FILTRATION

Key Words and Concepts

Activated Carbon – Adsorptive particles or granules of carbon usually obtained by heating carbon (such
as wood). These particles or granules have a high capacity to remove certain trace and soluble materials
from water.

Adsorption – The gathering of gas, liquid or dissolved substances on the surface or interface zone of
another material.

Backwashing – The process of reversing flow through a filter to remove entrapped solids.

Backwashing – The process of reversing flow through a filter to remove entrapped solids.

Breakthrough – A crack or break in a filter bed allowing passage of floc or particulate matter through
the filter.

Conventional Filtration – A method of treating water which consists of the addition of coagulant
chemicals, flash mixing, coagulation-flocculation, sedimentation and filtration. Also called complete
treatment.

Diatomaceous Earth – A fine, siliceous (made of silica) “earth” composed mainly of skeletal remains of
diatoms.

Direct Filtration – A method of treating water which consists of the addition of coagulant chemicals,
flash mixing, minimal flocculation, and filtration. The sedimentation process is omitted.

Garnet – A group of hard, reddish, glassy mineral sands made up of silicates of base metals (calcium,
magnesium, iron and manganese). Garnet has a higher density than sand.

Head Loss – The pressure or energy lost by water flowing in a pipe or channel as a result of turbulence
caused by the velocity of the water and the roughness of the pipe, channel walls or restrictions caused
by fittings. In a filter, the head loss is due to flow restriction because of material building up on the
surface of the filter.

Micron – Micrometer. One millionth of a meter. Equal to 0.00004 of an inch.

Particle Counter – A device which counts and measures the size of individual particles in water.

Schmutzdecke – The top layer of trapped matter on a slow sand filter in which a dense population of
microorganisms develops. The microorganisms help to breakdown other organic matter trapped in the
mat.

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Factors Affecting Filtration
• Chemical characteristics of the water being treated
• Nature of suspension (physical and chemical characteristics of particulates suspended in the
water)
• Types and degree of pretreatment (coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation)
• Filter type and operation

Filter Removal Mechanisms

• Sedimentation on media
• Adsorption
• Biological action
• Straining

Gravity Filters
Gravity Filters
• single media (sand)
• dual media (sand and anthracite)
• multi-media (sand, anthracite, carbon)
• activated carbon

Filtration rate ranges from 2-10 gpm/ft2. Normal maximum due to regulation is 6 gpm/ft2.

Filter Classifications
Gravity filters are divided into the following classifications:
• Slow sand filters
• Rapid sand filters
• High-rate filters
• Deep-bed, monomedium filters
• Biologically active

Slow Sand

3½ ft sand layer over top of 1 ft of graded gravel.

Effectiveness relies on:
• Fine sand and the biological mat (schmutzdecke).

The filter removes turbidity by:

• Straining
• Adsorption
• Biological predation

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Cleaning is accomplished by scraping the top inch of sand and schmutzdecke off the filter. It takes
several days to re-establish the schmutzdecke after cleaning. Filtered water must be wasted until it is
reestablished. This process can be repeated until the sand depth reaches about 2 ft.
Rapid Sand Filter
Sand is more coarse than in a slow sand filter, allowing higher flow rate. Suspended material is trapped
in the upper several inches of filter bed. Trapped material will increase the filter’s head loss and require
it to be backwashed. Water used for backwashing should not exceed 4% of the total water produced.
High-Rate Filters
High-rate filters use more than just sand as the filter media. Up to 4 times faster than a conventional
rapid sand filter (3 to 8 gpm/ft2). Dual or mutli-media filters usually have:
• Gravel
• Sand
• Anthracite coal or granular activated carbon
• Some include a layer of garnet sand below the silica sand

High-rate filters and rapid sand filters should have UFRV’s between 5,000 and 10,000 gal/ft2. A UFRV
beyond 10,000 increases the chances of a catastrophic floc breakthrough. High-rate filters may use
more backwash water than rapid sand filters. The volume of backwash water used should not exceed
6% of the total water produced.
Deep-Bed
• Single filtering medium
• 4 to 6 feet deep
• Usually anthracite coal (but can be sand)
• The sand or anthracite is more coarse than that used in conventional filters
• Allow for the highest filtration rates
• Suited for direct filtration
Biological Filters
Use non-pathogenic microbes growing on sand or carbon media to breakdown organic matter and
produce water that:
• Is free of poor tastes and odors
• Has a low chlorine demand
• Does not produce microbial growth in the distribution system

If not properly designed and operated, they can introduce pathogens or harmful by-products into the
water system.

