FILTRATION

It is the mechanical or physical operation which is used for the separation of solids from fluids (liquids or gases) by
interposing a medium through which only the fluid can pass. The medium can be a permeable fabric or porous bed of
materials.
Conventional filtration processes are normally preceded by coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation. Direct
filtration processes are preceded by coagulation and flocculation only; the floc is removed directly by the filters.

Filter Media Requirements

1. It must retain the solids to be filtered, giving a reasonably clear filtrate.
2. It must not plug or blind.
3. It must be resistant chemically and strong enough physically to withstand the process conditions.
4. It must permit the cake formed to discharge cleanly and completely.
5. It must not be prohibitively expensive.

MECHANISMS OF FILTRATION
1) Straining
▪ This is the most intuitive mechanism of filtration. The floc cannot fit through the gaps between the sand particles
(pores), so the flocs are captured. The water can flow through the sand, leaving the floc particles behind.

2) Adsorption
▪ The second, and in many cases the most important mechanism of filtration, is adsorption. Adsorption is the gathering
of gas, liquid, or dissolved solids onto the surface of another material
▪ Coagulation takes advantage of the mechanism of adsorption when small floc particles are pulled together by van der
Waal's forces. In filtration, adsorption involves particles becoming attracted to and "sticking" to the sand
particles. Adsorption can remove even very small particles from water.

3) Biological Action
▪ The third mechanism of filtration is biological action, which involves any sort of breakdown of the particles in water
by biological processes. This may involve decomposition of organic particles by algae, plankton, diatoms, and
bacteria or it may involve microorganisms eating each other.
▪ Although biological action is an important part of filtration in slow sand filters, in most other filters the water passes
through the filter too quickly for much biological action to occur.

4) Absorption
▪ The final mechanism of filtration is absorption, the soaking up of one substance into the body of another
substance. In a filter, absorption involves liquids being soaked up into the sand grains

FILTRATION SYSTEMS
1) Slow Sand Filtration
▪ The filter consists of a bed of fine sand approximately 3 to 4 feet deep supported by a 1-foot layer of gravel and an
underdrain system.

2) Diatomaceous Earth Filtration

▪ Diatomaceous earth filtration, also known as pre-coat or diatomite filtration, relies on a layer of diatomaceous earth
approximately 1/8-inch thick placed on a septum or filter element. Septa may be placed in pressure vessels or
operated under a vacuum in open vessels.

3) Direct Filtration
▪ Direct filtration systems are like conventional systems but omit sedimentation.

4) Cartridge Filtration
▪ Cartridge filters are considered an emerging technology suitable for removing microbes and turbidity in small
systems.

5) Packaged Filtration
▪ Packaged filtration is simply all the features of filtration—chemical addition, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration—
mounted as a unit on a frame for simple hookup of pipes and services. It is most widely used to treat surface water
supplies for removal of turbidity, color, and coliform organisms with filtration processes. Packaged filtration is often
used to treat small community water supplies, as well as supplies in recreational areas, state parks, construction sites,
ski areas, and military installations, among others.
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6) Membrane Filtration
▪ A membrane is a thin layer of material capable of separating substances when a driving force is applied across the
membrane.

WASTEWATER FILTRATION
• Settled water turbidity is generally in the range from 1 to 10 NTU with a typical value being 2 NTU. Because these
levels of turbidity interfere with the subsequent disinfection processes, the turbidity must be reduced.
• The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requires that the treated water turbidity level be 0.3 NTU with no sample
to exceed 1 NTU.
• The most common filtration process is granular filtration where the suspended or colloidal impurities are separated
from water by passage through a porous medium. Usually called depth filters.
• The medium is usually a bed of sand or other media such as coal, activated carbon, or garnet.

THE FILTRATION PROCESS

In a conventional filter, water containing the suspended matter is applied to the top of the filter. The suspended
matter is filtered from the water. As material accumulates in the interstices of the granular medium, the headloss through the
filter increases and reaches a predetermined value (terminal headloss). When either the headloss or the effluent turbidity
reaches its objective limit (breakthrough), filtration is terminated, and the filter is cleaned.
Under ideal conditions, the time required to reach terminal headloss and breakthrough is the same. In actual practice,
one or the other will govern the cleaning cycle. The filter is cleaned by backwashing; that is, clean water is pumped
backwards through the filter.

