CELL : STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

• Cell – little room

• Basic structural and functional unit of the body
• Discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665
• Largest cell – egg of an ostrich ( 170mm x 130mm)
• Cells may be unicellular or multicellular
• Cells may be prokaryotic or eukaryotic
• Cell theory was given by Schleiden and Schwann
• Study of cells – cytology/ cell biology
Cell Structure
Cell Membrane
• The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It is porous and controls the
movement of substances in and out of the cells. It separates the cell from the
external environment. The cell membrane is present in all the cells.
• It consist of lipids and protein (Proteins in the sea of lipid) – Singer and Nicholson,
Fluid mosaic model.
• Semi permeable membrane
• Endocytosis
• The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other
organelles, such as the cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to
as the plasma membrane.
• Plasma membrane range from 5 to 10 nm
Cell Wall
• The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell
structure. It is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and
pectin.
• Bacterial cell wall – peptidoglycan. Fungi - chitin, algae -
glycoprotein
• The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects
the plasma membrane and other cellular components. The
cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.
• It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
• It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them
from mechanical shocks and injuries.
• Prokaryotic cell walls consist of two layers:
An inner layer that is made up of peptidoglycans
An outer layer that is composed of lipoproteins and
lipopolysaccharides
Nucleus
• The most integral component of the cell is the
nucleus (plural: nuclei). It is derived from a Latin
word which means “kernel of a nut”.
• Discovered by Robert Brown, 1831
• Called as brain of the cell
• It consist of nuclear membrane, nucleoplasm,
nucleolus.
• It contains chromosomes and DNA/RNA
(hereditary materials)
• Human have 46 chromosomes arranged in 23
pairs (22autosomes and XX in female, XY in
male)
Cell organelles
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Discovered by Albert Claude and Keith Porter in 1945
• Network of tubules or flattened sac
• Types – Rough ER (with ribosomes) & Smooth ER
• The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of
substances throughout the cell. It plays a primary role in the
metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids and
proteins
Golgi Apparatus
• Discovered by Camillo Golgi in 1898 in the nerve
cell of barn owl
• Consist of cisternae, tubules and vesicles
• Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is
involved in the transportation of materials within
the cell

Lysosomes
• Discovered by De Duve in 1955
• Also k/a suicidal bags or atom bomb of the cell
• Release enzyme through exocytosis
• Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign
bodies entering the cell and helps in cell renewal.
Mitochondria
• Discovered by Richard Altman in 1880
• Produce ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)
• Also k/a powerhouse of the cell

Ribosomes
• Composed of RNA and proteins
• Eukaryotic ribosome – 80S
• Prokaryotic ribosome – 70S
• Site of protein synthesis
Plastids
• Term introduced by E Haeckel in 1866
• Major organelle in plants and algae
• Leucoplast - colourless – amyloplast, elaioplast,
proteinoplast
• Chromoplast – red or yellow – lycopene, carotene,
betamin
• Chloroplast – green