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 Operation of Gravity Filters
Filter Operating Problem Corrective Actions
Short filter run due to turbidity Check coagulation and flocculation process
• Coagulant dose
• Flash-mixing
• Flocculator mixing energy
• Filter aid dose

Rapid fluctuations in filter flow rate Determine and correct the root cause
• Change in plant/filter flow rate
• Valve malfunction
• Instrumentation malfunction

Ineffective backwashing causing turbidity and Optimize filter backwash sequence

head loss problems • Test multiple sequence options and record
results

Mudball formation within the media
Ensure adequate backwash flow rate and
agitation
• Test filter expansion during a backwash cycle
to ensure > 20%
• Ensure proper operation of air scour and
surface wash systems

Filter bed shrinkage Optimize filter backwash sequence

• Test multiple sequence options and record
results

Gravel displacement/sand boil formation
Slow the rate of backwash valve operation
• Program the valve controller to reduce the
opening speed
• Media must be removed and gravel
redistributed

Air binding Maintain a minimum head of about 5 feet over

filter media
• Take filter out of service and backwash
before head loss reaches 4.5 feet
• Backwash if filter has become air bound

Media loss Raise the wash-water trough level

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Pressure Filters
Sand or Mixed Media
Pressure filters containing sand or a mixed media operate in much the same way as gravity filters.
The main differences are:
 The water is fed under pressure which eliminates the potential for air binding
 Operators cannot observe filter during operation or while backwashing

Diatomaceous Earth
DE filters can be operated as a pressure filter where a pump forces the water through the filter
-or-
As a vacuum filter where a pump suction is placed on the discharge side of the filter and draws the
water through the filter rather than pushing it through.

The filter element or septum in a DE filter must be coated with diatomaceous earth (skeletal remains of
diatoms) which acts as the filtering medium. During operation, additional DE, which is called body feed,
must be added with the incoming flow to guard against filter breakthrough . A crack in the media can
allow microorganisms to easily pass through.

Additional Filtration Facts

Filter Media Classification
Effective Size
Determined by sieve size that allows 10% to pass through
Uniformity Coefficient
The ratio of particle diameters (based on sieve size) comprising 60% and 10% of media by weight. The
more uniform the media, the slower the head loss buildup.
Specific Gravity
The weight of a particle, substance, or solution in relation to an equal volume of water. Water has a
specific gravity of 1.000 at 4oC.

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Hardness
In 1822, Friedrich Moh, a German mineralogist devised a crude but practical method of comparing
hardness or scratch resistance of minerals. It has become universally known as Moh's scale.

Moh Mineral Brinell

10 Diamond
9 Corundum 667
8 Topaz 304
7 Quartz 178
6 Feldspar 147
5 Apatite 137
4 Fluorspar 64
3 Calcite 53
2 Gypsum 12
1 Talc 3

Removal/Inactivation Requirements for Cryptosporidium, Giardia and Viruses

• 99% (2 log) removal/inactivation for Cryptosporidium
• 99.9% (3 log) removal/inactivation for Giardia
• 99.99% (4 log) removal/inactivation for Viruses

Particle Counter vs. Turbidimeter

Turbidity does not indicate number of particles or size. Turbidity only measures scattered light. One
large particle can produce same results a many small particles.

Particle Counters can determine size and number of particles. Particle counters are more useful to
monitor filter effluents for particles in the size range of cryptosporidium cysts (4-7 microns).

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