GRANULAR FILTRATION CLASSIFICATIONS

According to the TYPE of MEDIUM used:
- Sand, Coal (Anthracite), Dual Media (coal plus sand), Mixed Media (coal, sand, and garnet)

According to FILTRATION RATE

Slow Sand Filters
▪ The slow sand filter is the oldest type of large-scale filter. In the slow sand filter, water passes through sand first, then
through a layer of gravel, before entering the underdrain. The sand removes particles from the water through
adsorption and straining. Unlike other filters, slow sand filters also remove a great deal of turbidity from water
using biological action.
▪ A layer of dirt, debris, and microorganisms builds up on the top of the sand. This layer is known as schmutzdecke,
which is German for "dirty skin." The schmutzdecke breaks down organic particles in the water biologically, and is also
very effective in straining out even very small inorganic particles from water.
▪ Maintenance of a slow sand filter consists of raking the sand periodically and cleaning the filter by removing the top
two inches of sand from the filter surface.
▪ Slow sand filters are very reliable filters which do not usually require coagulation/flocculation before filtration. As a
result, large land areas must be devoted to filters when slow sand filters are part of a treatment plant.

Rapid Sand Filters

▪ The limitations of slow sand filters in meeting the need for filtration systems to serve large populations become readily
apparent. Rapid Sand Filters were developed to meet this need. These filters have graded (layered) sand in a bed. The
sand grain size distribution is selected to optimize the passage of water while minimizing the passage of particulate
matter.
▪ The rapid sand filter differs from the slow sand filter in a variety of ways, the most important of which are the much
greater filtration rate and the ability to clean automatically using backwashing.
▪ The mechanism of particle removal depends primarily on adsorption and some straining.
▪ Rapid Sand Filters are cleaned in place by backwashing. The wash water flow rate is such that the sand bed is expanded
and the filtered particles are removed from the bed. After backwashing, the sand settles back into place. The largest
particles settle first, resulting in a fine sand layer on top and a coarse sand layer on the bottom.
▪ Rapid sand filters are the most common type of filter in service in water treatment plants today.

According to TYPE OF OPERATION

Semi-continuous Filtration
▪ The filtering and cleaning phases occur sequentially
▪ The end of the filter run (filtration phase) is reached when the suspended solids in the effluent start to increase (break
through) beyond an acceptable level, or when a limiting headloss occurs across the filter bed. Ideally, both these
events should occur at the same time.
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 ▪ Once either of these conditions is reached, the filtration phase is terminated, and the filter must be backwashed to
remove the material that has accumulated within the bed.
▪ Air is often used in conjunction with the water to enhance the cleaning of the filter bed.
▪ In most wastewater treatment plant flow diagrams, the washwater containing the suspended solids that are removed
from the filter is returned either to the primary settling facilities or to the biological treatment process.

Continuous Filtration
▪ The filtering and cleaning phases take place simultaneously.
▪ It should be noted that with filters that operate continuously, there is no turbidity breakthrough or terminal headloss.

When pretreatment of the water is by coagulant addition, flocculation, and clarification, the filter is classified as
conventional filtration. If pretreatment consists of coagulation and flocculation but not clarification, the filtration process is
called direct filtration. The process is called in-line or contact filtration when coagulant addition but only incidental
flocculation is used. In some processes, coagulation is followed by two filtration steps: a roughing filter followed by another
filter.

MEMBRANE FILTRATION
The membrane used in membrane filtration is a synthetic material that is semipermeable; that is, it is highly
permeable to some constituents and less permeable to others. To remove a constituent from the water, the water is pumped
against the surface of a membrane, resulting in a separation of product and waste streams.

Membrane criteria:
• Membrane pore size,
• Molecular weight cutoff (MWCO),
• Membrane material and geometry,
• Targeted materials to be removed,
• Type of water quality to be treated, and/or
• Treated water quality

MEMBRANE FILTRATION CLASSFICATIONS

1) those that are used to separate ions from solution
 reverse osmosis (RO)
 and nanofiltration (NF)
2) those that are used to separate suspended particles from water
 microfiltration (MF)
 ultrafiltration (UF)

MECHANISM OF FILTRATION
Screening - particles are removed by simple mechanical screening because the particle is larger than the smallest opening
through which the water flows. This is dominant for membrane filters.

Adsorption - natural organic matter adsorbs onto membrane surfaces. In the early stages of filtration with a clean membrane
this may be an important mechanism for removing soluble and insoluble materials that have dimensions that are much
smaller than the membrane pore size. Although the adsorption capacity is quickly exhausted, the adsorbed material can
reduce the size of the pores and thus, increase the ability of membrane to capture particles smaller than the nominal pore size.