Vacuoles
• Found mainly in plants
• Vacuoles stores food, water, and other waste
materials in the cell
Cell Cycle and Cell Division
• Cell cycle can be defined as a sequence of
events taking place for the development
and growth of the cell taking place
intravenously in a cell leading to the
formation of two daughter cells through
DNA duplication and cytokinesis along
with the division of cell organelles.
• The cell cycle has two major phases:
interphase and the mitotic phase.
• During interphase, the cell grows and
DNA is replicated.
• During the mitotic phase, the replicated
DNA and cytoplasmic contents are
separated, and the cell divides.
• Interphase
• During interphase, the cell undergoes normal growth processes while also preparing for
cell division. In order for a cell to move from interphase into the mitotic phase, many
internal and external conditions must be met. The three stages of interphase are called G1,
S, and G2.
• G1 Phase (First Gap)
• The first stage of interphase is called the G1 phase (first gap) , cell grows in size
• S Phase (Synthesis of DNA)
• Throughout interphase, nuclear DNA remains in a semi-condensed chromatin
configuration. In the S phase, DNA replication can proceed through the mechanisms that
result in the formation of identical pairs of DNA molecules—sister chromatids—that are
firmly attached to the centromeric region. The centrosome is duplicated during the S
phase. The two centrosomes will give rise to the mitotic spindle, the apparatus that
orchestrates the movement of chromosomes during mitosis. At the center of each animal
cell, the centrosomes of animal cells are associated with a pair of rod-like objects, the
centrioles, which are at right angles to each other. Centrioles help organize cell division.
Centrioles are not present in the centrosomes of other eukaryotic species, such as plants
and most fungi.
• G2 Phase (Second Gap)
• In the G2 phase, the cell replenishes its energy stores and synthesizes proteins necessary
for chromosome manipulation,
• M (Mitotic) Phase
• This phase is succeeded by the G2 phase. Here the cell divides into two
daughter cells along with equal distribution of chromosomes between the
daughter cells. Once the M phase steps into the G1 phase, the next cell
cycle is initiated to be repeated. Some cells, however, do not enter into the
G1 phase. These are referred to as G0 cells
• It comprises the following sub-phases –
• Prophase – in this stage, the nucleus disappears, spindle fibres are formed,
DNA condenses into sister chromatids
• Metaphase – the sister chromatids orient alongside the cell-equator by
linking their centromeres to the spindle fibres
• Anaphase – separation of sister chromatids at the centromere, being
pulled towards the opposite poles of the cell by mitotic spindle
• Telophase – At the opposite poles, the chromosomes arrive to unwind into
fine DNA strands. Spindle fibres vanish. Nuclear membrane resurfaces
• Cytokinesis – cell membrane splits, animal cells drift away. Plant cells form
a cell plate which turns into a new cell wall
• Cells arriving at the G0 phase, which is the inactive phase once they exit
the cell cycle when they are not preparing actively to divide. Few of these
cells tend to remain in this stage permanently.
• Meiosis is the process in which a single cell divides twice to form four haploid daughter
cells. These cells are the gametes – sperms in males and egg in females.
• Reduction division
• The process of meiosis is divided into 2 stages. Each stage is subdivided into several
phases.
• Meiosis I:
• Prophase I
• Metaphase I
• Anaphase I
• Telophase I
• Cytokinesis I
• Meiosis II:
• Prophase II
• Metaphase II
• Anaphase II
• Telophase II
• Cytokinesis II
Plant tissues
Criteria for Classification of Plant Tissues
• The 2 Major Criteria for the Classification of plant tissues are given below.
• Based on part of the plant, they are present in.
• Based on the kind of cells they contain.

• Classification of Plant Tissues – Based on its location in the Plant

• Epidermal tissues – It covers the outside of a plant in a single layer of cells.
• Ground tissues – It covers the interiors of a plant.
• Vascular tissues – Transports water and dissolved substances inside the plant.

• Classification of Plant Tissues – Based on the kind of cells they contain.

• Meristematic – There are 3 major types in this.
• Permanent – There are 2 major types under this named as Simple and Complex.
• Meristematic tissue:
• These tissues have the capability to develop by swift division. They
assist in the major growth of the vegetation. Growth in length and
growth in diameter of the plant is carried about by these cells. The
Meristematic cells are cubical, living cells with a big nucleus. These
cells are meticulously crammed with no intercellular spaces.
Depending on the section where the meristematic tissues are
existing, they are categorized as intercalary, lateral and apical
meristems.
• Apical meristem is existent at the growing tips or apical of stems
and roots. Apical meristem upsurges the length of the plant.
• Lateral meristem is existent in the radial portion of the stem or
root. Lateral meristem upsurges the thickness of the plant.
• Intercalary meristem is found at the internodes or at the base of
the leaves. Intercalary meristem upsurges the size of the internode.
• Old meristematic cells lose the capability to distribute and convert
into permanent tissues. This procedure of capturing up a
permanent function, size, and shape is termed as differentiation.
• Permanent tissues:
• These cells have lost their ability to distribute but
are specialized to offer elasticity, flexibility and
strength to the plant. These tissues can be
additionally categorized into:
• Simple Permanent Tissue: They can be classified
into sclerenchyma, collenchyma and parenchyma
based on their purpose.
• Complex Permanent Tissue: These tissues include
phloem and xylem. Xylem is valuable for the
transportation of water and solvable constituents. It
is made up of xylem parenchyma, fibres, vessels and
tracheids. Phloem is valuable in the transportation
of food particles. Phloem consists of phloem
parenchyma, phloem fibres, companion cells, sieve
cells and sieve tubes.
Parenchyma
• These are alive, polygonal cells with a big central vacuole, and have
intercellular spaces amidst them. Parenchymatous cells create ground
tissue and pith.
• Parenchyma consisting of chloroplasts are termed as chlorenchyma. The
chlorenchyma helps in photosynthesis.
• Parenchyma which consists of big air voids is called aerenchyma. Buoyancy
is the main purpose the aerenchyma.
• Some parenchymatous cells perform as storage chambers for starch in
vegetable and fruits.
Collenchyma
• These are stretched out, living cells with minute intercellular gaps. Their
cell walls are made up of pectin and cellulose. Collenchyma is found in the
marginal regions of leaves and stems and offers flexibility with the
structural framework and mechanical support to plants.
Sclerenchyma
• These are elongated, dead cells with lignin deposits in their cell wall. They
have no intercellular gaps. Sclerenchyma is found in the covering of seeds
and nuts, around the vascular tissues in stems and the veins of leaves.
Sclerenchyma provides strength to the plant.
Xylem
• It helps in the transport of dissolved substances
and water all through the plant. The diverse
components of the xylem include vessels,
tracheids, xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma.
Xylem fibres and Tracheids are made up of
lignin, which provides structural support to the
plant.

