading / Capacitance Grading
● Static Shielding / Guard wire
Insulator Grading / Capacitance Grading
Static Shielding / Guard wire
Distribution Systems
• DC → Substation, Generating station for protection of equipment & back
up
• AC → Public utility
DC Distribution
● Source Fed from one end
AC Distribution
Types of Distribution Systems

Radial Distribution
● Distribution power is supplied from one substation. eg. The distributor after SS5 in the above
● figure is a Radial Distributor.
Ring Distribution
● It is a closed loop forming a complete distribution of all loads. e.g. the closed loop for
● substations SS1 to SS4 is an example of Ring Distribution.
Source fed from both ends
Ring Distribution
Uniform Distribution
 Power
Generation
Types of Power
plants
✗ Base Load Plants

✗ Nuclear power plant

✗ Coal power plant

✗ Peak Load plants

✗ Gas plant

✗ Solar power plants

✗ Wind turbines

✗ Diesel generators
 Load
Characteristics
Load Characteristics

✗ Connected Load ✗ Maximum ✗ Minimum

demand: Demand
Load Characteristics

✗ Demand Factor ✗ Average Load / Demand

Demand Factor =
Maximum demand Gen. Units(kWh) per Day
Daily Avg. Load =
Total connected load 24 hours

Monthly Avg. Load =

Gen. Units(kWh) per Month
30 x 24 hours

Gen. Units(kWh) per Year

Yearly Avg. Load =
365 x 24 hours
Load Characteristics

✗ Load Factor ✗ Plant Utilization Factor(PUF)

Average Demand
Load Factor =
Maximum Demand Maximum Demand
PUF =
Plant Capacity
Load Characteristics

✗ Diversity Factor ✗ Plant Use Factor(PUF)

Diversity Factor =
Sum of individual maximum demand PUF =
Maximum Concurrent Demand Station output(kWh)
Plant capacity x hours of use
Load Characteristics

✗ Reserve Capacity ✗ Plant Capacity Factor

Reserve capacity= Plant Capacity Capacity Factor=

– Max. Demand Energy Produced
Max. Energy that can be produced
 Economic
operation of
Power System
Economic Loading Neglecting
Transmission Losses
Lagrangian method for solving economic
without power loss
Power losses

Technical power loss

✗ General power loss
✗ Transformer power loss
✗ Transmission line power loss
Commercial power loss
Transmission line Loss formula
Economic Loading Including
Transmission Losses
Lagrangian method for solving of
economic dispatch with power los
Important points

✗ To get minimum fuel cost decision for economic dispatch problem the product
of penalty factor & incremental cost of all the power plants should be same.
✗ The penalty factor of generator is increases, the incremental cost should
decreases to maintain the constant product between L & IC hence the
generator will supply less power into the system.
✗ If the distance between load center & generator station increases penalty
factor increases
✗ Penalty factor is physical parameter within depend on distance between
generating station & load center.
✗ Lmin , It is possible if the load center connected directly across the generator
terminal.
✗ L=1 represents there no penalty on the corresponding generator
✗ Incremental Transmission line loss increases penalty factor increases.
Case1: The load center is directly
connected to G1 terminal
Case2: The load center is directly
connected to G2 terminal
Case-3: The load center is connected at a
same distance from both plants
To summarize
Power System Matrices
There are two power system
matrices
▹ Bus Admittance Matrix YBUS
▹ Bus Impedance Matrix ZBUS
 Bus Admittance Matrix YBUS

▹ In simple terms YBUS can be represented as

𝐼= 𝑌𝑉
 Bus Impedance Matrix ZBUS

▹ In simple terms ZBUS can be represented as

Z12
𝑉= 𝑍𝐼
Z1 Z2

Z3
Construction of YBUS
There are two methods for construction,
YBUS
▹ Direct inspection method
▹ Singular transformation method
Direct inspection method
 Construction of ZBUS
The most common method for construction of Bus Impedance Matrix
would be Inversion of Bus Admittance Matrix.
 ZBUS building algorithm

