Cognitive Therapyand Research, VoL 20, No. 5, 1996,pp.

465-480

Cognitive/Interpersonal Correlates of Adult

Interpersonal Problem-Solving Strategies I
Joanne Davila, 2 Constance Hammen, Dorli Burge, Shannon E. Daley,
and Blair Paley
Universityof California,Los Angeles

Two potential correlates of interpersonal problem-solving strategies were

studied: attachment cognitions, and global beliefs about self-worth.
Problem-solving strategies were assessed through an interview in which
participants were asked to conceptualize and solve hypothetical interpersonal
problems. Direct and indirect associations between the variables were tested
in a sample of 94 women making the transition to adulthood. The results
showed that poor problem solving was associated with both low levels of global
self-worth and attachment insecurity. Furthermore, global self-worth mediated
the relationship between attachment cognitions and interpersonal
problem-solving strategies, indicating that attachment insecurity had an indirect
association with poor problem solving through low self-worth. A model for
how early experience couM lead to negative beliefs about self and others, and
how these beliefs couM lead to poor problem solvin~ is discussed.
KEY WORDS: interpersonal problem solving; attachment; interpersonal functioning; self-
worth.

Interpersonal functioning is currently receiving a great deal of attention

from researchers interested in the development and course of psychopa-
thology (Coyne & Downey, 1991; Cummings & Cicchetti, 1990; Gotlib &
Hammen, 1992). One focus of study is interpersonal problem-solving abil-

ZThis article is based in part on the doctoral dissertation of the first author. This research
was supported by an award from the William T Grant Foundation to Constance Hammen.
2Address all correspondenceconcerning this article to Joanne Davila at the Department of
Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles,
California 90095.

465

0]47-59]6i9(V]000.0465509.50/0 © 1996 Plenum Publishing Corporation

466 DavUa, Hammen, Burge, Daley, and Paley

ity, which has been shown to be associated with various negative outcomes
including the occurrence of stress (Davila, Hammen, Burge, Paley, & Daley,
1995), anxiety (Nezu, 1986b), and depression (e.g., Heppner & Anderson,
1985; Nezu, 1986a; Nezu & Ronan, 1988).
Traditionally, adult interpersonal problem-solving ability has been con-
ceptualized from a cognitive-behavioral perspective with a present-oriented
focus on problem-solving skills and how they contribute to or result from
psychopathology (e.g., D'ZuriUa & Goldfried, 1971; D'Zurilla & Nezu,
1982; Nezu, 1987). However, questions concerning the origins of interper-
sonal problem-solving strategies have not been addressed. Because psycho-
pathology often develops in childhood, there is a need to identify and study
variables that capture attitudes and behaviors that may be acquired early
in life. Furthermore, because psychopathology is associated with interper-
sonal dysfunction, it is important to focus on attitudes and behaviors that
likely arise over time in interpersonal contexts such as the family. Although
cognitive-behavioral researchers have assumed that dysfunctional beliefs
and behaviors evolve in such contexts, few studies have actually measured
and explored schemas relevant to interpersonal relating, and the relation
between such schemas and interpersonal functioning.
The present study was designed to examine the associations between
interpersonal problem-solving strategies and interpersonally relevant sche-
mata. The two variables of focus were beliefs about attachment security in
close relationships (attachment cognitions), and global beliefs about self-
worth. These two variables were chosen because they represent two sets
of beliefs, beliefs about self and others, hypothesized to develop early in
life and to have implications for interpersonal functioning (Bartholomew
& Horowitz, 1991). Our goal was to present an account of how early ex-
perience can lead to negative beliefs about self and others, and how these
beliefs can lead to deficient interpersonal problem-solving. A definitive
study of this process would require long-term longitudinal data. However,
while such a study is not presently available, we can test whether the effort
would be worthwhile by looking for the basic associations that should exist
if our account is correct.
Principles of attachment theory offer the opportunity for measuring
and exploring interpersonal schemas that may have been acquired early in
life. The premise of attachment theory is that the early interpersonal ex-
perience between the child and the primary caregiver leads to the devel-
opment of the internal working model (i.e., schema) that guides
interpersonal functioning throughout the lifespan (Bowlby, 1969; Main,
Kaplan, & Cassidy, 1985; Sroufe & Fleeson, 1986). Although researchers
must document the connection between the early attachment relationship
and adult working models of attachment, evidence shows that beliefs about
Cognitive/Interpersonal Correlates 467