Phloem
• This tissue helps in the transportation of food all
through the plant. The diverse elements of
phloem include phloem fibres, sieve tubes,
phloem parenchyma and companion cells.
• Protective tissues
• These provide fortification to the plant. They
include the cork and epidermis.
• Epidermis – It is a layer of cell that makes up an
outer casing of all the structures in the plant.
The stomata perforates the epidermis at certain
places. The stomata help in loss of water and
gaseous exchange.
• Cork – This is the external protective tissue,
which substitutes the epidermal cells in mature
stems and roots. Cork cells are lifeless and lack
intercellular gaps. Their cell walls are
coagulated by suberin, which makes them
impervious to gas and Water Molecules.
Nutrition in plants
Autotrophic Nutrition in Plants
• Photosynthesis
• Plants are able to produce their own food through a process called photosynthesis.
• The chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis.
• Food production primarily is carried out in leaves. Water and minerals from the soil are absorbed
by the root and transported to the leaves through vessels. Carbon dioxide reaches leaves through
stomata – which are small pores on leaves surrounded by guard cells.
• Chlorophyll is a green pigment present in leaves which helps the leaves capture energy from
sunlight to prepare their food. This production of food which takes place in the presence of
sunlight is known as photosynthesis. Hence, the sun serves as the primary source for all living
organisms
• During photosynthesis, water and carbon dioxide are used in the presence of sunlight to produce
carbohydrates and oxygen.
• Photosynthesis provides food to all living beings.
• Oxygen, one of the main components of life on earth is released by plants during photosynthesis.
Conditions necessary for Photosynthesis
• Sunlight
• Water
• Carbon dioxide
• Chlorophyll

Steps in Photosynthesis
• Absorption of energy from sunlight
• Conversion of light energy into chemical energy
• Hydrolysis of water into oxygen and hydrogen
• Carbon dioxide is reduced to form glucose by
utilizing chemical energy
Heterotrophic Nutrition in Plants
• Some plants do not contain chlorophyll and depend on other plants
for their food through the heterotrophic mode of nutrition

Parasitic Nutrition
• Some heterotrophic plants depend on other plants and animals for
nutrition. Such plants are known as parasitic plants. However, the
host is not benefitted from the parasite.
• Haustoria
• For eg., Cuscuta, Cassytha

Insectivorous Nutrition
• Some plants have special structural features that help them to trap
insects and are commonly known as carnivorous or heterotrophic
plants. These plants digest the insects by secreting digestive juices
and absorb the nutrients from them. These plants grow on the soil
that lacks minerals.
• For eg., Pitcher plant, Venus flytrap
Saprophytic Nutrition
• The saprophytic plants derive nutrition from dead
and decaying plants and animals. They dissolve the
dead and decaying matter by secreting digestive
juices and absorb the nutrients.
• For eg., mushrooms, moulds.

Symbiotic Nutrition
• When two different plants belonging to two
different categories show a close association, they
are termed as symbiotic. In this, both the plants are
benefitted from each other.
• For eg., the association of fungi and trees.
• According to Epstein (1972), there are two main
criteria to judge essentiality of an element for
plant:
• (i) “An element is essential if the plant cannot
complete its life cycle (i.e., form viable seeds) in the
absence of that element” and
• (ii) “An element is essential if it forms part of any
molecule or constituent of the plant that is itself
essential for the plant” (for instance N in proteins
and Mg in chlorophylls).

• It is now known that the following 17 elements are

essential for majority of the plants:
• C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, S, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, B, Cu, Ni, CI
and Mo (molybdenum.) Besides these, Al, Si, Se, Na,
Co, V (vanadium) and Ga (gallium) may be essential
for some plants
• Essential elements may be classified into two
groups:
• (1) Major Elements (Macronutrients):
• The essential elements which are required by the
plants in comparatively large amounts (1000 mg or
more/kg of dry matter) are called as major
elements or macronutrients. They are:-
• C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, S, Mg.

