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At t achment st yle and schema as predict ors of social funct ioning in yout h wit h borderline fea…
Tarni Jennings
Test of an hypot hesized st ruct ural model of t he relat ionships bet ween cognit ive st yle and social anxi…
John Riskind
At t achment Qualit y and Psychopat hological Sympt oms in Clinically Referred Adolescent s: T he Media…
Pet er Muris
Running Head: ATTACHMENT AND EARLY MALADAPTIVE SCHEMAS
Guy Bosmans
Caroline Braet
1
Abstract
This study investigated whether early maladaptive schemas can explain the relation between
attachment anxiety and avoidance dimensions and symptoms of psychopathology. For this
Results indicate that the association between attachment anxiety and psychopathology is fully
• Our findings suggest that cognitive therapy might be useful in the treatment of
attachment-related psychopathology.
• Our findings suggest that therapists should be wary for attachment-related relapse.
2
Attachment and Symptoms of Psychopathology:
emotional disturbances (Bowlby, 1969). Early experiences with less sensitive and supportive
caregivers have been demonstrated to lead to less secure attachment (e.g., Ainsworth, Blehar,
Waters, & Wall, 1978). It has been suggested that these differences in attachment security are
strategies (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). If distressed individuals expect attachment figures to
be available, they are securely attached. They will seek proximity and then experience a
decrease in distress. Distressed individuals that regard attachment figures as unavailable, are
expected to evaluate whether proximity seeking is a viable option to reduce distress. Although
anxiously attached individuals will also seek proximity, they will continue to fear rejection. It
is assumed that this will hyper activate the attachment system and lead to even more distress.
In contrast, avoidantly attached individuals will avoid proximity when distressed. They
learned to deactivate their (distressing but also other) emotions. The question remains which
3
Bowlby (1969) initially explained the affect-regulating influence of attachment throughout
the life-span by suggesting that early relational experiences are stored in cognitive structures
called internal working models. Although internal working models form the theoretical
cornerstone of attachment theory, the metaphorical formulation of this concept has led to a
lack of research (Hinde, 1988; Thompson, 2008). Consequently, current attachment theory
fails to explain key issues like (a) the unpredicted cross-temporal instability of internal
working models found in several longitudinal studies, (b) the functioning of internal working
models, and (c) the content of internal working models (Pietromonaco & Feldman Barrett,
To fill this conceptual gap, internal working models have been increasingly approached as
cognitive schemas (e.g., Baldwin, Fehr, Keedian, Seidel, & Thompson, 1993; Bretherton,
1990; Collins & Read, 1994), which are mental structures for screening, coding, recalling, and
evaluating impinging stimuli (Clark, Beck,& Alford, 1999). This perspective can provide a
theoretical answer to the controversial topics mentioned above. (a) Cognitive theory assumes
that a specific maladaptive cognitive schema remains latent without influencing a person’s
(e.g., Fraley, 2007; Sroufe, Egeland, & Kreutzer, 1990). (b) Cognitive research has clearly
demonstrated that active schemas influence attention to, recall, and interpretation of schema-
congruent information. A few studies now showed that also the internal working model has
similar functions, which enhances the evidence that both concepts have common mechanisms
and function in a comparable way. Indeed, with respect to attentional biases, individual
differences in the information processing of the attachment figure have already been
demonstrated for internal working models (e.g., Bosmans, De Raedt, & Braet, 2007;
Bosmans, Braet, De Raedt, & Koster, in press). (c) The content of cognitive schemas is
4
expected to stem from specific early parent-child experiences. Therefore, it has been
suggested that cognitive schemas hold the very beliefs internal working models consist of
(Chorpita & Barlow, 1996; Holmes, 1993; Mason, Platts, & Tyson, 2005).