attachment security in adulthood are relatively stable (Davila, Burge, &

Hammen, 1996; Kirkpatrick & Hazan, 1994). In addition, attachment in-
security is associated with increased psychopathology (e.g., Hammen et al.,
1995) and poor functioning in close relationships including lower levels of
satisfaction (e.g., Collins & Read, 1990), poor communication (e.g., Kobak
& Hazan, 1991) and poor conflict management (Pistole, 1989).
Another opportunity for measuring and exploring interpersonally rele-
vant beliefs that may have been acquired early on in life comes from re-
search on the self-concept. Both attachment theorists and self theorists
contend that beliefs about the self develop early in life from experiences
with others (Bowlby, 1969; Cooley, 1902; Rosenberg, 1979), and research
in both the self and attachment traditions supports these views (e.g., Cas-
sidy, 1988; Harter, 1987). Furthermore, negative beliefs about the self have
been associated with impaired interpersonal functioning (Putallaz, White,
& Shipman, I985), and with depression (Harter & Marold, 1994), suggest-
ing that such beliefs may play an integral role in the association between
interpersonal functioning and psychopathology.
The interpersonal problem-solving strategies that are the focus of this
study represent a departure from those typically studied by cognitive-be-
havioral researchers. The measure used was an adaptation of the Interper-
sonal Negotiation Strategies interview (INS; Schultz, Yeates, & Selman,
1989). The present measure was designed to reflect not only functional
facets of interpersonal problem solving such as ability to provide a solution
to the problem, but also structural facets that are thought to develop over
time and that reflect the capacity to see interpersonal issues from a well-
differentiated perspective. Of particular focus was the capacity to view
problems and solutions as mutual interpersonal occurrences having impli-
cations for both individuals involved (Schultz et al., 1989). In order to do
so, people must call on their ideas about what both people want, need,
and are capable of, as well as on their expectations about the other person's
views of them and how the other person will respond to them.
We expected both attachment cognitions and global beliefs about self-
worth to be associated with interpersonal problem solving because they take
into account attitudes and expectations about the dependability and respon-
siveness of others as well as one's own feelings of worth, and one's needs
and perceived capabilities. When faced with an interpersonal problem, see-
ing oneself as unworthy or incompetent (i.e., having low self-esteem), or
seeing others as unavailable or rejecting (i.e., perceiving relationships with
others as insecure), should hinder the ability to perceive and solve the prob-
lem in a mutually satisfying manner.
Attachment cognitions and self-worth may be associated with problem
solving in a number of ways. First, attachment cognitions and self-worth
468 Davila, Hammen, Burge, Daley, and Paley

may each have an independent, direct association with problem solving.

However, because we expected attachment cognitions and self-worth to be
correlated (low self-worth should be associated with insecurity), we were
also interested in the indirect effect of each variable on problem solving.
A second possibility, therefore, is that self-worth mediates the relation be-
tween attachment cognitions and problem solving. Specifically, insecurity
might be associated with low self-worth, which would in turn be directly
associated with poor problem solving. This hypothesis is consistent with the
idea that conceptions of self develop out of early relationships with others
(Bowlby, 1969; Cooley, 1902). As such, conceptions of self may be more
proximally important for interpersonal functioning. A third possibility is
that attachment cognitions mediate the relationship between self-worth and
interpersonal problem-solving strategies. This is consistent with the idea
that those beliefs that are most specific to interpersonal relationships have
the most impact on interpersonal functioning. All three hypotheses were
tested.

METHOD

Participants

Ninety-four women from three Los Angeles area high schools partici-
pated in the study as part of a larger, ongoing longitudinal examination of
the adjustment of young women as they make the transition into adulthood.
Schools were selected to be representative of the demographics in L.A.
County. All participants were seniors in high school and between the ages
of 17 and 19 (M = 18, SD = .52) when they began the study. The women
were identified through a screening procedure administered at their high
schools during which they were asked to provide us with their names and
phone numbers if they were interested in being contacted for future re-
search. Five hundred thirty-six screening packets were distributed, and 299
were completed and returned to us. Of the 299 who returned the packets,
206 women agreed to be contacted for future research. Of those 206
women, 94 participated. Of the women who did not participate, 58 refused
and 54 could not be reached by phone.
Age, ethnicity, socioeconomic status (SES), grade point average
(GPA), and level of depressive symptoms on the Beck Depression Inventory
(BDI; Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, & Erbaugh, 1961) at screening were
compared for the women who agreed to be contacted for the study and
the women who did not agree. There were no significant differences be-
tween the groups except that the women who agreed to be contacted re-
Cognitive/Interpersonal Correlates 469