Modification of Bus Impedance Matrix for every small change in power system would
be difficult as we would have to convert to Bus Admittance Matrix and modify it and
then convert back to Bus Impedance Matrix.
So, we resort to another algorithm which makes it easier to modify Bus Impedance
Matrix.
 ZBUS building algorithm
Case 1: Addition of a new bus to reference bus
 ZBUS building algorithm
Case 2: Addition of new bus to existing bus through impedance
 ZBUS building algorithm
Case-3: Adding an impedance to reference bus from existing bus
 ZBUS building algorithm
Case 4 : Adding an impedance between existing bus
ZBUS Based Fault Analysis
There are two cases to be considered.
▹ Symmetrical Fault or Three Phase
Fault
▹ Change in System Bus Voltages
Symmetrical Fault or Three Phase Fault
 Change in System Bus Voltages

▹ Assuming fault occurs at bus k. Before the fault the current injected into bus k is Ik and
due to fault the current that is delivered by bus to fault is If.
 Load Flow Analysis
It is a steady state analysis of an interconnected power system during normal operation. Single
line diagram of power system contains hundreds of buses and branches with impedances
specified in per-unit on a common MVA base. Power flow studies, commonly referred to as load
flow, are essential of power system analysis and design.
Basic load flow equation
 Basic load flow equation

▹ At each bus, 4 parameters are there |V|, δ, P, Q

▹ Total quantities to be found are 4n (n= number of buses) but the number of
equation known are only 2n, it is difficult to solve this mathematical problem, So
at each bus 2 quantities will be specified or assumed as constant, So number of
quantities to be calculated are reduced to 2n which can be calculated by solving
2n equations
 Bus classification
Four quantities are associated with each bus. There categories.
are voltage |V|, phase angle δ, real power P and ▹ Slack Bus/ Swing Bus/ Reference bus
reactive power Q. ▹ Generator Bus (or) PV Bus (voltage
controlled Bus)
▹ Load Bus/PQ Bus
▹ Voltage controlled buses
The system buses are generally classified into four
 Slack Bus/ Swing Bus/ Reference bus

It is taken as reference bus where the magnitude and phase angle of the voltage are
specified. This bus provide the additional real and reactive power to supply the
transmission losses, since these are unknown until the final solution is obtained.
▹ |V|, δ - known quantities
▹ P, Q - unknown quantities
Slack bus- generator having power capacity compared to all generators in the system.

During load flow solution, the real power generated by all generators will be kept as
constant, such that if there is any real power change in the system, it will be taken care
by slack bus. No practical existence for slack bus.
 Generator Bus (or) PV Bus (voltage controlled Bus)

In these buses, the real power and voltage magnitude are specified. The phase angles
of the voltages and the reactive power are unknown until the final solution is obtained.
The limits on the value of reactive power are also specified.
▹ P,| V | - known quantities
▹ Q, δ - unknown quantities
 Load Bus/PQ Bus

In these buses, the real and reactive powers are specified. The magnitude and phase
angle of the bus voltage are unknown until the final solution is obtained.
▹ P, Q - known quantities
▹ |V|, δ - unknown quantities
 Voltage controlled buses

▹ Equivalent to PV bus (but no generator)

▹ SVC bus or shunt capacitor bus
▹ Reactive power compensator will be placed
▹ P=0 , |V|= constant; Q, S are variables
▹ SVC rating will be designed by keeping |V| as constant to the required level. The
reactive power at end of load flow will be rating of SVC.
 Load Flow Solution
To solve nonlinear algebraic equations, numerical or iterative methods are
preferable because one step solution is not possible for nonlinear algebraic
equations.
Load flow solution can be obtained by the following methods
▹ Gauss Method
▹ Newton- Raphson Method
▹ Decoupled Load flow method
 Gauss-Seidel Method

The Gauss-Seidel Method (GS) is an iterative algorithm for solving a set of non-linear
algebraic equations. To start with, a solution vector is assumed, based on guidance
from practical experience in a physical situation.

▹ One of the equations is then used to obtain the revised value of a particular
variable by substituting in it the present values of the remaining variables. The
solution vector is immediately updated in respect of this variable. The process is
then repeated for all the variables thereby completing one iteration.

▹ The iterative process is then repeated till the solution vector converges within
prescribed accuracy. The convergence is quite sensitive to the starting values
assumed. Fortunately, in a load flow study, a starting vector close to the final
solution can be easily identified with previous experience.
 Newton- Raphson Method

▹ The Newton-Raphson Method is a powerful method of solving non-linear

algebraic equations. It works faster and is sure to converge in most cases as
compared to the GS method. It is indeed the practical method of load flow
solution of large power networks.