To identify the internal working models’ content, Sibley (2007) has demonstrated that
they can indeed be linked to Beck’s depressogenic cognitions. However, the content of Beck’s
cognitive schemas remains broad and little specific. Therefore, Young (Young, Klosko, &
Weishaar, 2003) has used his clinical experience to develop a taxonomy of several “early
maladaptive schemas” that differ with regard to cognitive content. An early maladaptive
emotions, cognitions and bodily sensations regarding oneself and one’s relationships with
others, resulting from unmet core emotional needs in childhood, elaborated throughout one’s
life and dysfunctional to a significant degree. The early maladaptive schemas Young
description of these domains and an overview of the related early maladaptive schemas, see
Appendix A).
schemas in a clinical sample (Mason et al., 2005). Based on the combination of the two
insecure attachment dimensions, four categories were created (secure: low scores on both
dimensions; preoccupied: only high on attachment anxiety; dismissing avoidant: only high on
had higher scores on schemas belonging to all five domains. Unfortunately, this sample
5
contained too little participants in the dismissing avoidant group to use them for these
analyses.
Interestingly, recent research has revealed that individual differences in attachment can be
better conceptualized as dimensions instead of categories (Fraley & Spieker, 2003; Roisman,
Fraley, & Belsky, 2007). This new approach might help overcome Mason et al.’s (2005)
problem that little reliable conclusions could be drawn with regard to the associations with
attachment avoidance. Furthermore, Mason et al.’s (2005) categorical approach allowed only
to perform descriptive statistical analyses and did not study the interplay between attachment,
Our research aimed to build on the demonstrated link between early maladaptive schemas
and psychopathology (e.g., Schmidt, Joiner, Young, & Telch, 1995), and on the demonstrated
association between early maladaptive schemas and attachment. Based on the assumption that
early-life experiences of attachment were stored in internal working models and can be
maladaptive components of attachment were indeed related with these early maladaptive
schemas as well as with their assumed relation with psychopathology. For this purpose, we
for this mediation effect would be an important confirmation of the assumption that an
internal working model can be approached as a cognitive schema. This finding would not only
be important for attachment theory, but it can also guide unsolved issues in the treatment of
attachment problems. At the same time it would also open the door for the validity of schema-
focused therapy, as a mediation-effect confirms the main premise of Young’s schema therapy
(that early maladaptive schemas are developed during interactions with attachment figures).
6
The present study was designed to test this mediation hypothesis. For our research
working models of attachment. General internal working models reflect a person’s abstraction
of all attachment experiences with all his/her attachment figures (Collins & Read, 1994;
Kobak, 1994). We expect that early maladaptive schemas will be especially linked with these
general internal working models, as both concepts can be considered to be the result of
As all early maladaptive schemas are expected to be associated with less secure
attachment dimensions would correlate significantly with all five schema domains. Next, we
associated with the different attachment dimensions than others. Investigating associations
taking into account all the maladaptive schema-domains simultaneously guards against the
pitfall that internal working models get linked with an overgrowing variety of outcomes
(Thompson, 2008). Using MRA is very parsimonious as it shows which domains are
specifically linked with specific attachment dimensions and which domains are only linked
On the one hand, we predicted that attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance would
dimensions reflect the evaluation that the attachment figure is not available. On the other
hand, following the results of Mason et al. (2005) we predicted that attachment anxiety would
anxiety is indeed characterized by a more desperate need for the attachment figure and the
belief that one is responsible to gain and maintain the attachment figure’s responses.
7
subservient attitude (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). Next, attachment avoidance was expected
to be further linked with Impaired Limits and with Overvigilance/Inhibition. However, the
small number of participants found with the categorical approach of Mason et al. (2005)
provided too little ground for precise predictions. Therefore, we based our expectations on the
(Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). Finally, we predicted that the relationship between the
Method
Participants
Participants were 289 students (26 men, 241 women, 22 missing) with a mean age of 21
years (SD = 1.92). In the total sample, 71% of the students had their biological parents still
living together, 16% had divorced parents, 4% had a parent living alone after the death of
their partner, 6% had parents who had started a new relationship after divorce. Also, 13.3% of
the students reported having had psychotherapy, and one percent had been in psychiatric
hospitalization.
Measures
Symptom Check List-90 (Derogatis, Lipman, & Cavi, 1973). The SCL-90 is an established
measure of general psychiatric distress and is widely used to screen for psychiatric symptoms.
