SSLA, 23, 125–132. Printed in the United States of America.

REVIEWS

RESEARCH METHODS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS. Jo McDonough

and Steven McDonough. London: Arnold, 1997. Pp. vii + 262. $19.95 paper.

Aimed at pre- and in-service ELT professionals, Research methods for English language
teachers introduces basic premises of research in language learning and teaching. The
authors approach qualitative and quantitative research from a reflective perspective,
emphasizing techniques that guide and shape action research. The book presents an
effective, reader-friendly survey of theoretical principles, data collection processes, and
analytic procedures.
The first five chapters examine the historical theory-praxis dichotomy and suggest
that teacher-initiated research can bridge this traditional gap. Congruent with the
book’s title, this section characterizes classroom teachers as players in the research
process. Topics include the interplay between research and instructional practice, the
status of action research vis-à-vis “researcher research” (p. 24), and fundamental dis-
tinctions between research strands (e.g., basic and applied, descriptive and interven-
tionist). The authors then define “good research” and compare how major research
traditions exemplify its features. The section’s final chapter describes general proce-
dures for initiating action research. The authors emphasize the importance of adopting
a “research stance” (p. 75), formulating meaningful research questions, and developing
a “pre-theoretical map” of the research design (p. 85).
In the book’s second section, nine chapters address specific topics and research
methods. The first such chapter, which might more appropriately appear in the preced-
ing section, provides basic methodological and technical definitions that are, regretta-
bly, overly general. The authors nonetheless effectively argue for pairing qualitative and
quantitative techniques based on the teacher-researcher’s specific pedagogical con-
cerns.
Classroom observation, the first method examined, is portrayed as a process in
which the observer accounts fully for the classroom context. Also highlighted is the
need to interpret observational data systematically. Although they mention alternative
observational methods, the authors do not provide sample data or observational for-
mats.
Introspective and retrospective techniques are introduced in the chapter on learner
and teacher diaries, which provides an empirical rationale for the diary approach and
outlines diary techniques. A chapter near the end of the book, “Looking inside: Methods
for introspection,” likewise reviews introspective methods.
A chapter on numerical procedures appears in the middle of the methodological sec-
tion. Titled “Using numbers,” this chapter “looks at the use . . . of more or less simple
counting techniques” and “gives . . . background to those techniques to harness the con-
siderable power of numerical analysis” (p. 137). Although generally accurate, this simple
and nontechnical account of rudimentary statistical precepts (e.g., central tendency,

 2001 Cambridge University Press 0272-2631/01 $9.50 125

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 126 Reviews

dispersion, correlation, significance) falls short of providing a genuinely meaningful

overview of quantitative research methods. Lacking both examples and references to
quantitative studies, this chapter presents material of questionable usefulness. The fol-
lowing chapter, “Doing experiments,” outlines basic features of experiments and quasi-
experiments as exemplified in illustrative studies. Unfortunately, neither chapter
presents any concrete tools for undertaking quantitative or quasi-experimental action
research.
In contrast, the chapters “Asking questions” and “Studying cases effectively” survey
specific methods for eliciting data from learners and teachers. The former examines
questionnaire design essentials, including item types and procedures for synthesizing
questionnaire findings. Interview techniques are likewise covered in some depth, as are
the perils and pitfalls of interpreting interview findings. The latter chapter presents use-
ful, concrete information concerning case-study methods. The authors wisely enumer-
ate case-study categories, noting the chief learning variables that such inquiry can
meaningfully expose. The penultimate chapter, “Mixing methods,” argues for a princi-
pled, multimethod approach to conducting teacher research. By reviewing the cases of
individual teachers, the authors assess the positive and negative implications of amal-
gamating two or more methods to address a single instructional problem.
Research methods for English language teachers effectively achieves its central purpose
of setting forth “the range of approaches, methods, and techniques available for re-
search by teachers of English” (p. 233). The book’s weaknesses should nonetheless be
noted. A potential drawback for North American readers is its apparent focus on EFL,
as opposed to ESL; the volume also seems to be directed primarily toward British and
European ELT professionals. An impediment to using this volume as a course book is
that it lacks an apparatus by which readers might practice and explore research meth-
ods using real data. Moreover, several chapters fail to supply sample material such as
data collection instruments and language data. None of the chapters contains exercises.
Such flaws notwithstanding, a primary strength is that the book stresses a positive,
productive role for theory in action research, language teaching, and teacher prepara-
tion. Each chapter is methodically constructed, readable, and accessible. The authors
take care to provide a coherent epistemological overview and to stimulate readers’
thinking.