▹ Its only drawback is the large requirement of computer memory which has been
overcome through a compact storage scheme. Convergence can be considerably
speeded up by performing the first iteration through the GS method and using the
values so obtained for starting the NR iterations.
 The Jacobian matrix

Jacobian Matrix is a square Matrix which contains 4 sub-matrices and the

order of Jacobian Matrix represents the number of unknowns or the number of
equations to be solved.
▹ The order of Jacobian Matrix
It is given by (2*PQ +PV) because we have two unknowns for PQ buses
which are voltage magnitude and phase and one unknown for PV buses
that is voltage phase angle.
 Comparison of Load flow methods

▹ In GS method, convergence depends on choice of slack bus whereas it does not

depends in case of N-R and FDLF.

▹ The increment in number of iteration with system size is less in case of N-R &
FDLF but not in case of GS.
Per Unit
System
 Per unit System
The quantities involved in Power System are Voltages, Currents, Power and Impedances.
These quantities are sometimes expressed in per-unit of their base or reference values
to simplify the calculations.

Percentage value=PU value x 100%

Percentage value should be converted to pu values before use as ohm’s law is not valid
in percentage values.
 Per unit System
Selection of Base
For a common representation, base KVA and base voltage need to be chosen.
Base current and base impedance can be expressed at follows,
Single Phase System
 Per unit System
In a Three Phase Voltage, Line to Line Voltage and Three Phase MVA is chosen as base.

✖ Star Connection ✖ Delta Connection

Change of Base
 Transformer in PU
Since, KVA rating on both sides of Transformer is same :
V1I1 = V2I2
The base MVA on both sides of Transformer is same but voltage and current bases are
different and are related by Transformation Ratio (k).
 Transformer in PU
Equivalent Impedance on Primary Side and Secondary Side

Thus,
Representation of Power System in
pu
✖ A universal MVA base is chosen for entire Power System.
✖ Voltage base of one section is assumed and other voltage bases are determined based on
Transformation Ratio of different Transformers.
✖ All impedances are expressed in pu based on the base value defined in their particular
section.
 Representation of Power System
✖ Single Line Diagram
Power System can be represented in terms of Single Line Diagram which makes it
more readable. An example of such a Power System is given below,
 Up till now what we can do..
The equivalent circuit for Power System shown
Symmetrical
Components
 Balanced System
✖ Magnitude of quantities are equal
✖ Phase difference between them are also equal
 Unbalanced System
✖ Different magnitudes or phase
differences of phasor quantity(V,I)
in a system.

What Causes the unbalance ?

✖ Unbalance load applied to
system.
✖ Due to unsymmetrical fault
(L-L fault, L-L-G fault, L-G
fault)
 Fortescue Theorem
Fortescue theorem states that a unbalanced system can be resolved into ‘n-1’ system
of balanced phasors & ‘1’ co-phasor.
✖ Note : This is applicable for voltages and current only.
 Symmetrical Components

Positive Negative Zero Unbalanced

Sequence Sequence Sequence Components
 𝜶- operator
✖ A operator which when operates upon a phasor, rotates it by +120° without
changing the magnitude of phasor upon which it operates.
𝜶- operator
 Neutral current
✖ Sum of line currents in 3-Φ,4 wire system is equal to Neutral current.
✖ In 3-Φ,3 wire system neutral is not grounded, so neutral current is zero.
 Some Important facts about ,𝑽𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 ,
𝑽𝒑𝒉 , 𝑰𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 , 𝑰𝒑𝒉
✖ Zero component of line voltage is always zero.
✖ In star connected system zero component of line voltage is always zero, whereas
phase component may or may not be zero.
✖ Sum of line currents in delta connection is always zero.
✖ In delta connected system zero sequence component of line is always zero,
whereas zero sequence component of phase current may or may not be zero.
Power in Symmetrical components
Sequence
Networks
 Alternator
✖ As rotor rotates in a single direction and windings are displaced in space by
120°so the emf induced are balanced and always positive sequence, there are no
negative or zero sequence induced emf.
 Different Reactance in Alternator
✖ When the stator m.m.f. is aligned with the d-axis of field poles then flux Φd per
poles is set up and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is Xd.
✖ When the stator m.m.f. is aligned with the q-axis of field poles then flux Φq per
pole is set up and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is Xq.