ported higher levels of depressive symptoms on the BDI (M = 10.58, SD

= 7.93) than the women who did not agree to be contacted (M = 8.62,
SD = 7.60). Comparisons between the women in the final sample and the
women not participating (but who agreed to be contacted) revealed no dif-
ferences between the groups on any of the demographic variables or on
BDI symptoms.
The participants were an ethnically diverse group [36% Caucasian,
25% Latina/Chicana, 12% Asian-American, 2% African-American, 25%
noting "other" (this last group was largely composed of women who iden-
tified themselves as Armenian and Middle-Eastern)]. Mean Hollingshead
rating of socioeconomic status (HoUingshead, 1975) was 45 (SD = 13.24),
suggesting that the participants primarily came from middle- and lower-
middle-class families.

Procedure

The participants completed screening materials at their high schools

during which global self-worth was assessed. The participants then attended
a face-to-face session lasting approximately 2½ hours during which they
completed interviews and questionnaires administered by graduate students
in the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) clinical psychology
program, and by licensed clinical psychologists. These sessions occurred 2
to 6 months following the screening and included assessments of attach-
ment cognitions and interpersonal problem-solving strategies. Participants
were paid for their participation. The research was conducted in compli-
ance with American Psychological Association ethical guidelines and ap-
proved by the UCLA Human Subjects Protection Committee.

Measures

Attachment Cognitions. Attachment cognitions were assessed using the

Collins and Read (1990) Adult Attachment Scale--Revised (RAAS) and
the Parent and Peer Attachment Inventory (IPPA; Armsden & Greenberg,
1987).
The RAAS is a commonly used 18-item measure of attachment that
taps three domains: close, depend, and anxiety. The close dimension meas-
ures the extent to which the individual is comfortable with becoming close
to others. The depend dimension reflects both comfort with depending on
others and the individual's perception that others are dependable. The anxi-
ety dimension assesses feelings of anxiety and fear regarding being aban-
doned and unloved. Collins and Read (1990) reported good internal
470 Davila, Hammen, Burge, Daley, and Paley

consistencies and test-retest reliabilities for the three domains. In the pre-
sent study, internal consistencies were .73 (dose), .83 (depend), and .83
(anxiety).
The IPPA is a 53-item measure assessing adolescent's security of at-
tachment with both parents and peers. Both the parent and peer scales
consist of three subscales: Trust, Communication, and Alienation. Armsden
and Greenberg (1987) reported high internal consistency for each subscale.
Internal consistencies for the parent subscales in the present sample were
.89 (Communication), .91 (Trust), and .85 (Alienation), and for the peer
subscales were .87 (Communication), .92 (Trust), and .82 (Alienation).
Global Self-Worth. Global self-worth was assessed using the Global Self-
Worth subscale of Harter's Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents (Harter,
1988). This scale assesses the extent to which the adolescent likes oneself,
and is generally happy with the way one is. Harter (1988) reported internal
consistencies (Cronbach's alpha) for this scale ranging from .80 to .89 in
four samples. The internal consistency in the present sample was .62.
Interpersonal Problem-Solving Strategies. Interpersonal problem-solving
strategies (IPS) were assessed through an interview developed by the first
author (see Davila et al., 1995) based upon key aspects of interpersonal
problem solving as described by Spivack, Platt, and Shure (1976), Nezu
(1987), and Selman and colleagues (Brion-Meisels & Selman, 1984; Schultz
et al., 1989; Selman & Demorest, 1984; Yeates, Schultz, & Selman, 1990).
The goal was to objectively assess a broad range of structural and functional
interpersonal problem-solving strategies using an interview format with ob-
jective scoring.
The interview materials were based on those used in the Interpersonal
Negotiation Strategies interview (Schultz et al., 1989). The INS is derived
from a model of social-cognitive problem solving in adolescents that is
founded on the adolescent's capacity for viewing social interaction as &mu-
tual occurrence. Effective social interaction is likely to result from the rec-
ognition that compromise, mutual coordination, and concern for each other
are needed for the continuity of the relationship. People who have the ca-
pacity for this type of problem solving are thought to be at a higher de-
velopmental level in problem solving than are people who do not have
such a capacity (Brion-Meisels & Selman, 1984; Schultz et al., 1989; Selman
& Demorest, 1984; Yeates et al., 1990).
The functional aspects of problem solving that we focused on were
the abilities to identify a problem, generate a solution, and discuss conse-
quences of the solution provided. Scoring attempted to capture the par-
ticipants' actual ability to give thoughtful, logically consistent answers that
followed from one another (e.g., the solution could actually solve the prob-
lem as they identified it). The structural facet of problem solving that we
Cognitive/Interpersonal Correlates 471