• (2) Minor Elements (Or Micronutrients or Trace

Elements):
• The essential elements which are required in very
small amounts (less than 100 mg/kg of dry matter)
or traces by the plants are called as minor elements
or micronutrients or trace elements. They are:-
• Fe, Mn, Zn, B, Cu, Ni, CI and Mo.
• Morphology – (Morphe = form + logos = study).
• It deals with the study of forms and features of
different plant organs like roots, stems, leaves,
flowers, seeds, fruits etc.
• The body of a typical angiospermic plant is
differentiated into :
✧ an underground root system
✧ an aerial shoot system.
• The shoot system consists of stem (including
branches), leaves, flowers and fruits.
• The roots, stems and leaves are vegetative
parts, while flowers constitute the reproductive
part.
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS
Depending upon their life span, plants are classified as –
• Annuals – Complete their life cycle in one year or single
growing season or few weeks to a few months.
They pass the unfavorable period in the form of seeds
eg. Mustard, Pea.
• Biennials – Complete their life cycle in two years-
growing, vegetative and storing food in the first year,
flowering and fruiting in the second year.
They die off after producing flowers and fruits
eg. Radish, turnip, carrot are biennial in colder areas.
They become annual in warmer places.
• Perennials – Survives for several years.
These plants usually bears flowers and fruits every year
and do not die after producing flowers.
eg. Mango, Banana, Guava
TYPES OF ROOTS
• Roots are of two types :
✧ Tap root
✧ Adventitious root
• Tap root : It develops from radicle and made up of one main branch and other sub
branches.
The primary roots and its branches constitute tap root system.
e.g. Dicot roots.
• Adventitious roots : In some plants, after sometime of the growth of tap root which arises
from radicle, stops and then roots, develop from other part of plant, which are branched
or unbranched, fibrous or storage, are known as adventitious roots and constitute fibrous
root system.
e.g. Monocot roots.
MODIFICATION OF ROOTS
1. Modified tap root for storage :
• Fusiform roots : These root are thicker in the middle and tapered
on both ends. In this type of roots both hypocotyl and root help in
storage of food. eg. Radish.
• Conical roots : These roots are thicker at their upper side and
tapering at basal end. eg. Carrot.
• Napiform : These roots become swollen and spherical at upper end
and tapered like a thread at their lower end. eg. Turnip (Brassica
rapa), Sugar beet
• Tuberous root : Such roots do not have regular shape and get
swollen & fleshy at any portion of roots. eg. Mirabilis.
2. Nodulated root : Nodules are formed on branches of
roots by nitrogen fixing bacteria, (Rhizobium).
eg. Plants of leguminosae family (Papilionatae) – Pea.