Reactance

d-axis and q-axis

Reactance

Sub - Transient Transient Steady State

Reactance Xd” Reactance Xd’ Reactance Xd
 d-axis and q-axis Reactance
✖ D – Axis Reactance ✖ Q – Axis Reactance

(𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 ∗ 𝑁𝑝ℎ) (𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 ∗ 𝑁𝑝ℎ)

Ld= Lq=
𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

where Nph is the number of turns per phase of where Nph is the number of turns
armature winding. per phase of armature winding.
Thus d-axis synchronous reactance Thus q-axis synchronous
reactance
Xd = ωLd = 2πfLd
Xq = ωLq = 2πfLq
 d-axis and q-axis Reactance
✖ In case of salient pole synchronous machine, the air gap is non-uniform.
Therefore, Xd > Xq. But due to uniform air gap in cylindrical pole synchronous
machine, both direct and quadrature axis synchronous reactance are equal i.e. Xd
= Xq. In fact due to presence of rotor slots along q-axis, the Xq is slightly less than
Xd for cylindrical pole synchronous machine.
 Star Connected Alternator
✖ Positive ✖ Negative ✖ Zero Sequence
Sequence Sequence
 Delta Connected Alternator
✖ For delta connected alternator we have to convert it to star connection before
drawing the sequence networks.
 Delta Connected Alternator
✖ Positive ✖ Negative ✖ Zero Sequence
Sequence Sequence
 Transmission Line
✖ In a Transmission Line, the voltage drop in any phase depends on the current in
that phase as well as the current in the other two phases.
 Transmission Lines
✖ Positive ✖ Negative ✖ Zero sequence
sequence sequence
 Delta connected Load

Negative Sequence
 Star connected Load
For Solid
Grounding
Zn=0

Negative Sequence If neutral is

isolated from
ground
Zn ∞
 Transformer
In a Transformer, there is no armature reaction so the reactance is given by leakage
reactance.

✖ Positive Sequence ✖ Negative Sequence

 Transformer
✖ Zero Sequence Network of Transformer is affected by the Transformer connection
Some Imp Zero Seq. Transformer
Networks
Connections Zero sequence Network
Fault Analysis
 Types of Faults
✖ Shunt Type Faults
 Line to Ground Fault (LG)
 Line to Line Fault (LL)
 Line to Line to Ground Fault (LLG)
 Three Phase Fault
 Three Phase to Ground Fault
✖ Series Type Faults
 One Conductor Open
 Two Conductor Open
Symmetrical
Faults
Transient on a Transmission Line
Transient on a Transmission Line
DC Transient & exponential decay
Steady State Fault Current
Asymmetrical RMS fault current
Maximum Momentary fault current
(Im)
 Short Circuit model of synchronous
Machine
✖ Steady state synchronous impedance
Xs=Xl + Xa
✖ Xa= represents reduction in induced emf in the alternator or reduction in
terminal voltage of alternator.
✖ Before occurrence of SC fault terminals of alternator there is some air
gap flux, at the instant of fault occurrence. According to constant flux
linkage theorem, flux will not be changed. But rotor accelerates so there
is a relative velocity between flux & rotor so emf is induced in field &
damper winding.
✖ Flux produced by damper winding & field winding aid with main field such
that these fluxes will counteract the demagnetizing effect, as time
progress the damper winding & field winding fluxes reduces (exponential)
& the resultant flux will come to steady state value which is less
compared to the flux at the instant of short circuit fault.
✖ Time constant of damper winding is less compared to field winding i.e.
damper winding flux reaches to zero first before transient field flux.
 Short Circuit model of synchronous
Machine
✖ Sub- Transient Period ✖ Transient Period ✖ Steady state Period
Short Circuit model of synchronous
Machine
 symmetrical fault
✖ A symmetrical fault is a fault where all phases are affected so that the system
remains balanced.
○ LLL Fault
○ LLLG Fault
LLL Fault
 LLLG Fault
✖ All the three phases get shorted and then connected to ground.
Unsymmetrical
Faults
 Unsymmetrical Fault
The faults which have faulty parameters at random. They can be analyzed by using the
symmetrical components. The standard types of unsymmetrical faults considered for
analysis include the following:
✖ Line–to–Ground (L-G) Fault
✖ Line–to–Line (L-L) Fault
✖ Double Line–to–Ground (L-L-G)Fault
Line to Ground (L-G) Fault
 Line to Ground (L-G) Fault
✖ Equivalent Circuit
Line to Line Fault (LL)
 Line to Line Fault (LL)
✖ Equivalent Circuit
Line to Line to Ground Fault (LLG)
 Line to Line to Ground Fault (LLG)
✖ Equivalent Circuit
 Neutral Grounding
Grounding Method

✖ System grounding or Neutral Grounding

○ To avoid arcing ground & damage for the system and for the protection
purpose or to make the relay such that fault is identified.