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 ✓ Can provide low turbidity (<0.30 NTU)
✓ Requires backwashing
✓ Large space requirement
✓ Can be gravity or pressure
✓ Combine with GAC -filter/adsorbers

Cake formation
- particles that are removed by straining build up a cake on the membrane surface
- cake acts as a filtration medium
- improves the efficiency of the filter because it collects particles smaller than the nominal pore size of the membrane

MICROFILTRATION (MF)
 A major difference between MF and loose UF is membrane pore size; the pores of 0.1 μm or greater are
approximately an order of magnitude greater than those of UF. The primary application for this process is particulate and
microbial removal.
 Provides extremely low turbidity (<0.05 NTU) and can remove 99.99% to 99.9999% of bacteria and protozoans

ULTRAFILTRATION (UF)
 UF membranes cover a wide range of molecular weight cut offs and pore sizes. Operational range from 70 to 700 kPa,
depending on the application.
 Tight UF membranes (MWCO = 1,000 daltons) may be employed for removal of some organic materials from freshwater,
while the objective of loose membranes is primarily for liquid/solid separation, that is, particle and microbial removal.
 Can remove up to 99.99% viruses

REVERSE OSMOSIS (RO)

Osmosis is defined as the spontaneous transport of a solvent (in this case, water) from a dilute solution to a concentrated
solution across an ideal semipermeable membrane that impedes passage of the solute (ions in solution) but allows the solvent
(water) to flow

 The system will reach equilibrium when the hydrostatic pressure on the saline water side balances the force moving
the water through the membrane. This is noted as the osmotic pressure
 If pressure is exerted to overcome the osmotic pressure, the solvent (pure water) will flow from the saline side to the
fresh water side.
 The semipermeable membrane will not allow the passage of molecules other than water and gases. This is noted as
reverse osmosis

RO & NF MEMBRANES
MATERIALS
 The most common MF and UF membrane materials in practice are organic polymers
 Most synthetic membranes are hydrophobic. They must be stored wet or be filled with a wetting agent. If allowed to
dry, they will experience a change in structure that will result in a reduction in potential flux.
 Polyethersulfone (PES) and polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) are also common

Cellulosic Acetate (CA)

 the common commercial material; not tolerant to temperatures above 30°C and tends to hydrolyze when the pH is
less than 3 or greater than 8
 susceptible to biological degradation and degrades with free chlorine concentrations above 1 mg/L
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Polyamide (PA)
 resistant to biological degradation, are stable over a pH range of 3 to 11, and do not hydrolyze in water
 produce higher water flux and higher salt rejection than CA membranes
 are more susceptible to fouling and cannot tolerate free chlorine at any concentration

Polysulfone
 one of the most widely used in practice because of their high tolerance to pH and resistance to oxidants
 they can withstand temperatures up to about 75°C

MEMBRANE CONFIGURATION
 The spiral-wound configuration is the most common for the production of drinking water from groundwater and
surface water.
 The hollow-fiber configuration is used extensively for desalinization of seawater in the Middle East
 After filtration for a set duration, the accumulated solids are removed by backwashing with air and/or water. Once
clean, the filter is put back into service.
 positive pressure driven systems are configured in pressure vessels
 vacuum pressure driven systems are submerged in basins containing the feed water

Pressure Vessel System

 consists of an array of pressure vessels (modules) on a rack
 all the modules are operated in parallel; the racks are also operated in parallel
 the racks may contain between 2 and 300 modules; one module typically contains between 8 and 70 m2 of filter area
 The vacuum systems are open to the atmosphere.

TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
 Temperature affects water viscosity and the membrane material
 In general, the permeate flow increases as the temperature rises and the viscosity decreases.

SERVICE LIFE
Membrane fouling generally occurs by one of the following mechanisms:
• Deposition of silt or other suspended solids.
• Inorganic scale deposits.
• Biological fouling.
• Interaction of organic constituents with the membrane.

PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Membrane element - the smallest physical unit of production capacity enclosed in pressure vessels
Stage - group of pressure vessels operating in parallel
Array - the arrangement of one or more stages

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  In a multistage process the stages are arranged in series. The number of pressure vessels decreases in each
succeeding stage to maintain the water velocity in the feed channel as permeate is extracted

Schematic of typical reverse osmosis facility.

