Component-I (A)- Personal Detail

Role Name Affiliation

Principal Investigator Prof. Masood Ahsan Siddiqui Department of Geography,
Jamia Millia Islamia, New
Delhi
Paper Coordinator Dr.Sayed Zaheen Alam Dyal Singh College, University
of Delhi, New Delhi
Content Writer Dr.Sayed Zaheen Alam Dyal Singh College, University
of Delhi, New Delhi
Content Reviewer Prof. Masood Ahsan Siddiqui Department of Geography,
Jamia Millia Islamia, New
Delhi
Language Editor Prof. Masood Ahsan Siddiqui Department of Geography,
Jamia Millia Islamia, New
Delhi

Component-I (B) Description of Module

Items Description of Module

Subject Name Geography
Paper Name Geomorphology
Module Name/Title Nature and Development of Geomorphology
Module Id GEO-1
Pre-requisites Understanding of Fundamnetal concepts of
Geomrophology
Objectives Total Six
Keywords Uniformitarianism, Lithology,Stratigraphy,
Exogenic forces,Differential Erosion,Base
Level,Cycle of Erosion, DGPS, LIDAR,
EDM,Geomorphometry, DEM, DTM and
SWOC
 Nature and Development of Geomorphology
Dr.Sayed Zaheen Alam, Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Dyal Singh College,
University of Delhi, New Delhi.

You may have been interested in Geomorphology, but without knowing it. Probably you have
seen the mountains like Himalayas or the Juhu beach in Mumbai. In these places you may have
noticed that some processes are changing the landscape although with varying intensity. Like for
example in India if you visit from Kanyakumari to Kashmir or Jaisalmer to Arunanchal Pradesh
you will find remarkable variation in the relief features.

Figure: Diversity in the Relief

This may tempt you to question why it is like this? i.e., why there is diversity in the relief
features of the earth’s surface? In the present module we are going to take you on a journey of
science of landscape that is known as Geomorphology, but before that let us see the place of
geomorphology in Geography. We know that ‘Physical Geography’ is the base of geography ‘it
unifies several branches of natural sciences for the purpose of understanding the relationship of
man to his environment’ (Strahler). We can also consider geomorphology as the base of physical
geography. We know that geography is concerned to provide accurate, orderly rational
description of the variable character of the earth’s surface. The focus of geomorphology is also
the‘surface of the earth’.Therefore we can say that it is one of the most important branche of
geography under the banner of physical geography.

In the present module we are going to cover about following aspects of geomorphology:

1. Definition of Geomorphology

2. Organization of the Subject Matter

3. Relationship of Geomorphology with other Subjects

4. Historical Development

4.1 Modern Geomorphology and the Age of Hutton and Lyell in Europe

4.2. Founders of Modern Geomorphology in America

5. Recent Trends in Geomorphology

6. Geomorphology: SWOC analysis

1. Definition of Geomorphology

A geomorphologist attempts to formulate answers to following questions: What is a landform?

What makes one landform unique from another? How are different landforms associated with
each other? Are they arranged in sequential order? How do landforms evolve? How they may
evolve in the future? Likewise what is the significance of geormorphic knowledge for human
society?

The word Geomorphology is derived from three Greek words i.e., Ge (the Earth), Morphe or
Morphi (forms) and Logos (discourse):
Therefore geomorphology represents ‘a discourse on Earth Forms’. In order to understand the
meaning of Geomorphology let us ponder over some basic definitions given by the well known
geomorphologists.

According to Worcester (1949), the “Geomorphology is the interpretative description of the

relief features of the Earth”. The term relief covers the physiography of an area such as
differences in altitude size and shape of the valley, forms and steepness of different slopes.
Therefore geomrphologistsare basically concerned with relief features of the Earth.