✖ Equipment grounding or safety grounding

○ For operator safety, the body or outer casing of apparatus is connected to
ground.
 Types of
Neutral
Grounding

Peterson Coil
Solid Grounding Resistance Grounding Reactance Grounding /suppresser coil
grounding
Power System
Stability

6
Dynamics of Synchronous Machine
Dynamics of Synchronous Machine
Swing Equation

9
 Swing Equation

Te 𝜔𝑠 Te

Tm
𝜔𝑠 Tm
Swing Equation
 Two alternators connected in parallel and swinging together
▧ If 𝛿1 = 𝛿2 , then both alternator are swinging together
 Two machine system where machine are not swinging together
▧ If 𝛿1 ≠ 𝛿2 . There is a real power exchange between machines, the
equivalent single machine will be constructed w.r.t 𝛿1 − 𝛿2 or 𝛿2 −
𝛿1 because stability of both the machine will be determined by this
angle.
 Steady State Stability
▧ It is ability of a synchronous machine or power system to maintain synchronism with
respect to external connected network or external circuit connected to line for small
disturbances.
▧ In steady state stability, generator will be represented as a constant voltage source
behind its steady state x- axis reactance (Xd or Xs).
Steady State Stability
 Methods to improve Steady State Stability
▧ Operating alternator at over excitation such that |E| is high value
▧ Reducing transfer reactance
 By placing series compensation
 By using double circuit line
 By using bundled conductors
 By using parallel line system
▧ By using SVC (static VAR compensation) at mid point of transmission line.
 SVC (static VAR compensation)
▧ SVC is assumed to be ideal
▧ No real power injected into system, only reactive power.
 Steady State Stability
▧ The power angle curves before and after the connection of SVC have been shown below,
 Transient Stability Analysis
It is the ability of power network or synchronous machine to remain in synchronous with
respect to external connected tie line even after experiencing a large disturbance.
▧ Due to SC faults
▧ Contingencies (removal of any apparatus)
 Steady State Stability
Assumptions

▧ Generator will be modeled as constant voltage source behind transient reactance Xd.
▧ Saturation & saliency in alternator are neglected. Saliency tends to make machine more
stable by increasing maximum power and thus it is neglected.
▧ No damping force as damping force will reduce the oscillations to improve the stability of
the system.
▧ Resistance & shunt elements like Shunt Capacitance are neglected
▧ Speed variations & frequency variations are neglected.
▧ Speed governing action will be de-activated such that mechanical input will be
maintained as constant.
▧ AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator) will be de-activated such that generated emf E is
maintained as constant.
 Power Transfer
In Transient Stability Analysis, we generally consider three cases,
▧ Before the Fault Occurrence
▧ During the Fault
▧ After the Fault Clearance

▧ Before fault
occurrence
X1 = transfer reactance
between Generator & infinite
bus
Maximum Power Transfer
capability is given by,
Electrical Power Output of
Generator,
Power Transfer
▧ During the fault ▧ After clearing the
fault
X2 = transfer reactance
during fault
X3 = transfer reactance
after fault clears
Maximum Power Transfer
capability is given by, Maximum Power Transfer
capability is given by,
Electrical Power Output of
Generator, Electrical Power Output of
Generator,
Equal Area Criterion

30
 Equal Area Criterion
▧ This is a special case of solution of swing equation which is only applicable for single
machine system. In case of two machines, we must first convert it to single machine
system and then apply this criteria.
 Equal Area Criterion
▧ The system will be stable if the amplitude of oscillations of rotor angle remains constant
in an un-damped system.
▧ In a practical system such a system will be stable as due to losses and damping the
oscillations will be damped out and rotor angle will settle to a steady state value.