(Received 4 January 2000) John Hedgcock

Monterey Institute of International Studies

NEGOTIATED INTERACTION IN TARGET LANGUAGE CLASSROOM

DISCOURSE. Jamila Boulima. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1999. Pp. xiv + 338.
$79.00 cloth.

The topic of this book, part of a new series published by Benjamins entitled Pragmatics
and beyond, is negotiated interaction. It begins with a lengthy introduction to the sub-
ject matter, and then presents an empirical study of negotiated interaction in English as
a foreign language classrooms in Morocco. The first two chapters (a third of the text)

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 Reviews 127

seek to operationalize interaction and define the role of negotiated interaction in second
language acquisition (SLA). These chapters are useful in the sense that they provide a
fairly comprehensive review of the literature prior to 1991. However, the field has come
a long way since that time, and a decade of crucial work is missing from this 1999 book.
The introduction to negotiated interaction is organized around the concepts of input
and output. The description of these concepts is primarily based on theory construc-
tion by Long in the early 1980s and Swain in 1985. As many readers of SSLA will be
aware, Long updated his interaction hypothesis in 1996, and in 1995 Swain provided a
more detailed account of her perspective on the role of output. In 1994, Pica published
a comprehensive review of theoretical and empirical work to date that extended our
understanding of interactional research. Gass summarized her perspective on interac-
tion in 1997. These recent theoretical contributions to the field have been accompanied
and supported by a wealth of empirical research, including a number of important em-
pirical studies published in 1994 and 1998 (see Gass, Mackey, & Pica, 1998, for a sum-
mary). None of the theoretical and empirical advances that have shaped and refined the
study of interaction are discussed in this 1999 book. Of course, the seminal interaction
research of the 1980s, described as “recent” and “current” (see pages 19, 29, and 45 for
examples), is extremely relevant to any book on negotiated interaction, and this book
does provide lucid discussion of this work. However, interaction research has pro-
gressed considerably beyond the state of the art in 1991. Topics currently being ad-
dressed include the investigation of how and why interaction can facilitate SLA, the role
and contribution of feedback provided during interaction, the constraints of memory
structures on interaction, the nature of the developmental effects of participating in in-
teraction, and the role of context in interaction-driven second language development.
The third and fourth chapters present the methodology and coding system used for
the empirical study, which aims to describe various types of negotiated interaction and
“target language acquisition” in EFL classrooms in Morocco. In chapter 5, various dis-
course functions of negotiation in the second or foreign language classroom are dis-
cussed. Here again, the problem of the omission of recent work appears. None of the
recent classroom interaction research, which is highly relevant to Boulima’s discussion,
is mentioned. This includes the work carried out by Lyster and his colleagues (Lyster &
Ranta, 1997) including the “negotiation of form–negotiation of meaning” distinction put
forward by them in relation to the second or foreign language classroom. Foster’s (1998)
empirical findings and claims concerning the amount and types of negotiation that oc-
cur in the ESL classroom are conspicuously absent from the discussion of a central re-
search question addressed by Boulima and reported in chapter 6, “Frequency
distribution of negotiation in the TL classroom.” The final chapter on negotiation in a
setting of unequal power discourse motivates this book’s appearance in a series on
pragmatics, although again, the references to this topic do not advance much beyond
1991.
In summary, it is a pity that this book did not appear in 1991 because it contains an
interesting review of the literature prior to that date and the empirical study seems wor-
thy of interest, especially if it were contextualized within recent thinking and research.
Readers will be disappointed, however, if they are seeking to read about empirical work
framed within current research on negotiated interaction.

REFERENCES

Foster, P. (1998). A classroom perspective on the negotiation of meaning. Applied Linguistics, 19,
1–23.