focused on was the participants' capacity to view problems and solutions

as mutual interpersonal occurrences having implications for both individu-
als.
The interpersonal problem-solving interview consisted of three INS
scenarios modified slightly to make them relevant for the present popula-
tion. All three scenarios depicted interpersonal situations:
• Work peer. You and a friend of yours work together at a fast food
restaurant. It's your turn to work on the grill which you really like
to do, and it's your friend's turn to do the garbage. Your friend
says her arm is sore and asks you to switch jobs, but you don't
want to lose your turn on the grill.
• Personal peer. You and your boyfriend have been going out to-
gether for some time and are on a date. You want to start going
out with other people, but you don't think your boyfriend would
like that.
• Work adult. You have a job at a local restaurant. You want to
take Friday night off, but you know your boss doesn't generally
like people taking Friday night off.
Presentation order of the three scenarios was counterbalanced, and
orders were randomly assigned to participants. Participants were read each
scenario and probed along the following dimensions: (1) identification of
the problem ("Imagine yourself in that situation. What do you think is go-
ing on? What is the problem here?"); (2) generation of a solution ("What
would you do to deal with the situation? How would you solve the prob-
lem?"); and (3) ability to identify consequences ("What would be the con-
sequences of that? What would happen to your relationship with that
person?").
Responses to probes within each dimension were scored in the follow-
ing manner:

. Identification o f the problem. Responses were scored on an additive

scale in which one point was given for each of the following: (a)
ability to identify any problem--as long as the participant provided
an answer to the probe she received a point; (b) ability to identify
an interpersonal problem--to earn a point, the participant must
have explicitly identified the problem as involving two people (For
example, if a participant stated in response to the personal-peer
scenario, "Communication is the problem, I can't talk to him about
my feelings," then she has identified the problem as interper-
sonal.); (c) ability to identify the problem from a mutual, interper-
sonal perspective--the participant's answer must have reflected an
472 Davila, Hammen, Burge, Dale,y, and Paley

understanding that the problem was mutual between two people,

not just that two people were involved (For example, the above
response regarding communication would not be scored as mutual
because the participant described the problem from only her own
point of view. There is no mention of his part in the communica-
tion. A response such as "I need to tell my boyfriend how I feel,
but he may be hurt" reflects a mutual perspective because the par-
ticipant takes into account the points of view of both parties.); (d)
the problem identified was appropriate in that it reflected the prob-
lem stated in the presented scenario (For example, in the personal-
peer scenario, the response that communication is the problem is
appropriate because it addressed the problem that she wants to
do something that she thinks may make her boyfriend unhappy.
The response "He does not trust my feelings for him" would not
be scored as an appropriate response because it does not address
the problem of her wanting to go out with other men). Using this
additive scale, each participants' score ranged from 0 (for someone
who did not identify any problem) to 4 (for someone who identified
an appropriate, mutual, interpersonal problem).
. Generation of a solution. Responses were scored on an additive
scale with 1 point for each of the following: (a) ability to generate
any solution--to earn a point, the participant must have identified
any solution; (b) ability to generate an appropriate solution defined
as one that would solve the problem as they identified it (For ex-
ample, if a problem was identified as one of communication, then
the solution would need to be one that facilitated communication.);
(c) ability to elaborate on the solution and how it would help solve
the problem (For example, the response "We need to talk to one
another, that way we would know what each other was feeling and
be able to decide what is the best thing to do about it" would be
elaborated. Merely stating "We need to talk to one another" would
not be elaborated.); (d) ability to generate a solution that takes
into account the needs of both parties--the needs of both indi-
viduals must have been addressed by the solution in order for the
response to earn a point. (An example of a response that takes
into account the needs of both parties is "I would tell him what I
wanted and ask him what he wanted so that we could decide what
to do." A solution such as "I would just go ahead and see other
people" does not.)
. Consequential thinking. Responses were also scored along an addi-
tive scale with 1 point for each of the following: (a) ability to gen-
erate any type of consequence; (b) ability to identify an appropriate
Cognitive/Interpersonal Correlates 473