▧ From the figure if , rotor angle

continuously increases and system is unstable.
▧ Thus, for stability
Stability in an
Alternator

33
Increasing steam input of alternator
Increasing steam input of alternator
Fault occurs on Transmission Line very near to bus
Fault occurs on Transmission Line very near to bus
 Fault occurs in middle of one of the Parallel Lines
▧ In this case the reactance to ground is comparable to reactance between source and
load.
▧ Thus, power transfer during fault is non-zero.
 Fault occurs in middle of one of the Parallel Lines
▧ During Fault
The circuit during the fault looks like as shown below,
Critical Clearing Angle and Time
 Fault occurs on one of parallel lines very close to bus
▧ Before Fault

▧ During Fault
Since, the fault is close to bus we will assume that during fault no power is transferred from
generator to infinite bus.
Fault occurs on one of parallel lines very close to bus
Removal of one of parallel lines (Contingency Analysis)
 Stability in
synchronous motor

44
Swing Equation of synchronous motor
 Methods to improve Transient Stability
Swing Equation for Alternator is,
ⅆ𝛿 2
𝑀 = 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝛿
ⅆ𝑡
By improving Transient Stability we mean to reduce the rotor acceleration. This can be
done by following methods

▧ Design alternator with high capability rating with large inertia (J).
▧ By connecting a flywheel to the shaft of rotor we can reduce the variation in
speed and thus improve Transient Stability.
 Methods to improve Transient Stability
▧ The original swing equation with damping included is
ⅆ𝜔
𝑀 + 𝐷𝜔 = 𝑃𝑎
ⅆ𝑡
Thus, the rotor acceleration is,
ⅆ𝜔 𝑃𝑎 − 𝐷𝜔
=
ⅆ𝑡 𝑀
Thus, acceleration reduces with introduction of damping term.
This can be introduced by means of damper winding in the
alternator
▧ If steam input is reduced when the fault occurs then the accelerating
power is reduced which reduces the acceleration of the machine. This
can be done by use of Speed Governing Mechanism.
▧ By using AVR if we increase excitation, then 𝑃𝑒 increases and
accelerating power reduces which reduces the acceleration of the
machine.
 Methods to improve Transient Stability
▧ Reducing reactance of system by using larger air gap between stator &
rotor increases 𝑃𝑒 and reduces acceleration of the machine.
▧ By using Resistance Grounding, Net Electrical Output becomes,
𝑃𝑒 + 𝐼𝑓2 𝑅𝑛
This is taken for faults where zero sequence currents exist so that
current flows through the neutral resistance. Thus, electrical output
increases and acceleration of machine reduces.
 Methods to improve Transient Stability
▧ If we use 3-pole CB then all lines are isolated in case of an LG fault on a single
line so 𝑃𝑒 = 0 & 𝑃𝑎 is high.

But is we use single pole circuit breaker then supply can be maintained
through other two lines and electrical output increases due to which
acceleration of machine decreases and stability is improved.
 Types of protective switches
Types of protective switches
✖ Fuse
✖ Load Interrupter
✖ Line Isolator
✖ Circuit Breaker (CB)
✖ Relay
 Fuse
✖ Heat energy (Q) = I2rt
✖ If heat energy is greater than thermal limit of fuse, then fuse will melt down & circuit will be
opened.
✖ The length of fuse will be designed based on operation voltage such that after the fuse melt
down there should not be any ionization.
✖ Materials: Al, Sn, Cu, Ag etc., else alloys
 Load Interrupter
✖ Operators only at FL condition
✖ Used for Load shredding or load curtailment or energy management.
✖ It will be used to avoid over loads
✖ Braking capacity of load interrupter is full load capacity
 Line Isolator
✖ It will be operated only at No-load operating condition.
✖ Purpose is to provide more clearance between two points in the network or to increase safety
of power syrstem network.
✖ Line isolator provides more gaps such that there is a perfect disconnection between two
areas.
✖ First load interrupte operated
✖ Then line isolator opened
✖ Breaking capacity of isolator is zero as it operates at zero current.
Circuit Breaker
(CB)
 Circuit Breaker
CB is a protective switch which can make the circuit and break the circuit during normal and abnormal conditions
respectively by taking trip command or signal from the relay and operates under all conditions (abnormal, full
load, no-load).
 Arc Phenomenon
When a SC occurs, heavy current flows & when contacts separate, contact area decreases & so
current density increases & temperature rises which ionize the air. The ionized air acts as
conductor between the contacts and an arc is struck between the contacts. The current between
the contacts during the arcing period depends on arc resistance which depends on:
○ The resistance increases with decreases in number of ionized particles.
○ Arc resistance increases with increase in length of arc
○ Resistance of arc decreases with increases in area of cross-section of arc.
 Arc Phenomenon
✖ Properties of Arc
 Arc Interruption Method
✖ High Resistance Method
○ Arc lengthening process
○ Reducing area of cross area of arc
○ Cooling the arc
✖ Current zero arc interruption method
 Terms Regarding CB Arc
Phenomenon
✖ Recovery Voltage
It is the steady state power frequency RMS voltage appearing across breaker contacts after
final extinction of arc.
✖ Active Recovery Voltage (ARV)
It is the instantaneous value of recovery voltage across CB contacts as the instant of arc
interruption
ARV depends on power factor of the system
○ If Pf=unity
Voltage=0 when I = 0 (arc extinction)
○ If pf= lag
0 < ARV < Vmax when I = 0
Active Recovery Voltage (ARV)
 Restriking Voltage (Vr)
✖ It is the instantaneous voltage appearing across CB contacts at the instant of arc interruption.
If resistance is neglected
Restriking Voltage (Vr)
 Resistance Switching
✖ A resistance ‘r’ is connected across CB contacts to damp out frequency of oscillations made
by restriking voltage.
✖ The connection of resistor or disconnection will be done on basis of sphere gap which is
connected in series with ‘r’
✖ At the instant of arc interruption VCB is restricting voltage (very high value), sphere gap will
experience high voltage & gap will be ionized.
 Resistance Switching
✖ After final extinction of arc, resistor is disconnected from the circuit as voltage across sphere
gap is normal recovery voltage. To make fosc=0