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 128 Reviews

Gass, S. M. (1997). Input, interaction, and the second language learner. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Gass, S. M., Mackey, A., & Pica, T. (1998). The role of input and interaction in second language acqui-
sition: An introduction. Modern Language Journal, 82, 299–307.
Long, M. H. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. C.
Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of language acquisition: Vol. 2. Second language acquisi-
tion (pp. 413–468). New York: Academic Press.
Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (1997). Corrective feedback and learner uptake: Negotiation of form in commu-
nicative classrooms. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 37–66.
Pica, T. (1994). Research on negotiation: What does it reveal about second language learning condi-
tions, processes, and outcomes? Language Learning, 44, 493–527.
Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In G. Cook & B. Seidlhofer
(Eds.), Principle and practice in applied linguistics: Studies in honour of H. G. Widdowson (pp.
125–144). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

(Received 14 January 2000) Alison Mackey

Georgetown University

LANGUAGE AND THE BRAIN. Loraine K. Obler and Kris Gjerlow. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1999. Pp. xviii + 206. $54.95 cloth, $18.95 paper.

The relationship between brain structure and language has been of interest since the
nineteenth century, as is evidenced by phrenology studies. In modern times, neurolin-
guistics has tried to investigate this relationship more objectively and scientifically. In
their book Language and the brain, Obler and Gjerlow define neurolinguistics as “the
study of how the brain (neuro) permits us to have language (linguistics)” (p. 1). As the
definition indicates, the book addresses neurolinguistics in a simple, nontechnical man-
ner. Except for chapter 2, “The Brain,” the book presents a readable yet comprehensive
account of the important issues in neurolinguistics.
The book consists of 12 chapters, each dealing with a major topic in neurolinguistics.
The first chapter provides the readers with a broad outline of neurolinguistics, briefly
addressing issues such as history, localization, and connectionism in brain studies. In
chapter 2, which is one of the challenging sections of the book, the authors introduce
the different cortical and subcortical areas of the brain involved in our linguistic behav-
ior. The chapter includes many terms and concepts borrowed from brain neurology,
forming a basis for the later chapters of the book, especially those dealing with aphasia.
Chapter 3 presents research methods used for investigating the linguistic organization
of the brain. The chapter also includes a short historical account of research on left
hemisphere dominance.
The reader is introduced to some of the major types of aphasia in chapter 4, such as
Broca’s, Wernicke’s, conduction (the inability to repeat spoken language), anomic (diffi-
culty in naming objects), and subcortical aphasia (aphasia resulting from damage to the
inner parts of the brain). The chapter also makes brief reference to the differential pat-
terns of aphasia in patients using sign language. Chapter 5 details the different types of
aphasia discussed in the preceding chapter and the hypothesized mechanisms responsi-
ble for the emergence of aphasic behavior in patients. According to the authors, it
seems that the agrammatic speech produced by patients suffering from Broca’s aphasia
results from damage to their production system, though their linguistic competence is

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 Reviews 129

believed to be intact. Wernicke’s aphasia is caused by the patients’ inability to monitor

their own speech, whereas conduction aphasia is the result of damage to the structures
believed to be responsible for transferring information from the comprehension area to
the production part of the brain.
Childhood aphasia is addressed separately in chapter 6, which brings up the concept
of critical period and presents evidence as to its degree of accuracy, rejecting the idea
of initial equipotentiality of the two hemispheres. In chapter 7, the role of the right
hemisphere in the linguistic performance of individuals and the consequences resulting
from damage to this hemisphere are discussed. The aspects of language believed to be
controlled by the right hemisphere are tone and prosody, some aspects of lexical knowl-
edge, as well as some discoursal features related to emotion and appropriateness.
In chapter 8, a distinction is made between abnormal linguistic behavior resulting
from dementia and that of aphasic patients. Dementia is defined as a collection of “dif-
ferent diseases all of which lead to the loss of intellectual abilities” (p. 91). The cause of
dementia, according to the authors, is “the deterioration of brain tissues” (p. 91). Neural
disorders such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease can result in aphasic-like behav-
ior in the people affected. The authors admit that, in many cases, the linguistic perfor-
mance of dementia patients cannot be distinguished from that of aphasics unless one
considers the symptoms that accompany instances of dementia. Chapter 9 is concerned
with disorders related to written language. Reading and writing problems of both adults
and children are briefly treated in this chapter. The reading problems addressed are
dyslexia (reading difficulty due to genetic or innate factors) and alexia (resulting from
physical damage to some parts of the brain). Writing disorders are either of a spelling
or semantic type—that is, difficulty in spelling words correctly or with establishing cor-
rect lexical relations.
A highly interesting part of the book is chapter 10, which deals with the topic of bilin-
gualism. The chapter includes sections on lexicon storage, code-switching, intelligence,
lateral organization of the language, and aphasia in bilinguals. In the case of bilingual
aphasia, for example, it seems that it is the language used around the time of brain
damage that has the highest chance of recovery. Chapter 11 is an investigation of the
psychological reality of the concepts proposed by linguists through the use of neurolin-
guistic evidence. The authors adduce the validity of the distinction made between com-
petence and performance, content and function words, as well as the mental reality of
phonetic features, the phrasal units of syntax, and some semantic and pragmatic fea-
tures. The final chapter discusses the use of neurolinguistics as an instrument in the
validation of linguistic theories, the therapeutic aspects of neurolinguistics, artificial in-
telligence, and the use of new brain imaging techniques.
Language and the brain is written for people who have some background in linguistics
and are familiar with the basic concepts of the field. To assist the less professional read-
ers, the authors have included a glossary of technical terms at the end of the book.
Obler and Gjerlow’s book can be viewed as an excellent introduction to the field of
neurolinguistics, and the topics covered are all among the most essential issues in this
area. The relatively nontechnical language makes the book an excellent resource for stu-
dents of linguistics and neurology, as well as language teachers keen on learning more
about the neurological organization of language.