According to Bloom (1992) the geomorphology deals with “the systematic description and
analysis of landscapes and the processes that changed them”. Bloom added an important aspect
in the definition of Geomorphology i.e., ‘Processes’ responsible for changing the landscapes. It
should be noted that the nature and intensity of different processes vary from region to region.
These different erosional agents often produce an orderly sequence of landform on the surface
of the Earth. The task of the geomorphologist is to scientifically explore and systematically
arrange the landforms in these orderly sequences. That is why perhaps Thornbury (1993) said
Geomorphology “is the science of Landforms it also includes submarine landforms”. Let ussee
why it is considered as the science of Landforms? We know aim of the science is to explain
what happens in the world. A famous philosopher of Science Hempel suggested that scientific
explanations typically have the logical structure of an argument, i.e. a set of premises followed
by a conclusion. He further said that if the explanation were spelled out in full detail, the law
would enter the picture (S.Okasha 2002). Therefore in general we can say that science beliefs in
observation, reasoning (like inductive and deductive), empirical testing, empirical measurements,
generalizations, systematic study of any phenomenon and the formulation of laws. All these
attributes are also present in geomorphology in one or the other forms. For example, Principle
of Uniformitarianism (Hutton 1785) is a great underlying principle of modern Geomorphology
and Geology. Similarly field observation and measurement is also a part of Geomorphology. For
Example,H. F. Reid of Johns Hopkins University conducted a field study following the great
1906 San Francisco earthquake. On the basis of field observation he proposed ‘Elastic Rebound
Theory’. Likewise,American geomorphologist W.M Davispresented a general theory of
landform development that is popularly known as ‘Cycle of Erosion’. His cycle of erosion was
based on careful field observations. Therefore by nature geomorphology is concerned with
science of landforms.

Did You Know?

The term Geomorphology in modern sense was probably used by Keith in the year1894.

2. Organization of the Subject Matter

In the modern world the raisen d’etre of any discipline is its subject matter and its usefulnessfor
the society. The Subject matter of Geomorphology incorporates Structure, Process, systematic
analysis and evolution of Landforms. Let us discuss in detail about the subject matter of
geomorphology.

(a) The first thing a geomorphologits wants to know is about the terrain i.e.,what is the
structure?

The term structure denotes an arrangement of interrelated elements in a material object or

system. In geomorphology it means (i) Lithology of the rock such as porosity, relative
permeability, folding and faulting; (ii) Stratigraphic arrangement of the rock; (iii) Constitution
or composition of the rock and(iv) Variation in the relief features of the continents and Ocean
basins.The nature and character ofstructures are mainly determined by endogenic or internal
forces. We shall study in detail about these forces in other modules of present paper.

(b) The second term or concept i.e.,process in geomorphology is mainly related to external or
exogenic forces. These forces contribute to shape a landscape. They are also called destructional
processes or denudational processes. A brief list of these endogenic and exogenic processes are
as follows:
 It is important to note that geomorphic processes vary in intensity from one region to
another. These variations are mainly attributedto differences in climate, vegetation, and altitude.
The rate of these forces vary from a few centimeters per thousand years for surface weathering of
ancient monuments to 50 meters/second or more for an avalanche (Bloom).

(c) In the systematic analysis of landforms, agemorphologist seeks to classify landforms on the
basis of scale of relief features, genesis and evolution of landforms. It should be noted that one of
the fundamental principles of geomorphology states that “as the different erosional agents act
upon the earth’s surface there is produced an orderly sequence of landforms. Therefore we
can classify landformson in one of the following categories:

(i) Generic Classification of Landforms: Description of entire group or class of landforms i.e.,
Mountain Plateau and Plains. For example Himalayan mountain ranges, Tibetan Plateau and the
Northern plains in India
(ii) Genetic Classification of Landforms: It means classification of landforms by dominant set
of geomorphic processes. For example, Tectonic landforms, fluvial landforms, Karst landforms,
Aeolian landforms, Coastal landforms and Glacial landforms.

(iii) We can also classify the landforms on the basis of their scale and lifespan.