3. Respiratory roots : Halophyte or mangrove grow in

oxygen deficient marshy area.
• Some branches of tap root in these plant grow vertically
& comes out from soil.
• These roots are called pneumatophores through which
air entered inside the plant.
• eg. Rhizophora, Heritiera, Sonaratia and other
mangrove plant.
Modification of adventitious roots :
• 1. Storage adventitious roots
✧ Tuberous root : When food is stored in these roots, they become
swollen and form a bunch. eg. Sweet potato (Ipomea batata)
✧ Fasciculated – Roots arise in bunch (cluster) from lower node of the
stem and become fleshy eg. Dahlia, Asparagus.
✧ Nodulose : In this type, tips of roots swell up. eg. Melilotus, Curcuma
amoda.
✧ Beaded or moniliform : When root swells up like a bead at different
places after a regular interval. eg. Vitis, Momordica (Bitter gourd),
Portulaca.
✧ Annulated : Roots having series of ring like swellings eg. Psychrotia
• 2. Stilt roots or brace roots : When root arises from lower
nodes and enter in soil obliquely, known as stilt roots eg.
Maize, Sugarcane, Pandanus (screwpine)
• 3. Prop root or pillar roots : when root arises from branches
of plant and grows downward towards soil. It function as
supporting stem for the plant. eg. Banyan.
• 4. Butteress root – Such roots appear from the basal part of
stem and spread in different directions in the soil. eg. Ficus,
Bombax , Terminalia. It is a characteristic feature of tropical
rain forest.
• 5. Climbing roots – These roots arise from nodes and helps
the plant in climbing. eg. Money plant (Pothos), Betel, Black
pepper, Techoma.
• 6. Foliar roots or Epiphyllous roots – When roots arise from
leaf they are called as foliar roots. eg. Bryophyllum, Bignonia.
• 7. Sucking or haustorial roots or Parasitic roots : In parasitic
plant roots enter in the stem of host plant to absorbed
nutrition from host. eg. Dendrophthoe, Cuscuta, Viscum.
• 8. Assimilatory roots : The aerial roots of Tinospora and
submerged roots of Trapa (Water chestnut) become
green and synthesize food. Podostemon also has green
assimilatory roots.
• 9. Hygroscopic roots : These are found in epiphytes,
specially in orchids and help in absorption of moisture
from the atmosphere using special tissue called
velamen. eg. Orchids, Banda
• 10. Contractile roots : They shrink 60 – 70% of the
original length and bring underground organ at proper
depth in the soil e.g., corm of Crocus (saffron), Fresia.
• 11. Root thorns : These are hard, thick and pointed
thorns e.g. Pothos armatus. Reproductive roots : These
are fleshy, adventitious roots used for vegetative
reproduction e.g., sweet potato (Ipomea batata), Dahlia.
Leaf roots : In Salvinia, one leaf of each node modifies
into root like structure for balancing the plant in water
TYPES & MODIFICATION OF STEM
• Aerial stems (Epiterranean stem) : It may be reduced, erect and weak.
Reduced – Stem reduced to a disc. eg., Radish, Carrot, Turnip.
Erect stem - It is strong and upright e.g., maize, wheat, mango.
Weak stems – These are thin, soft and weak and need support. They can
be upright or prostrate.
✧ Creepers – The stem creeps on earth and the roots arise at the nodes,
e.g., Grasses, Strawberry, Oxalis.