(Received 10 February 2000) Ramin Akbari

Tarbiat Modares University

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 130 Reviews

PATHWAYS OF THE BRAIN: THE NEUROCOGNITIVE BASIS OF LANGUAGE.

Sydney M. Lamb. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1999. Pp. xii + 416. $95.00 cloth,
$34.95 paper.

The past decade has seen an increasing interest within the second language (L2) field
in drawing on psycholinguistic, neurolinguistic-neurobiological, and cognitive psycho-
logical theories when explaining various aspects of L2 acquisition and use (e.g.,
Schmidt, 1995; Schuman, 1997; Skehan, 1998). Although Sydney Lamb’s account of the
neurocognitive basis of language does not focus specifically on second languages, its
general analysis of how the brain’s linguistic system operates and develops provides
highly relevant background knowledge to these recent L2 research directions.
Lamb argues that a realistic theory of language needs to do more than just account
for various processes and patterns in the output of the human linguistic system (which
has been the traditional practice of linguistic analysis), as it also needs to meet three
additional requirements:

• operational plausibility: providing a plausible account of how the proposed linguistic system
can be put into operation in real time to produce and understand speech;
• developmental plausibility: providing a plausible account of how the proposed linguistic system
can be learned by children; and
• neurological plausibility: being compatible with what is known about the brain from neurology.

Any exploration that is motivated by the search for a system that can meet these
requirements is, in the author’s view, largely an exercise in modeling, following the
method of successive approximation: At each new step an improved system is generated
by eliminating errors and inconsistencies—an approach that also characterizes the or-
der of presentation of topics in the book. The initial chapters draw primarily on linguis-
tic evidence in discussing some of the most commonly held notions about language, and
it is only in the second half of the book that the distilled linguistic hypotheses are con-
fronted with neurological considerations to test the extent to which they are supported
or rejected by the facts we know about the brain.
In chapter 1, Lamb summarizes the basic question that Pathways of the brain seeks to
answer: How can we describe the mental system that makes it possible for a person to
use language? More specifically, what structures must be present in the brain to allow
linguistic processes to be performed? The author’s starting point (chapters 2–4) is the
assumption that the linguistic system as a whole—like the brain in which it is evidently
implemented—is a relational network. Its information is in the form of connections
rather than symbols, and it is the pathways in this network from the auditory and visual
representation of a word to the set of concepts and images that embody its meaning
that are the key to the understanding of how the system interprets and produces lan-
guage. Thus, in accordance with various connectionist theories, Lamb maintains that
the linguistic system can be graphed with lines and nodes, and that the processing of
information involves only two major types of operation: the movement of activation
through the network and changes in the lines and nodes.
In chapter 5, the author analyzes the general structure of the linguistic network. In
subsequent chapters (chapters 6–9) he investigates how various levels of linguistic
analysis can be related to connectionist networks in general and how various hierarchi-
cal linguistic subsystems form multiple interconnected subnetworks. Chapters 10–12 fo-