For example the present graph shows the systematic arrangement of landforms on the basis of
their scale and lifespan. On ‘X’ axis the areal coverage of landform is shown in square
kilometers and on ‘Y’ axis average lifespan of each landform is shown in years. For example
average lifespan of “pool” that is a small landform found in the floodplain has a lifespan of
around 10 years on the other hand on top of the graph the ‘major drainage basins’ having almost
entire group of landforms (mainly shaped by river activity) has a lifespan of more than 10
million years. The graph also reveals that the areal coverage of former less is than 0.25 square
kilometer and thecoverage of later is more than 1 million square kilometers.

iv) If we take only scale as the basis for the classification of landforms, we can rearrange the
earth’s landforms into three different orders: for example, Relief Feature of First order, it
includes Continental Platforms and Ocean Basins. Similarly on next level of hierarchy II order
landforms are grouped. The relief features of the second order are superimposed on First order
category of landforms. For example, Plains, Plateau and Mountains. The last order i.e.,III order
relief features are superimposed on II order relief features such as Valleys, Canyons and Dunes.

3. Relationship of Geomorphology with other Subjects

Contemporary geographers classify geomorphology (as a branch of geography) under the Earth
Science Group.

The present figure demonstrates that several other branches of knowledge are directly and
indirectly linked with geomorphology. These allied disciplines are having a kind of mutual
relationship with geomorphology. For example, according to Spark(1960)‘the main contribution
of geomorphology to geology is in unraveling of geographical successions, for example when
deposits are thin and scattered such conditions being most characteristic of Pliocene and
Pleistocene periods in certain areas’. Similarly geomorphologists must have good working
knowledge of geology since without knowing lithology of rock geomorphologist cannot fully
understand the formation and character of landform. One of the fundamental principles of
geomorphology also states that “Geological structure is a dominant control factor in the
evolution of land forms and is reflected in them”. Likewise meteorology provides information
related with effect of climatic elements on the rate and nature of geomorphic processes. In turn
geomorphology contributes to meteorology by disclosing effect of morphology on climatic
variables. For example, the rainfall during the Monsoon season in India is largely affected by the
orographic effect of Himalayas. On the other hand it is equally true that “an appreciation of
world climates is necessary to a proper understanding of the varying importance of the
different geomorphic processes.” (Thornbury, 1993)

4. Historical Development

According to Summerfield (1991) the way geomorphologists approach the study of landforms at
present time can only be seen in proper context if we appreciate how central concepts of
geomorphology have been developed. We can trace the development of Geomorphological ideas
into well marked four periods of history i.e., (i) Ancient Period and Medieval period; (ii) Modern
Geomorphology and the Age of Hutton and Lyell in Europe (iii) Founders of Modern
Geomorphology in America and; (iv) the recent trends

The early writings related with landforms can be traced to the times of early Greek, Roman, Arab
and Chinese thinkers. For example,the father of History Herodotus (484-425 B.C.) once said
“Egypt is the gift of the River (Nile)”. Therefore, he attributed the formation of Nile river delta
to the accumulation of river born silt (Kale and Gupta, 2001). The Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) as
pioneer of inductive reasoning talked about ‘origin of springs’. The Arab civilization during the
medieval period also contributed to the development of geomorphology. Abdullah Ibn Sina
sometimes known in the West by Latin name, Avicenna introduced the concept of “differential
erosion”. He used this term to describe formation of valleys and the altitude of mountains.
According to Thornbury (1993) “a work by a group of unknown Arabic scholars known as ‘The
Discourses of the Brothers of Purity’ (941-982 A.D.)” discussed about erosion and
transportation by streams and wind, weathering and even embryonic idea of pneneplanation.
Thereafter during the renaissance Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519) discussed about the formation
of valleys by river erosion and presence of marine fossil shells in mountain. The Frenchman
Buffon (1707-1788) also discussed erosive power of stream till sea level.