Psychometric evaluations have reported good internal consistency (alpha coefficients .77 to
.90) , good test-retest reliability, and good concurrent, construct and discriminant validity
(Derogatis, 1983, 1994; Morgan, Wiederman, & Magnus, 1998). The 90 items are divided
8
depression, anxiety, anger-hostility, phobic anxiety, paranoid ideation, psychoticism, which
can be summed up in one total problem score. The cronbach alpha in the current sample for
Brennan, 2000). The ECR-r consisted of 36 items that had to be rated with regard to the
“important other” (measuring the general internal working model) on a 7-point Likert scale.
The items were designed to asses two dimensions of attachment: attachment anxiety (18 items
about fear of abandonment and need for contact) and attachment avoidance (18 items about
discomfort with closeness). The reliability and validity of these scales is well documented
(Fraley, et al., 2000). In the current sample Cronbach alpha was high for both subscales (α
=.93).
Young Schema Questionnaire – Short Version (YSQ: Young & Brown, 1994). The YSQ is
by Young. Each item is phrased as a negative belief regarding the self, to be rated on a Likert
schema score is obtained by averaging scores on the five items each schema. A schema
domain score is obtained by averaging the scores of the schemas each domain consists of. The
Dutch translation of the YSQ - Long version (Sterk & Rijkeboer, 1997) demonstrates good
psychometric properties in clinical and non-clinical adult populations (Rijkeboer & van den
Bergh, 2006; Rijkeboer, van den Bergh, & van den Bout, 2005). However, administering the
205-item long version in adolescents and young adults raises concerns about fatigue effects.
Moreover, in adult populations, the short and the long version of the YSQ show comparable
psychometric properties (Waller, Meyer, & Ohanian, 2001). Therefore, corresponding items
constituting the short version, were extracted from the Dutch long version for adults. These
items were rephrased so to be comprehensible for adolescents and young adults and fit in their
9
living environment. This Dutch adolescent short version (Van Vlierberghe, Rijkeboer,
Hamers, & Braet, 2004) was backtranslated and sent to the original author for approval.
Cronbach alpha’s for the differing schemas in the present study range from .64
domain scores were computed by adding up the relevant schema scores (see Appendix A).
the early maladaptive schemas and the attachment dimensions, we performed several
consecutive exploratory factor analyses eliminating the items that had cross-loadings higher
than .30 on a non-intended scale, after every analysis. The procedure was repeated until a
solution without cross-loadings was found. Following this method, we eliminated three of 36
attachment items and nine of 75 schema items (that belonged to the domains of
close to the attachment anxiety items were deleted. The content of the 19 remaining items can
be summarized as measuring ideas that one has never been able to develop a good quality
relationship with others, ideas that one depends on others’ love, ideas that one has to be
suspicious not to get betrayed, ideas that one does not fit in, and ideas of being unlovable. The
avoidant attachment-related coping styles). After item deletion, the subscales remained
Procedure
At the beginning of a lecture, students were invited to participate in the study. It was
emphasized that participation was not obliged. The students who agreed to participate, filled
10
out an informed consent. Then the questionnaires were administered in a random order (four
Results
Less than 1% of the data was missing. Table 2 describes the descriptive statistics and the
correlations between the variables under study. The correlation between attachment anxiety
and attachment avoidance was .45 (p < .001). Both attachment dimensions were significantly
linked with all schema-domains. After identifying the individuals with the highest number of
symptoms of psychopathology and with the highest scores on early maladaptive schema
domains (defined as scores higher than two standard deviations above the sample mean
score), it appeared that 88% of the participants with a high psychopathology score, scored
To decide which schema domains to use as mediator in the link between the attachment
investigated which of the five schema-domains are uniquely associated with each attachment
dimension. Given the high correlation between attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance,
in every MRA the associations with one attachment dimension were computed while
controlling for the effect of the other attachment dimension. Results show significant unique
.05) and Other-Directedness (β = .18, t = 2.98, p < .01), and between attachment avoidance
Following the results of the MRA, a multiple mediation analysis was performed using
only the domains that had a unique association with the attachment dimensions. Given the
11
different set of mediators for the two attachment dimensions, mediation analyses were
performed for the two attachment dimensions separately, but again always using the
correlations should be found between the attachment dimensions and psychopathology (c-
path), between the attachment dimensions and the maladaptive domains (a-path) and between
the maladaptive domains and psychopathology, after controlling for the attachment
dimensions (b-path). Finally, the indirect path from attachment to psychopathology through
the maladaptive domains (the ab-path) should be significant, and adding this indirect effect to
the model, the remaining direct effect of attachment on psychopathology (c’-path) should no
mediation).
