186 PART

Introduction

Learning generalize to organizatio.

here is little rescarch how theories of learning
on 1ons
This is due in part to the fact that muc
and employees in different cultures. conducted before there was
the research on learning theories is fairly old,
Of
lot of cross-cultural research. For example, two major recent reviews of cros
cultural research in OB did not mention learning theories, reinforcement theor
or behavioral modification. That doesn't mean these theories are necessarik,
or the other.
y
really don't yet know way
one
Culturally bound; it means we

Values t r y Bell 4uat hotcol

5-9 Contrast terminal and
instrumental values.
s capital punishment right or wrong? Is a desire for power good or bad? The

answers to these questions are value-laden.

values Basic convictions that a Values represent basic convictions that "a specific mode of conduct or end.
specific mode of conduct or end-state state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse
of existence is
personally or socially mode of conduct or end-state of existence." Values contain a judgmental
preferable to an opposite or converse element because they carry an individual's ideas about what is right, good or
mode of conduct or end-state of
existence desirable)They have both content and intensity attributes. The content attribute
says a mode of conduct or end-state of existence is important. The intensity
attribute specifies how important it is. When we rank values in terms of inten-
value system A hierarchy based on Sity, we obtain that person's value system. We all have a hierarchy of values
a ranking of an individual's values in according to the relative importance we assign to values such as freedom, plea-
terms of their intensity.
sure, self-respect, honesty, obedience, and equality.
Values tend to be relatively stable and enduring. Many of the values
we hold are established in our early years-by parents, teachers, friends, and
others. If we question our values, they may change, but more often they are
reinforced. There is also evidence linking personality to values, implying our
values may be partly determined by genetically transmitted traits.3 Open
people, for example, may be more politically liberal, whereas conscientious
people may place a greater value on safe and ethical conduct. To explore the
topic further, we will discuss the importance and organization of values first.

The Importance and Organization of Values

Vafues lay the foundation for understanding attitudes and motivation, and they
influence our perceptions. We enter an organization with preconceived notions
of what "ought" and "ought not" to be. These notions contain our interpreta
tions of right and wrong and our preferences for certain behaviors or outcomes
Regardless of whether they clarify or bias our judgment, our values influence
our attitudes and behaviors at work.
While values can sometimes augment decision making, at times they can
cloud objectivity and rationality.4 Suppose you enter an organization with the
view that allocating pay based on performance is right, while allocating pay
based on seniority is wrong. How will you react if you find the organization
you've just joined rewards seniority and not performance? You're likely to be
disappointed-this can lead to job dissatisfaction and a decision not to exert
a high level of effort because "It's probably not going to lead to more money
 CHAPTERS 87
Personaity. Learning and Vaiues

anyway Would your attitudes and behavor be different tf your values al1gnei
with the organization's pay policies? Most likely

Terminal versus Instrumental Values

minal values esirabie end
es of exisere, the goals a peron
id he to acheve during his or her
rumental vakues Prefer
modes of behavior or means of
eving one's terminal väiues
How can we organize values? One researcher Milton Rokeach--argued that
we can separate them into two categories.3 One set, called terminal vak
ues, refers to desirable end-states. These are the goals a person would like t
achieve during a lifetime. The other set, called instrumental values, reters
to preferable modes of behavior, or means of achieving the ternminal xalucs
Some examples of terminal values are prosperity and economic success, free-
dom, health and wel1-being, world peace, and meaning in life. Examples of
instrumental values are autonomy and self-reliance. personal discipline, kind-
ness, and goal-orientation. Each of us places value on both the ends (terminal
values) and the means (instrumental values). A balance between the two is
important, as is an understanding of how to strike this balance,

Generational Values
Researchers have integrated several analyses of work values into groups that
attempt to capture the shared views of different cohorts or generations in the
US. workforce. You will surely be familiar with the labels. some of which are
used internationally. It is important to remember that, while categories are help
ful, they represent trends, not the beliefs of individuals
Exhibit 5-6 segments employees by the era during which they entered the
workforce. Because most people start work between the ages of 18 and 23, the
eras also correlate closely with employee age.
Though it is fascinating to think about generational values, remember these
classifications lack solid research support. Early research was plagued by meth-
odological problems that made it difficult to assess whether differences actu-
ally exist. Reviews suggest many of the generalizations are either overblown or
incorrect. Differences across generations often do not support popular con-
ceptions of how generations differ. For example, the value placed on leisure
has increased over generations from the baby boomers to the millennials and
work centrality has declined, but research did not find that millennials had more
altruistic work values. Generational classifications may help us understand
our own and other generations better, but we must also appreciate their limits.

Exhibit 5-6 Dominant Work Values in Today's Workforce

Entered the Approximate

Cohort Workforce Current Age Dominant Work Values
Boomers 1965-1985 50s to 70s Success, achievement, ambition,
dislike of authority:; loyalty to
career
Xers 1985-2000 Mid-30s to 50s Work-life balance, team-oriented,
dislike of rules; loyalty to
relationships
Millennials 2000 to present To mid-30s Confident, financial success, self-
reliant but team-oriented; loyalty
to both self and relationships