consequence defined as one that follows logically from the manner

in which the participant solved the problem (For example, referring
to the personal-peer scenario again, if the participant stated that
she would solve the problem by continuing to go out only with her
boyfriend, then an appropriate consequence would be "I might still
want to see other people." A consequence that is not appropriate
would be "I would have even stronger feelings for my boyfriend"
because it ignores the fact that she continued to stay with her boy-
friend when she really wanted to see other people.); (c) ability to
elaborate on why the consequence would occur (Using the above
example, an elaborated response would be "I might still want to
see other people because I never let myself have the chance to
experience that, and therefore I may still not be completely happy
with my boyfriend and feel resentful."); and (d) ability to generate
two or more discrete consequences.
Interrater reliability (Pearson's r) for each dimension of problem solv-
ing in a sample of 30 randomly selected scenarios was as follows: identifi-
cation of a problem, .80; generation of a solution, .78; consequential
thinking, .63.
For the present analyses, scores within each dimension were summed
across the three scenarios, resulting in one score, rather than three, for
each dimension of problem solving. Scores on these three dimensions were
then summed for an overall interpersonal problem-solving score for each
subject. This allowed us to examine general interpersonal problem solving
that was not specific to a particular person (e.g., friend or boss), and this
allowed us to simplify our analyses. The internal consistency (alpha) of each
problem-solving dimension was as follows: identification of the problem,
.47; generation of a solution, .53; consequential thinking, .30. The internal
consistency for the overall score was .67. The alphas for the Identification
of the Problem subscale and the Generation of a Solution subscale, as well
at the overall score, can be considered adequate given that each scale con-
sisted of only three items. However, the alpha for the Consequential Think-
ing subscale was quite low. For this reason all analyses were conducted
using the three-item overall scale and a two-item overall scale consisting
of the Identification of the Problem subscale and the Generation of a So-
lution subscale. Interrater reliability (r) for the three-item overall score was
.85.
Presently no data are available comparing the IPS measure to other
problem-solving measures. However, predictive validity has been shown in
analyses in which IPS was shown to predict stress generation which leads
to depressive symptoms in adolescent women (Davila et al., 1995). The
474 Davila, Hammen, Burge, Daley, and Paley

Davila et al. (1995) study also provided evidence that IPS is associated
with actual interpersonal functioning as the stress generation variable refers
to objective levels of interpersonal stress caused, in part, by the person.
Validity data exist for the INS model upon which this measure was, in part,
based. Yeates et al. (1990) reviewed evidence showing that INS perform-
ance is associated with emotional and personality functioning, and with psy-
chosocial adaptation.

RESULTS

All analyses involving interpersonal problem solving were conducted

using both the two-item and the three-item measure of IPS. The results of
these analyses were virtually identical and would not change our conclu-
sions about the results. Hence only the results of those analyses using the
three-item measure of IPS will be presented.
Correlations between the variables are presented in Table I. 3 Global
self-worth was significantly correlated with all measures of attachment cog-
nitions. High levels of global self-worth were associated with comfort with
closeness to others, comfort depending on others, low levels of feared aban-
donment, communication and trust with parents and peers, and low levels
of alienation from parents and peers.
Poor IPS was significantly associated with less comfort with closeness,
less communication with parents and peers, and less trust with parents?
Global self-worth and IPS were significantly correlated (r = .40, p < .01).
Poor IPS was associated with low levels of global self-worth.
A series of mediational analyses were conducted to test the indirect
effects of global self-worth and attachment cognitions on IPS. In order to
simplify the analyses, a composite attachment cognition variable was cre-
ated using those attachment subscales that were associated with IPS (Close,
Parent Communication, Parent Trust, Peer Communication). The Peer Trust
subscale was also included so that the parent and peer measures included
would be parallel. Scores on these subscales were converted to z-scores