2008) was used to test this mediation model. One of the strengths of this analysis, beyond not
relying on the normality assumptions of classic regression analysis, is that it takes into
account the correlations between the mediators and that it can take into account the effect of a
control variable. Therefore, any reported mediation effect can be considered as pure effects,
independent of the influence of other mediators or control variables. The SPSS Macro
provided by Preacher and Hayes (2004) was used to perform this bias-corrected bootstrap
with 5000 resamples to derive the 99% confidence interval (CI) for the indirect effects.
.97, se = .14, p < .001 and b = .18, se = .03, p < .001). Disconnection/Rejection and Other-
Directedness are linked with psychopathology (the b-paths; respectively b = .05, se = .007, p
< .001 and b = .15, se = .04, p < .001). The total indirect effect of Disconnection/Rejection
12
and Other-Directedness (the ab-path) is estimated to lie between .04 and .13 with 99% CI.
More in detail, the indirect effect of Disconnection/Rejection is estimated to lie between .02
and .09, whereas the indirect effect of Other-Directedness is estimated to lie between .01 and
.05. Because zero is not in the 99% CI for the total and the separate indirect effects, we can
conclude that for these variables the indirect effect is significantly different from zero at p <
.01 (two tailed). Finally, the originally significant direct link between attachment anxiety and
psychopathology (the c-path; b = .09, se = .02, p < .001) becomes non-significant (the c’-
path; b = .01, se = .02, ns) when adding the indirect effects, which implies that full mediation
has occurred. The entire model explains 42% of the variance in psychopathology.
Impaired Autonomy were investigated. Results indicate that attachment avoidance is indeed
linked with Disconnection/Rejection but not with Impaired Autonomy (the a-paths;
respectively b = .53, se = .18, p < .01 and b = -.02, se = .03, ns). Disconnection/Rejection and
Impaired Autonomy are linked with psychopathology (the b-paths; respectively b = .05, se =
.008, p < .001 and b = .15, se = .05, p < .01). The total indirect effect of
-.01 and .08 (se = .02) with 99% CI which indicates that the total indirect effect is not
significant. While the indirect effect of Impaired Autonomy is not significant as it is estimated
to lie between -.02 and .01., the indirect effect of Disconnection/Rejection is significant as it
is estimated to lie between .001 and .08. Finally, the originally significant direct link between
attachment avoidance and psychopathology (the c-path; b = .09, se = .02, p < .001) decreases,
but remains significant (the c’-path; b = .06, se = .02, p < .001) when adding the indirect
effect, which implies that partial mediation has occurred. The entire model explains 41% of
Discussion
13
This study aimed at investigating whether attachment-related internal working models and
cognitive schemas are conceptually linked. The results confirm that both attachment
dimensions (attachment avoidance and attachment anxiety, see Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007)
are associated with the five cognitive schema domains, as proposed by Young et al. (2003).
When forced in one analysis with all schema domains simultaneously and controlling for the
Autonomy were linked to attachment avoidance. Finally, the effect of attachment anxiety on
First of all, our study confirms that all proposed schema-domains are associated with the
attachment dimensions. Next, we found that many of these associations disappear when
acknowledging the interrelationship between the attachment dimensions and between the
from the increasing number of variables that are associated with attachment (Pietromonaco &
Feldman Barrett, 2000; Thompson & Raikes, 2003; Thompson, 2008). Apparently, many of
these associations might disappear when taking into account several relevant variables
together.