✖ Critical resistance to make oscillation zero & circuit critically damped.

 Resistance Switching
✖ Frequency of oscillation ≠ 0 ✖ Frequency of oscillation = 0
 Current Chopping Phenomenon
✖ If fault is interrupted before current zero then this phenomenon occurs
✖ Electromagnetic energy stored in L is converted to electrostatic energy stored in C, capacitor
starts charging.

✖ If prospective voltage > dielectric strength arc may restrike.

✖ Disadvantage of current chopping phenomenon is transient over voltages called as switching
over-voltages, due to which insulation requirements is increased.
✖ Resistance switching is used to avoid this by converting electromagnetic energy into heat
 Ratings of Circuit Breaker
✖ Rated Voltage
It is more than system nominal voltage (L-L RMS value) due to over-voltages
generated in the Circuit Breaker.

✖ Rated Current
Carried by CB under normal operating conditions (Continuous RMS current
rating).

✖ Number of unit operations

A specification on name plate of CB above which CB becomes unstable.
1unit operation = 1 make operation +1 break operation
 Ratings of Circuit Breaker
✖ Symmetrical breaking current ✖ Asymmetrical breaking current.
It is the RMS value of fault current It is rms value of fault current
carried by CB contacts with carried by CB with respect to time
respect to DC offset current at the axis at the instant of separation.
instant of separation.
RMS AC component =
Steady state RMS value of fault
current
 Ratings of Circuit Breaker
✖ Making Capacity

✖ Short Time Current Rating

It is time specified for the CB up to which the breaker contacts will carry fault
current without any damage.
Name plate CB MVA = Symmetrical breaking capacity
 Types of Circuit Breaker
✖ Oil Circuit Breaker (OCB)
✖ Arc Blast circuit breaker (ABCB)
✖ SF6 Circuit Breaker
✖ Vacuum Circuit Breaker
 Selection of CB
✖ Circuit Breakers are selected on the basis of most severe fault which is
Symmetrical Fault Analysis.
✖ Symmetrical Breaking Current is computed by using sub-transient reactance for
Synchronous Generator and transient reactance of Synchronous Motor.
✖ By drawing equivalent circuit we can find symmetrical current. We multiply this
current by an empirical factor which depends on speed of Circuit Breaker

Speed Multiplying Factor

8 cycles or slower 1.0
5 cycles 1.1
3 cycles 1.2
2 cycles 1.4
Protective
Relays
 Ratings of Relays
✖ Relay setting or current setting

✖ Plug setting multiplier (PSM)

✖ Time multiplier setting (TMS)