✧ Traliers – The stem creeps on the ground, but the roots do not arise at the
nodes. They may be of two types : ŠProstrate or procumbent – The stem
creeps on ground totally, e.g., Evolvulus, Tribulus. ŠDecumbent – When
prostrate stem projects its tip, e.g., Portulaca, Linderbergia.
• Lianas (Stem climber). Woody perennial climbers found in tropical rain
forests are lianas. They twin themselves around tall trees to secure
sunlight, e.g., Hiptage, Bauhinia vahlii (Phanera).
✧ Climbers – Plants are with long weak stem and have organs of
attachment to climb the object. They may be of following type .
Rootlet climbers – Roots produced at nodes help in climbing e.g., Tecoma,
Pothos, Piper betal (pan). Š
Hook climbers – In Bougainvillea, Duranta and Carrisa, the thorn is
modification of axillary vegetative bud which helps in climbing. In Bignonia,
terminal leaflet is converted into hook.
• Tendril climbers – Tendrils are thread like structure
which help the plants in climbing. Tendrils are
modifications of :
ƒ
Entire leaf e.g. Lathyrus sativus. ƒ
Leaflet e.g. Pisum sativum ƒ
Petiole e.g. Clematis, Nepenthes. ƒ
Stipule e.g. Smilex. ƒ
Leaf apex e.g. Gloriosa ƒ
Inflorescence e.g. Antigonon.
Stem e.g., Vitis (grapevines), gourds, Passiflora
(modified axillary bud).
✧ Twiners – The stem body twines around the
support without any special organ of attachment.
e.g., Cuscuta, Dolichos.
• Sub aerial modification – runner, stolon, offset and
sucker
Underground modification :
• This type of modification occurs
generally for food storage and vegetative
propagation.
• Tuber – The tips of underground
branches become swollen in the soil.
Eyes are found on then which are axillary
buds and covered with scaly leaves. eg.
Potato, Helianthus tuberosus
• Rhizome – It is fleshy and horizontally
stem found below in soil. Small nodes
and internodes are found which are
covered by scaly leaves. eg. Ginger,
Turmeric, Canna, Water lily, Banana.
• Corm – It is condensed structure which
grow vertically under the soil surface.
They are having spherical node and inter
node eg. Colocasia, Alocasia, Zaminkand,
Saffron, Gladiolus, Colchicum
• Bulb – This stem is reduced and has disc
like structure and surrounds with
numerous fleshly scaly leaves. Many
roots arise from its base. Food is stored
in flashy leaves. They show apical growth
eg. Onion, Garlic.
• Special stem modification :
• Phylloclade – It is green photosynthetic flattened or rounded succulent
stem with leaves either feebly developed or modified into spines e.g.,
Opuntia, Casuarina, Euphorbia, Cactus.
• Thorn – It is modification of axillary bud, e.g., Bougainvillea, Duranta,
Carissa. Thorns of Alhagi possess flowers, while thorns of Duranta bears
leaves.
• Cladode – Phylloclade usually having one or two internode long &
succulent is called cladode, e.g., Asparagus, Ruscus.
• Stem tendrill – it is a leafless, spirally coiled structure found in climbers. It
may be a modification of Axillary bud, e.g. Passiflora or terminal bud e.g.,
Vitis.
• Bulbils – A condensed , axillary fleshy bud is called bulbils. It helps in
vegetative reproduction. eg., Dioscorea, Globba, Agave, Oxalis
Simple and Compound Leaf :
• Simple Leaf – A leaf which may be incised to any depth,
but not down to the midrib or petiole, then this type of
leaf called simple leaf. eg. Mango, China rose, Ficus, etc.
• Compound leaf – A leaf in which the leaf blade is incised
up to the midrib or petiole, thus dividing it into several
small parts, known as leaflets. This type of leaf is known
as compound leaf. It is of two types – Pinnately
compound leaf – In this type of leaf mid rib is known as
rachis. Leaflets are arranged on both sides of rachis. eg.
Neem.
MODIFICATION OF LEAVES
• Leaf tendril – In it, whole leaf is modified into thin thread like
structure which is called leaf tendril eg. Lathyrus aphaca (wild pea).
• Leaflet tendril – When leaflet is modified into tendril like structure
than it is called leaflet tendril. eg. Pisum sativum (Garden pea),
Lathyrus odoratus (sweet pea)
• Leaf spine – Leaves or any part of leaflet are modified into pointed
spine. eg. Asparagus, Opuntia, Aloe, Argemone.
• Leaf scale – In it, leaves become thin, dry and form a membrane or
paper like structure and serve to protect axillary buds as in Ficus
and Tamarix, Ruscus, Casurina.
• Leaf pitcher – Leaves of some plants are modified to pitcher shape.
eg. Nepenthes, Dischidia.
• Leaf bladder – In some plant , leaves are modified into bladder like
structure eg. Utricularia.
• Leaf Hooks – In some plants terminal leaflets are modified into
curved hooks for helping the plant in climbing. eg. Argemone,
Opuntia, Aloe, Cat's nail (Bignonia unguis – cati)
• Phyllode – In its, petiole becomes flat structure and function as
normal leaf. eg. Australian acacia.
• Flashy leaves – In onion and garlic food storing flashy leaves are
present.
FLOWER
• Flower is defined as highly
condensed and modified
reproductive shoot.
• The part from where flower
arise is called bract.
• Flower has short or long
flower stalk which is called
pedicel.
• The upper part of pedicel
is swollen, spherical shaped
or conical which is called
thalamus / Receptacle.
• Floral leaves are present on
it.
• In a flower there are 4 type
of floral leaves are found.
✧ Sepal ✧ Petal ✧ Stamen
✧ Carpel
• CALYX
• The outermost whorl of flower is called calyx.
• Each member of this whorl is called sepal when all the
sepals are free from each other, then it is called poly-
sepalous condition eg. Mustard, Radish.
• When the sepals are fused each other, then it is called
gamosepalous condition eg. Cotton, Datura, Brinjal.

• COROLLA
• The second whorl of flower is called corolla and each
member of it is called Petals.
• When the shape and size of petals are similar then it is
called symmetrical while when they are not similar then
they are asymmetrical.
• When all the petals are free, then it is called
polypetalous while when petals are fused, then it is
called gamopetalous.
• ANDROECIUM
• It constitutes the third whorl of the flower and is made up of one
or more stamens.
• Each stamen consist of filament, anther and connective.
• Each anther is usually bilobed and each lobe has two chambers the
pollensac. The pollen grains are produced in pollensac