The finding that both attachment dimensions are associated with the cognitive
Disconnection/Rejection schema domain, can help explain why attachment anxiety and
attachment avoidance are often highly correlated (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). Furthermore,
it confirms the hypothesis that insecure attachment is reflected in cognitive schemas that refer
and attachment anxiety or attachment avoidance were found as well and confirmed the
14
relevance of the two assumed attachment dimensions. In line with our predictions and with
Mikulincer and Shaver’s (2007) assumptions, attachment anxiety appears to be also related to
the belief that a submissive, accommodating approach toward attachment figures’ demands is
necessary to keep their support (eg. Other-Directedness). Contrary to our expectation, the
associated with Impaired Autonomy. This indicates that attachment avoidance is associated
with a stronger belief that one is able to survive without the help of others. Interestingly, this
In all, these findings demonstrate that early maladaptive schemas do measure the
theory. These clearly interpretable content-related associations confirm the content validity
and the relevance of the distinction between attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance
dimensions. Furthermore, many researchers have argued that avoidantly attached individuals
are difficult to identify using questionnaires as they are expected to deny their trampled
attachment needs. Mikulincer and Shaver’s (2007) argued against this, stating that attachment
avoidance reflects the main motivation to stress relational independence and not to idealize
the quality of the relationship. The highly significant correlation between attachment
avoidance and Disconnection/rejection confirms their assumption that these individuals are
When interpreting these findings it is important to note that the ECR-version we used
(ECR-r) typically leads to a higher correlation between attachment anxiety and attachment
avoidance than the original version (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). One could expect that using
the older version in the MRA would lead to different results as the associations with the other
15
variables would be less influenced by the covariance with the other attachment dimension.
However, while it would be valuable to test this hypothesis, using the original ECR will
probably have little influence on the outcome. Not only do Mikulincer and Shaver (2007)
acknowledge that both versions of the questionnaire are very comparable, research continues
to find high correlations between attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance even when
using the ECR (e.g., Conradi, Gerlsma, Van Duijn, & De Jonge, 2006).
schema contents. The partial mediation of the effect of attachment avoidance suggests that
Disconnection/Rejection schema contents, but that the entire association with symptoms of
Before further discussing our mediation results, it is important to notice that talking about
mediation suggests causal pathways (insecure attachment leads to early maladaptive schemas
data and investigated correlational relationships. This allows only to conclude that what we
observe is consistent with what we would expect to see if indeed a causal path leading from
(Kraemer, Stice, Kazdin, Offord, & Kupfer, 2001). Therefore, future research should
Nevertheless, our findings are interesting, as they confirm the hypothesis that maladaptive
cognitions related to insecure attachment explain the association between attachment and
symptoms of psychopathology. Also interesting was the absence of clear evidence for the
16
inverse order of the relationships. Only the relationship between Other-directedness and
understood as in line with Stallard’s (2007) suggestion that some maladaptive schema
assumption that internal working models can be better conceptualized as cognitive schemas
(Baldwin et al., 1993; Bretherton, 1990; Collins & Read, 1994; Waters & Waters, 2006). This
offers both researchers and clinicians new tools in studying the content and functioning of
internal working models. As argued previously, the cognitive schema conceptualization might
schemas can be regarded as providing a very tangible insight in the rich content of the
maladaptive cognitions underlying the attachment system. Furthermore, this new perspective
might now lead to an entirely new line of research on the influence of the internal working
studied research paradigms in studying attention, interpretation and memory processes. Better
attachment system can help develop or fine-tune strategies to treat attachment and attachment-
related problems. Our findings also favor schema therapy’s basic tenet that early maladaptive
schemas originate in interaction with attachment figures. This might prove interesting for the
These findings should be interpreted with caution due to several limitations. Firstly,
although early maladaptive schemas and attachment insecurity have often been studied in
community samples, the current findings are in need for replication in a clinical sample.
Research in clinical samples shows higher correlations between anxiety and avoidance
17
dimensions, which could again have an influence on the strength of the other associations.