4.1 Modern Geomorphology and the Age of Hutton and Lyell in Europe

A paper presented by Hutton in the year 1785 before the ‘Royal Society of Edinburgh’ changed
the discourse of the history of Earth’s formation. Hutton proposed that landsurface is evolved by
slow, unremitting erosive power of moving water (Summerfield).He also challenged the
religious viewpoint of a particular faith about the formation of the Earth. Hutton is best known
for his two statements:(i) The present is the key to the past and , (ii) No vestige of a beginning
no prospect of an end. Thus he established the principle or doctrine of Uniformitarianism. His
idea about the ‘Theory of Earth’or formation of earth was more popularised by John Playfair
(1748-1819) and Sir Charles Leyell (1797-1875). Leyelllater became the great follower of
uniformitarianism in Europe.His book ‘Principles of Geology’ was based on Hutton’s principle
of Uniformitarianism.
The discovery of Pleistocene Ice Age by Louis Agassiz (1807-1873) in Europe and the genetic
classification of landscape by Arthur Penk (1894)also created sufficient knowledge base for the
development of physographic geology in Europe. Later Alfred Lothar Wegener in 1912 – a 32
year old lecturer in meteorology and astronomy in Germany propounded the Continental Drift
theory.

Figure: Alfred Lothar Wegener (1880-1930), Propounded Continental Drift theory.

Figure: Pangaea Surrounded by Panthalassa during Upper Carboniferous Period.

This theory was based on sound scientific evidences which ultimately gave birth to the plate
tectonic theory.Todayplate tectonic theory is of a great significance in understanding of the
global distribution of earthquakes, volcanoes and identification of disaster prone areas. We will
also study this theory in detail in a separate module of the present paper.

4.2 Founders of Modern Geomorphology in America

The period between 1875 and 1900 are considered as “the heroic age in American
geomorphology” (Thornbury, 1993). The champions of this period were Major J.W.Powell
(1834-1902), G.Gilbert (1843-1918) and the C.E. Dutton (1841-1912).

Powell is known for the concept of ‘base level’ i.e., a level below which the dry lands cannot be
eroded. The present laws of landscape development are built around Gilbert’s dynamic
equilibrium mechanism. Gilbert also attempted to develop quantitative approachin
geomorphology. The purpose of his quantitative approach was to explainthe relationship between
stream load, volume and velocity of water vis a vis gradient factor. Dutton applied the concept
of ‘base level’ to analyse the ‘Great Denudation’ in Colorado Plateaus area in United Sates of
America. W.M. Davis (1850-1934) associated with Harvard University quickly grasped the idea
of ‘base level’ given by Powell, great denudation discovered by Dutton and the quantitative
approach proposed by Gilbert. On the basis of their ideas Davis proposed the ‘cycle of erosion’.
He described the evolution oflandforms in terms of structure, process and time.

It should be noted that W.M. Davis theory was extremely popular in geomorphology for a
long time, but it was ultimately superseded by new datasets and the development of plate
tectonic theory (Goudie and Viles, 2010). We shall study geomorphic cycle and plate tectonic
theory in separate modules of present paper.

5. Recent Trends in Geomorphology

The present day geomorphologists are largely influenced by two important revolutions occurred
in the discipline of Geography i.e., ‘Quantitative revolution’ and the ‘Process revolution’. The
former introduced explicit emphasis on the use of scientific methods and later developed the
greater understanding of the processes responsible for the creation of variable character of the
earth surface.

The measurement, monitoring, analysis and modelling of the formative processes have become
integral part of present day geomorphology. For example, Differential GPS (or DGPS) is now
commonly used by geomorphologists to identify precise location of topographical features. This
prices measurement is also extremely useful for the changes happening in the glacier areas
especially to monitor climate change. It is equally helpful for the identification of hazards
related with landslides and slope failures. The Ground based Light Detection and Ranging
(LIDAR) is another instrument to identify precise location of third order landforms especially in
inaccessible areas of the earth. The modern day sensitive instruments can even track the relative
movement of different plates, glaciers as well as lava flow in a volcanic region.
The high resolution satellite imageries, Computer aided Cartography, Electronic Distance
Measurement (EDM), Global Positioning System (GPS) and GIS softwares haveimmensely
contributed to the development of a new specialized branch of geomorphology i.e.,
Geomorphometry.