• ✔ GYNOECIUM (PISTIL)
• It is the fourth and second essential whorl of the flower.
• It is female part of the flower comprising of the inner whorl of
megasporophylls in the form of carpels bearing ovules.
• It consists of ovary, style and stigma.
• Ovary is the enlarged basal part, on which lies the elongated tube
the style, the style connects the ovary to the stigma.
• The stigma is usually at the tip of the style and is receptive surface
for pollen grains.
• The gynoecium may be monocarpellary or multicarpellary
Types of Plant Growth Regulators
• Auxin
• The first phyto hormone to be discovered is the Auxin and it
was discovered by the biologist Charles Darwin.
• Auxins are one of the most important plant hormones. The chief naturally
occurring auxin is indole-3 acetic acid – IAA and other related compounds.
The term Auxin is derived from the Greek language meaning to grow.
• These plant growth regulators are generally produced at the points of
stems and roots from where they are transported to other parts of the
plants. These plant hormones include both natural and synthetic sources.
Indole-3-acetic acid and indole butyric acid are obtained from natural plant
sources, whereas naphthalene acetic acid and 2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic
acid are obtained from synthetic sources.
Functions of Auxins
• Facilitate flowering in plants
• Used in the process of plant propagation.
• Used by gardeners to keep lawns free from weeds.
• Involved in the initiation of roots in stem cuttings.
• Prevention of dropping of leaves and fruits at early stages.
• Regulate xylem differentiation and assists in cell division.
• Auxins are widely used as herbicides to kill dicot weeds.
• Used to produce fruit without preceding fertilization.
• Promote natural detachment (abscission) of older leaves and
fruits.
• Apical dominance may occur in which the growth of lateral
buds is inhibited by the growth of apical buds. In such cases,
the shoot caps may be removed.
• These are produced by the apex of root and shoot.
• Gibberellins are an extensive chemical family based on the ent-
gibberellane structure.
• The first gibberellin to be discovered was gibberellic acid.
• Kurosawa, 1926
• Now there are more than 100 types of gibberellins and are mainly
gathered from a variety of organisms from fungi to higher plants.
Functions of Gibberellins
• Delay senescence in fruits.
• Involved in leaf expansion.
• Break bud and seed dormancy.
• Promote bolting in cabbages and beet.
• Facilitate elongation of fruits such as apples and enhance their
shape.
• Used by the brewing industry to accelerate the malting process.
• Used as the spraying agent to increase the yield of sugarcane by
elongation of the stem.
• In young conifers, utilized to fasten the maturity period and
facilitate early seed production
• Helps in increasing the crop yield by increasing the height in plants
such as sugarcane and increase the axis length in plants such as
grape stalks.
• Gibberellins are acidic in nature.
• It also delays senescence.
• Cytokinins
• Miller, 1955
• These are produced in the regions where cell division occurs; mostly
in the roots and shoots.
• They help in the production of new leaves, lateral shoot growth,
chloroplasts in leaves etc.
• They help in overcoming apical dominance and delay ageing of leaves.
Functions of Cytokinins
• Break bud and seed dormancy.
• Promotes the growth of the lateral bud.
• Promotes cell division and apical dominance.
• They are used to keep flowers fresh for a longer time.
• Used in tissue culture to induce cell division in mature
tissues.
• Facilitate adventitious shoot formation and lateral shoot
growth.
• Promote nutrient mobilization that in turn assists delaying
leaf senescence.
• Helps in delaying the process of ageing (senescence) in fresh
leaf crops like cabbage and lettuce.
• Involved in the formation of new leaves and
chloroplast organelles within the plant cell.
• Used to induce the development of shoot and roots along
with auxin, depending on the ratio.
• Plant Growth Inhibitors
• Abscisic acid
• It is a growth inhibitor, which was discovered in the
1965, Adicote and Corsin
• It was initially called dormant.
• Later, another compound abscisin-II was discovered
and are commonly called as abscisic acid.
• This growth inhibitor is synthesized within the stem,
leaves, fruits, and seeds of the plant.
• Mostly, abscisic acid serves as an antagonist to
Gibberellic acid.
• It is also known as the stress hormone as it helps by
increasing the plant-tolerance to various types of
stress.
Functions of Abscisic acid
• Stimulates closing of stomata in the epidermis.
• Helps in the maturation and development of
seeds.
• Inhibits plant metabolism and seed
germination.
• It is involved in regulating abscission and
dormancy.
• It is widely used as a spraying agent on trees to
regulate dropping of fruits.
• Induces seed-dormancy and aids in
withstanding desiccation and various undesired
growth factors.
• Methionine
• Ethylene is a simple, gaseous plant growth regulator, synthesised by
most of the plant organs includes ripening fruits and ageing tissues.
• It is an unsaturated hydrocarbon having double covalent bonds
between and adjacent to carbon atoms.
• Ethylene is used as both plant growth promoters and plant growth
inhibitors.
• Ethylene is synthesized by the ripening fruits and ageing tissues.