3Analysesof these data reported elsewhereshowthat all attachmentmeasuresare significantly

intercorrelated (Pale)' et al., 1996).
4Correlations between attachmentcognitionsand problem-solvingstrategies in each scenario
(boyfriend,boss, friend)were also examinedto explorewhether attachmentcognitionsabout
particular people were associated with corresponding relationship-specificproblem solving.
There was no evidence of relationship-specificassociations between attachment cognitions
and problem solving. However, all types of attachment cognitions were most consistently
associated with problem solvingin the fi'icnd and boyfriendscenarios. This finding suggests
that, for adolescentwomen, functioningin peer relationshipsis ctosclylinked to generalized
beliefs about relationship security.
Cognitive/Interpersonal Correlates 475

Table L Zero-Order Correlations Between Attachment Cogni-

tions, Self-Worth, and Interpersonal Problem-Solving Strategiesa
Attachment cognitions IPS Self-worth

RAAS
Close .22b .30~
Depend -.02 .23 b
Anxiety .03 -.32 c
IPPA Parent
Communication .200 .35 c
Trust .200 .39c
Alienation -.13 --.36c
IPPA Peer
Communication .29c .41c
Trust .16 .40c
Alienation -.10 -.28 c
an = 93. RAAS = Adult Attachment Scale--Revised; IPPA Par-
ent = Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment, Parent subscale;
IPPA Peer = Inventory o f Parent and Peer Attachment, Peer
sulJscale; IPS = Interpersonal Problem-Solving Strategies, overall
score; higher IPS scores reflect better problem solving; higher
scores on attachment measures reflect greater security.
bp < .05, two-tailed.
¢p < .01, two-tailed.

and summed for an overall measure of attachment cognitions. The internal

consistency for this 5-item scale was .77 (Cronbach's alpha).
The first set of analyses tested whether global self-worth mediated the
relationship between attachment cognitions and IPS. According to Baron
and Kenny (1986), testing mediation involves demonstrating the following
associations using regression analysis: (1) The predictor variable (e.g., at-
tachment cognitions) must be associated with the mediator (e.g., self-
worth); (2) the predictor variable must be associated with the outcome
variable (IPS); and (3) the association between the predictor variable and
the outcome variable must decrease or disappear when the association be-
tween the mediator and the outcome variable is statistically controlled
(both predictor and mediator are entered in a simultaneous regression to
predict the outcome variable). When mediation exists it suggests that the
predictor affects the outcome through its effect on the mediator.
As depicted in Fig. 1, self-worth functioned as a mediator between
attachment cognitions and IPS. In the first regression analysis (path a),
attachment cognitions were significantly associated with self-worth. In the
second regression analysis (path b), attachment cognitions were significantly
associated with IPS. In the third regression analysis (paths c), the associa-
476 Davila, Hammen, Burge, Daley, and Paley

tion between self-worth and IPS was significant while the association be-
tween attachment cognitions and IPS became nonsignificant.
A test of the competing mediational model showed that attachment
cognitions did not function as a mediator between self-worth and IPS. In
the first analysis of this set, self-worth was significantly associated with at-
tachment cognitions (beta = .51, p < .001). In the second analysis, self-
worth was significantly associated with IPS (beta =.37, p < .001). In the
third analysis, self-worth continued to be significantly associated with IPS
(beta = .29. p < .01) while attachment cognitions were no longer signifi-
cantly associated with IPS (beta = .15, p > .10).

DISCUSSION

This study was designed to examine the associations between interper-

sonal problem-solving strategies and interpersonally relevant schemata hy-
pothesized to have roots in early experience. Two variables were examined:
attachment cognitions and self-worth. Overall, our results suggested that
these beliefs are interrelated, and that they are associated with interper-
sonal problem-solving strategies.
In line with previous research regarding the relation between beliefs
about self and interpersonal experience (Cassidy, 1988; Collins & Read,
1990; Harter, 1987), we found that attachment cognitions indicating inse-
cure attachments were associated with low levels of self-worth. These at-
tachment cognitions tapped attachment to parents, peers, and romantic
partners in a variety of attachment relevant domains (e.g., closeness, trust),
suggesting that self-worth is associated with many types of attachment-ori-
ented beliefs in various close relationships.