However, we chose the present sample as the large number of participants made it more
interesting to carry out correlation analyses. Furthermore, Rijkeboer and van den Berg (2006)
have demonstrated that early maladaptive schemas are comparable in clinical and non-clinical
Secondly, all variables were studied using self-report measures, and although the results
are important as they were found after controlling for item-overlap between the items
measuring early maladaptive schemas and internal working models, this approach has the
disadvantage that both proximal constructs are assessed through self-report by the same
informant. For future attachment research, so-called implicit measures increasingly promise to
Houwer, & Buysse, 2008). For now, self-report remains the best strategy to investigate
cognitions. Above all, the confirmation of the present study’s strong hypothesis that early
maladaptive schemas mediate the relation between internal working models and symptoms of
about an immediate change in the current therapeutic approach, they might start influencing
our way of looking at attachment-related psychopathology (1). Furthermore, they may lead to
research increasing our insight in the mechanisms of change underlying existing attachment-
oriented therapeutic strategies (2). Finally, these findings can lead to the introduction of new
(1) First of all, until now, attachment-related psychopathology was associated with
clinicians’ pessimism while treating insecurely attached individuals. This study however
18
makes a bridge with cognitive therapy, suggesting that internal working models might be
more open to change than previously assumed. These results also suggest that clinicians
demonstrated that old schemas are not wiped out, but that therapy leads to the activation of
new or more adaptive schemas (e.g. Bouton, 2004). Therefore, as schema-related contexts
may reactivate the dormant schemas (Bouton, 2004), it might be important to develop
treatment strategies that help (former) patients to cope with attachment-related relapse
(2) Secondly, research increasingly focuses on the processes underlying treatment effects.
Attachment research has invested in the development of strategies to treat both adults’ and
Bateman & Fonagy, 2008) or attachment-based family therapy (e.g. Diamond, Reis,
Diamond, Siqueland, & Isaacs, 2002). These treatment strategies focus respectively on
improving the disrupted ability to implicitly and explicitly interpret actions of ourselves and
others, and on rebuilding the attachment bond with the parent or main caregivers. Our
findings suggest that therapeutic success might come from the development of new
schemas might result from new experiences in interaction with an accepting therapist, new
experiences evolving from increased mentalization abilities, and new experiences due to a
attachment figures.
(3) Finally, the cognitive schema perspective suggests that it might be interesting to
investigate the value of not only classic CBT (cognitive behavioural therapy) techniques such
as challenging cognitions and emotions, but also of techniques adopted from schema-focused
therapy (Van Asselt, Dirksen, Arntz, et al. 2008; Young et al., 2003), compassionate mind
19
training (Gilbert & Procter, 2006) and emotion-focused therapy (Greenberg, 2004). One
example is the “limited reparenting” technique. This technique refers to the therapist’s
attempts to meet those core emotional needs that were frustrated by the patient’s parents. The
therapist tries to achieve this through creating a warm and accepting environment during the
session. He/she allows the patient to seek proximity whenever needed, while maintaining
The present findings support the association between attachment and early maladaptive
psychopathology. Thus, these results add to a growing research literature trying to increase
20
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Footnotes
1. Although we predicted that the early maladaptive schemas would mediate the relationship
between attachment and psychopathology, one might also argue that self-reported attachment
depends on the quality of someone’s early developed schemas. Nevertheless, we argued
against this inverse direction as we (a) deliberately measured not the specific but the general
internal working models and (b) as both concepts were theoretically considered to be the
result of interpersonal experiences starting early in life. In line with this expectation, the link
between Disconnection/Rejection and psychopathology was not mediated by attachment
anxiety or attachment avoidance due to insignificant indirect effects (estimated to lie
respectively between -.006 and .014 and between -.003 and .02). The link between Impaired
Autonomy and psychopathology was not mediated by attachment avoidance (the indirect
effect lied between -.003 and .11). The link between Other-directedness and psychopathology
was partly mediated by attachment anxiety (confidence interval between .011 and .11).
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