PRETREATMENT
 The first pretreatment is to prevent scaling by silica (SiO2) and sparingly soluble salts such as calcium carbonate and
calcium sulfate (pH adjustment and/or addition of an anti-scalant)
 the second pretreatment process is filtration to remove particulate matter that will clog the feed channels or
accumulate on the membrane surface (unlike ion exchange columns, RO/NF systems are not backwashed)
 disinfection may also be required to prevent biological fouling
 if the raw water turbidity and/or NOM concentration is high, pretreatment will include coagulation, flocculation, and
sedimentation
 where iron and manganese are prevalent in the raw water, oxidation may be performed to form a precipitate that can
be removed before the membrane treatment step

POST TREATMENT
 Because the RO/NF membranes do not remove gases, these are stripped after the RO/NF unit.
 The primary gases of concern are hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide.
 The removal of H2S is to prevent odor complaints.
 CO2 is removed because it forms carbonic acid.

CONCENTRATE STREAM
 under high pressure as it leaves the RO/NF unit and extremely high in total dissolved solids (TDS)
 The primary concern in disposing the concentrate stream is suspended solids.
 Energy recovery systems are often used in reducing the pressure
 disposal methods include discharge to the municipal sewer system, ocean discharge, and deep well injection; in warm,
dry climates evaporation ponds may be appropriate
 Disposal methods include land application, discharge to the municipal sewer system, ocean discharge, and deep well
injection.

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MEMBRANE FILTER HYDRAULICS
Flux. Pure water transport across a clean porous membrane is directly proportional to the trans membrane pressure and
inversely proportional to the dynamic viscosity. The volumetric flux (m3/h.m2 of membrane surface area) is modeled using a
modified form of Darcy’s Law
𝑄 ∆𝑃
𝐽= =
𝐴 𝜇 𝑅𝑚
J = volumetric water flux through membrane.m 3/h.m2
Q = volumetric flow rate of pure water, m3/h
A = surface area of clean membrane, m2
ΔP = transmembrane pressure, kPa
μ = dynamic viscosity of water, Pa.s
Rm = membrane resistance coefficient, m-1

 The volumetric flow rate of water across a single pore can be modeled using Poiseuille’s Law:
𝜋𝑟 4 ∆𝑃
𝑄𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 =
8𝜇 Ϯ ∆ɀ
Qpore = volumetric flow rate of pure water across a single pore, m 3/h
r = radius of pore, m
ΔP = transmembrane pressure, kPa
μ = dynamic viscosity of water, Pa.s
Δɀ = pore length, m
ρpore = pore density per unit area, number/m2
Ϯ = tortuosity factor, dimensionless

 Because pores in commercial water treatment membranes are not perfectly cylindrical, a dimensionless tortuosity
factor is added;
𝜋𝑟 4 ∆𝑃
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠, 𝑁 = 𝐴 𝜌𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 =
8𝜇 Ϯ ∆ɀ
8𝜇 Ϯ ∆ɀ N
𝑅𝑚 =
𝜋𝑟 4

MEMBRANE FOULING
 Fouling of MF/UF may be defined as the gradual reduction in filtrate flow rate at constant pressure or an increase in
transmembrane pressure to maintain a constant flux. Fouling is said to be irreversible if the loss in flux cannot be
recovered by backwashing and cleaning.
Causes of fouling: particulate matter, dissolved organic matter, biological growth

TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS

 Flux is inversely proportional to the viscosity. Viscosity change due to change in water temperature are an important
design consideration in the treatment of surface water when the water ranges from 1OC to 20OC over the course of a
year.
𝜇 = 1.777 − 0.052𝑇 + 6.25𝑥10−4 (𝑇 2 )
μ = dynamic viscosity of water, mPa.s
T = temperature, OC

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PROBLEMS:

1. Estimate the percent change in permeate flux that will result from the temperature change from 15 OC to 20OC if the
TMP remains constant.
Solution:
@ 15OC, μ = 1.777 – 0.052T + 6.25 x 10-4 (15)2
μ = 1.14 mPa.s
@ 20OC, μ = 1.777 – 0.052T + 6.25 x 10-4 (20)2
μ = 0.987 mPa.s

2. Determine the number of modules per rack and the number of racks to provide uninterrupted flow for the following
design conditions:
Qmax = 10,000 m3/d Backwash interval = 60 min
J = 0.100 m3/h.m2 Backwash time = 8 min
Membrane area per module = 50 m2

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