SELF-WORTH

ATrACHMENT 91 .30" (b) .......

tPS
COGNITIONS -" "
.15 (c)
Fig. 1. Mediationalmodel in whichself-worthmediatesthe relation-
ship betweenattachmentcognitionsand interpersonalproblem-solving
strategies.N -- 92. *p < .05.
Cognitive/Interpersonal Correlates 477

As predicted, we also found that attachment cognitions and beliefs

about self-worth were related to interpersonal problem-solving strategies.
Specifically, global beliefs about self-worth mediated the relationship be-
tween attachment cognitions and interpersonal problem-solving strategies.
Although our data are cross-sectional, one possible interpretation is that
self-worth may be the mechanism through which attachment cognitions
have their effect on interpersonal functioning. Interpersonal functioning
may be disrupted to the extent that one's model of self is negative. This
finding points to the importance of self-worth in conceptualizations of in-
terpersonal functioning. To our knowledge, there are no other studies that
have compared the impact of attachment cognitions and global self-con-
ceptions on interpersonal functioning. However, adult attachment re-
searchers are increasingly focusing on models of both self and other (e.g.,
Griffin & Bartholomew, 1994), and our study supports such a pursuit.
A recent study looking at the relation between adult attachment styles
and depressive symptoms showed a similar pattem of results with regard
to attachment styles, self-worth, and functioning. Roberts, Gotlib, and
Kassel (1996) found that insecure adult attachment styles were associated
with higher, levels of depressive symptoms. However, this relationship was
mediated by negative working models of the self. So, in both our study
and the Roberts et al. (1996) study, attachment factors affected beliefs
about self which in turn affected functioning. These findings are consistent
with a developmental psychopathology perspective on the relation between
attachment and psychopathology. In the case of depression, for example,
insecure attachment is thought to be an early vulnerability factor which
may interact with, or lead to other factors that ultimately cause depression
(Cummings & Cicchetti, 1990). One possible interpretation of our findings
is that an insecure internal working model may function as a vulnerability
factor for negative views of the self. These negative views may lead to poor
interpersonal functioning, and, as others have shown, psychopathology. Of
course, these interpretations are speculative and would need to be con-
firmed in longitudinal studies.
We consider this study a preliminary, modest attempt at identifying
correlates of interpersonal problem-solving strategies that may reflect en-
during beliefs acquired early in life. All results should be regarded in this
light given the cross-sectional nature of the data. Future research must use
longitudinal designs to further ascertain the nature of the relations between
these variables, and to make strong conclusions regarding the origins of
interpersonal dysfunction. Similarly, it is important to note that, unlike re-
search on children in which behavioral assessments of attachment quality
can be made, attachment research on adults is based on conscious self-re-
ports of beliefs which may not necessarily be representative of early at-
478 Davila, Hammen, Burge, Daley, and Paley

tachment. In addition, although the measure of IPS showed adequate re-

liability and performed in the expected manner consistent with our hy-
potheses, our findings should be regarded with caution as our measure may
not be comparable to other established measures of problem-solving ability.
The results of this study must also be interpreted with regard to the
characteristics of our sample which consisted only of women. As such, we
can make no conclusions regarding whether the same relations occur in
men. Nor can we generalize our findings to other age groups as our sample
was at a very specific point in their lives, the transition to adulthood.
Whereas women of this age group may be an important group to study
given the nature of the transition they are making, their beliefs and be-
haviors may be different from those of other age groups. For example, the
relation between self-worth and interpersonal problem-solving strategies
may be strong for these women because self-esteem is a particularly salient
issue during adolescence, the period from which they are transitioning
(Harter, 1990; Rosenberg, 1986).
Our goal was to begin to examine interpersonal problem-solving strate-
gies in a way that would allow us to understand the interpersonal nature
of cognitive and behavioral deficits and the context from which they de-
veloped. The present findings are consistent with the recent trend toward
integrating cognitive and interpersonal theory in research and therapy. Re-
searchers and clinicians have begun to pay more attention to the idea that
cognitive processes, especially conceptions of self, develop out of an inter-
personal context (Guidano & Liotti, 1983; Heard & Linehan, 1993; Safran
& Segal, 1990), and they have begun to describe ways of integrating an
interpersonal focus into cognitive therapy (e.g., Safran & Segal, 1990). The
trend toward this type of integration is growing and promises to lead to
rich insights into the complex nature of interpersonal functioning.

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