Now within a fraction of a second gemorphologists can compute topographic elements through
Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) and Digital Terrain Models (DTMs).
The freely available Google Earth satellite imageries have given new tool to explore the
inaccessible parts of the world. Now a volcanologist can virtually explore an active volcano
through the near real time satellite imageries. For example the present imagery is showing an
areal view of a crater at the summit of Mt St. Helens (USA).This image has been taken by
satellite.

Figure: Areal view of a crater at the summit of Mt St. Helens (USA). Image credit: ©Google
earth 2015).

A wealth of data on the quantities of sediments found in the deep sea basins of the planet earth
by ‘Integrated Ocean drilling project’ has lured several young researchers to go deep into the
field of geomorphology or specifically oceanography. The drilling projects have also contributed
to applied geomorphology. For example identification of oil exploration sites require application
of geomorphic knowledge. The use of geomorphic knowledge to find answers to the problems
faced by human beings is called ‘applied geomorphology’. For example geomorphicknowledge
is prerequisitefor managing and preventing natural hazards, land resource planning,
Environmental Impact Assessment, site suitability analysis for House, Industry and dams.It
is more advantageous that we know, for instance, something of the discharge and sediment load
of streams, than they are ‘young’ or ‘mature’, as Davis described them (Bryant, 1992). We will
also attempt to discuss applied geomorphology in separate module of this paper. At present with
the advent of the internet and improved access to many sources, the research literature in
geomorphology has increased rapidly. In 2013 alone, the Journal of Geomorphology published
369 research papers, most of a highly technical nature (Gregory and Lewin, 2014).

6. The State of Geomorphology: SWOC analysis:

Let us see the state of geomorphology through SWOC analysis i.e., Strength, Weaknesses,
opportunities and challenges:
Geomorphology: Strength and Opportunities

Geomorphology is enriched with well developed fundamental concepts. There is no dearth of

books related to geomorphology.

(b) Geomorphology is scientific in nature. The techniques like EDM, GPS and GIS, Numerical
Analysis and Laboratory analysis of rocks and sediments, and several instruments used in filed
investigations makes scientific identity of the discipline.

(c) Several developments in the field of science and technology has opened many specialized
branches of geomorphology such as, remote-sensing geomorphology, experimental
geomorphology, extraterrestrial (planetary) geomorphology, engineering geomorphology and
anthropogenic-geomorphology. One can also become an expert in these branches. For example,
Fluvial Geomorphologist,Karst Geomorphologists, Coastal Geomorphologists,
Biogeomorphologist, Tropical Geomorphologist, Mountain Geomorphologist. The applied
geomorphology also offers many job opportunities in specialized fields. For example,expert in
disaster management, EIA expert and Environmental Specialist.
Geomorphology: Weaknesses and Challenges

Geomorphology requires a rigorous understanding of the fundamentals concepts of the

discipline. It is basically a heterogeneous science; therefore it requires expertise in various filed
of sciences. The instruments required for geomorphometric analysis are very costly. Therefore,
the field work is very expensive. Thisbranch of physical geography hasalso not captured the
interest of general public except in case of random news events related to volcanic eruptions
and earthquakes. Recent massive 7.9 magnitude shallow focus Nepalearthquake on 25, April,
2015 at 11.48 AM (IST) hasshocked the world. It claimed the life of more than 9,000 people in
our neighboring country Nepal, which is one of the worst in Nepal’s history. Nepal is still coping
with the aftermath of the earthquake. Therefore geomorphic literacy is extremely important not
only to understand the phenomena but also for disaster. We will also study in detail about the
earthquakes and geomorphic hazards in different modules of present paper.

Thank you