Functions of Ethylene
• Ethylene is the most widely used plant growth regulator
as it helps in regulating many physiological processes.
• Induce flowering in the mango tree.
• Promotes sprouting of potato tubers.
• Breaks the dormancy of seeds and buds.
• Enhances respiration rate during ripening of fruits.
• Applied to rubber trees to stimulate the flow of latex.
• Facilitates senescence and abscission of both flowers
and leaves.
• Used to stimulate the ripening of fruits. For example,
tomatoes and citrus fruits.
• Affects horizontal growth of seedlings and swelling of
the axis in dicot seedlings.
• Increases root hair formation and growth, thus aids
plant to expand their surface area for absorption
Plant viral diseases
• The process of producing new individuals from its
parents is called reproduction.
• Plant reproduction is the process by which plants
produce new individuals, or offspring.
• The parts of a plant can be categorized as
vegetative parts, which include leaves, roots and
stem, and reproductive parts, which include
flowers.
• A flower may either possess male parts or female
parts or both male and female parts.
• Flowers perform the reproductive function in
plants.
• The modes of plant reproduction can be majorly
classified as:
• Asexual mode of reproduction
• Sexual mode of reproduction
Reproduction in plants
Asexual reproduction
• Vegetative Propagation – A new plants are
developed from a portion of the main plant ‘s body.
• It can be reproduced both naturally as well as by
the artificial method of vegetative propagation. For
example- Onion bulbs are produced natural
propagation. Rose and banana plants are produced
are artificial methods of propagation.
Budding
• Small bulb-like projections arise from yeast cells, eventually
detaching itself from the parent cell. This then matures to grow into
a new yeast cell. These, in turn, produce more buds and the chain
continues forming a number of new yeast cells within a short
period of time.
Fragmentation
• Some organisms have the ability to break into two or more
fragments, with the new fragment becoming a new, independent
individual. They multiply rapidly in a short period of time.
Spore Formation
• Spores are present in the air and are covered by a hard protective
coat to bear low humidity and high-temperature conditions. Spores
germinate and develop into new organisms under favourable
conditions.
Micropropagation
• An explant is taken from a plant and allowed to grow in a nutrient
medium under controlled conditions in the laboratory. The cells
divided rapidly and form an unorganised mass of cells. This
unorganised mass of cells is known as a callus. The callus is
transferred to another nutrient medium to facilitate the
differentiation of different parts of the plant. The plantlets are then
transferred to the fields.
Sexual reproduction
Features of Sexual Reproduction
• Two parents are involved (both male and a female).
• Gamete formation and fertilization take place.
• The whole process is slow and lengthy.
• The variation occurs; offspring are different from parents, genetically
and physically.
• The flower is the reproductive part of a plant i.e., both male and
female gametes are produced by flowers. Sexual reproduction in
plants takes place in flowers.
• Stamen (male reproductive part) consists of anther and filament.
• The anther is a sac-like structure that produces and stores pollen.
• The filament supports the anther.
• The pistil (female reproductive part) comprises three parts- stigma,
style, and ovary.
• Stigma is the topmost part of a flower.
• The style is the long tube which connects the stigma to the ovary.
• The ovary contains a lot of ovules. It is the part of the plant where
the seed formation takes place.
• A flower may consist of either stamen or pistil or both. Based on
this, a flower can be either uni sexual or bisexual. A bisexual flower
is composed of all the four parts mentioned above, e.g. Rose, China
rose. Whereas, plants like papaya and cucumber produce only uni
sexual flowers.
• In order to form a zygote, male gametes in pollen grains have
to fuse with egg in the ovule. This is achieved by the process
called pollination. Pollination is the process of transferring
pollen grains from the anther – male part of a flower, to the
stigma – female part of a flower. Depending on the pollen
landing, pollination can be classified into two types-
• Self-Pollination: A pollination where the pollen transfer takes
place between the anther and stigma of the same flower.
• Cross-Pollination: A pollination where the pollen transfer
takes place between the anther and the stigma of different
flowers of the same plant or different plants of the same
species.
• Air – anemophilous
Insects – Entomophilous
Water – hydrophilous
Birds – Ornithophilous
Bats - Chiropteriphilous
• Fertilisation The cell which results after fusion of
the gametes is called a zygote.
• The process of fusion of male and female gametes
(to form a zygote) is called fertilisation
• The zygote develops into an embryo.
• After fertilisation, the ovary grows into a fruit and
other parts of the flower fall off.
• The fruit is the ripened ovary.
• The seeds develop from the ovules.
• The seed contains an embryo enclosed in a
protective seed coat.
• Some fruits are fleshy and juicy such as mango and
orange.
• Some fruits are hard like almonds and walnuts