 Time-current characteristics
✖ Definite time over-current relay
It operates after a pre-determined time when current exceeds its pick-
up value. In these type of relays the core is made to saturate at a very
early stage so the time of operation remains almost same. These relays
are used as back-up protection for other type of relays.
✖ Instantaneous over current relay
The relay contacts close immediately once the current in the relay coil
exceed the preset value. There is a short time delay between the instant
of pick-up and closing of relay contacts though there is no intentional
time delay.
✖ Inverse time over current relay
For above 2 cases operating time does not depend on magnitude of
over current but in this case it varies inversely with current through the
relay.
At values less than pick-up current the relay never operates. At higher Figure shown illustrates
characteristics of 1& 3 relay
values of current the operating time varies inversely with the current.
 Time-current characteristics
✖ Inverse definite minimum time over current relay (IDMT)
It exhibits inverse time characteristics at lower value of fault current &
definite time characteristics at higher value of fault current
○ If PSM<10, inverse characteristic
○ PSM<20, goes toward definite characteristic

✖ Very inverse time over current relay

It gives more inverse characteristics than inverse time over current
relay or IDMT relay. It gives better selectivity then IDMT
characteristic

✖ Extremely inverse time over current relay

Gives more inverse characteristic than very inverse time over current
relay and is used where very inverse time over current relay fails in
 Universal Relay torque equation
✖ The general relay equation by which we can predict operation of over current,
directional & impedance relay is
Over current relay
Directional relays
 Distance relay
There are three types of Distance Relay,
✖ Impedance relays
✖ Reactance relays
✖ Mho relays
Impedance Relay (Distance relay)
Reactance relay (Distance relay)
Mho Relay (Distance relay)
 Differential Relay
✖ A differential relay is suitably connected over current relay operating on difference
of two current at two ends of a protected element
✖ For faults outside the protected element the current in at one end equal the current
out at the other end.
Differential Relay
 Protection of Transmission
Line/feeders
The probability of fault occurrence on overhead lines is more due to their large length and their
exposure to atmosphere. The main requirements of line protection are:
✖ In the event of Short Circuit, the CB nearest to the fault should open and all other CB should
remain closed.
✖ If the breaker nearest to the fault fails to open, back up protection should be provided by the
adjacent circuit breaker.
There are three methods for feeder protection
✖ Over current protection
It is applied as main protection for distribution lines and back-up for main lines, where main
protection is of distance or other faster type.
✖ Distance protection
Distance relaying is used for faster protection
✖ Pilot-wire protection
It is used for important lines of relatively short distance (a few lines of km)
Protection of parallel feeders
Protection of ring mains
Protection of ring mains
 Distance protection
✖ 3-zone distance protection
 Distance protection
✖ Pilot relaying scheme
In these schemes, some electrical quantity at the two ends of transmission line are
compared and hence they require some sort of inter connecting channel over which
information can be transmitted from one end to another
Such an interconnecting channel is called a pilot.
 Protection of Alternators
✖ Unbalanced loading ✖ Field-ground fault protection
 Protection of Alternators
✖ Loss of excitation
✖ Overload protection
✖ Over-speed protection
✖ Over-voltage protection
✖ Failure of prime mover
 Protection of Alternators
✖ Stator protection ✖ Restricted earth fault protection
Protection of Alternators
 Protection of transformer
Differential protection
✖ It is used for protection of large power transformers of rating 5MVA or above. It is applied for
protection against internal short circuits.
✖ The figure shown shows schematic diagram of percentage differential protection for a Δ −
𝑌 transformer.
Protection of transformer
 Protection of transformer
Buchholz relay
✖ The incipient faults in a transformer tank below oil level actuate Buchholz relay so as
to given an alarm.
✖ They are due to fault which causes decomposition of transformer oil and product of
decomposition contains more than 70% of hydrogen gas which being lighter rises
upward & tries to go into conservator.
✖ The gas gets collected in upper part of Buchholz relay and so the oil level in Buchholz
relay goes down and so float floating in the oil tilts down with lowering oil level and so
switch attached to float is closed & mercury switch closes the alarm circuit.
✖ So, operators know about the fault and by testing gas sample they determine the type
of fault.
✖ When a serious SC occurs, the pressure in tank increases and oil rushes towards the
conservator and it passes through Buchholz relay & the plates of relay get pressed by
passing oil and this closes another switch which closes trip circuit of CB & eliminates
the transformer.
✖ This relay can only be used with transformer with conservator and it is ignorant for
faults above oil level.
✖ Buchholz relay are not provided for transformers below 500KVA.