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 Reviews 131

cus on the dynamic character of these networks—that is, on their development,

functioning, and modification. The main themes in chapters 13 and 14 are two linguistic
phenomena, language patterning and sequencing, viewed from a neurocognitive per-
spective. Chapter 15 discusses how some of the well-known illusions people have held
about language have come about and how they can be avoided by means of a relational
approach. Finally, in the last three chapters of the book (chapters 15–18) the author
examines how his relational network hypothesis is borne out by what biological evidence
there is about the anatomy of the brain.
To summarize, Pathways of the brain introduces a language system that can be de-
scribed as a relational network in which all the information is in the connections, a fea-
ture that—as Lamb maintains—is shared by all human cognitive systems. Ultimately,
then, language is “just a term, one which we have put into use in order to talk about a
particular configuration of interconnected subsystems that we like to think about as if
it were unitary” (p. 373). Lamb’s approach is convincing and certainly inspiring; he pro-
vides new insights into the connection of language and the brain and, at the same time,
challenges some key assumptions of linguistic theory, thereby making Pathways of the
brain illuminating reading.

REFERENCES

Schmidt, R. (Ed.). (1995). Attention and awareness in foreign language learning. Honolulu: University
of Hawaii Press.
Schumann, J. H. (1997). The neurobiology of affect in language. Oxford: Blackwell.
Skehan, P. (1998). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

(Received 10 February 2000) Zoltán Dörnyei

University of Nottingham

INTERLANGUAGE REFUSALS: A CROSS-CULTURAL STUDY OF JAPANESE-

ENGLISH. Susan M. Gass and Noël Houck. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1999. Pp.
x + 264. $79.00 cloth, $29.00 paper.

This volume presents comprehensive research on English refusals, focusing primarily

on L2 use and secondarily on second language acquisition. Twenty-four dyads were
video-taped performing open role plays in response to eight situations (two suggestions,
two offers, two invitations, and two requests) designed to elicit a refusal. Each dyad
consisted of an English NS and NNS, the latter being native speakers of Japanese with
low to intermediate English proficiency.
Chapter 1 reviews previous research on L1 and L2 refusals. A detailed structural
framework is proposed (p. 8), outlining the numerous options available to participants
involved in a refusal-response sequence. The native speaker Initiator first performs an
Initiating Act (e.g., invitation, offer, request, suggestion). The nonnative Respondent
then selects from two major options: Accept or Nonaccept (e.g., refusal, postponement,
alternative). The focus then shifts back to the Initiator, who can either Accept the Re-
spondent’s choice, or pursue Negotiation (potentially continuing indefinitely). The Final
Outcome is the option agreed on by both parties.

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 132 Reviews

In the section on methodology (chapter 2), the authors suggest that the open role-
play data they obtained are much more complex (e.g., more turn taking and negotiation)
than that typically obtained from noninteractional methods (e.g., written discourse com-
pletion tests, closed role plays). Although this complexity could also be partially due to
the Initiator’s instructions (to not accept an initial refusal too quickly; pp. 36–37; fn.
11, p. 218), it supplements previous studies of L2 research methodology. After Beebe,
Takahashi, & Uliss-Weltz’s (1990) well-known strategic taxonomy was applied to the
video-taped interactions, four new categories were proposed: (a) confirmations; (b)
clarification requests; (c) agreements; and (d) nonverbal messages. In terms of general
findings, 15 out of 24 video-taped interactions culminated in Nonaccept, and 8 ended
with Accept; one was unresolved. It would be interesting to know how many of the non-
native speakers selected the Final Outcome of Accept or the refusal strategy of “agree-
ment” because of a cultural preference for harmonious responses or because real-world
consequences were lacking, or both. In chapter 3, Gass and Houck argue that the unit of
“episode” is the most suitable for their refusal data because the recyclical nature of nego-
tiated interaction is fully accounted for, as well as the sometimes contradictory choices
(e.g., Nonaccept vs. Accept) expressed by one participant at different points in time.
This research represents one of the most systematic analyses to date of both the ver-
bal and nonverbal resources available to Japanese learners of English. Chapter 4 fo-
cuses on how such learners demonstrated effective listening through back channeling
(with head nods and responsive vocalizations). In chapter 5, the authors present a de-
tailed analysis through still picture sequences (obtained from the videotapes) and de-
tailed transcriptions of several nonverbal behaviors (e.g., gestures, postures, head
nods) utilized by the nonnative speakers. Chapter 6 highlights the pragmatic communi-
cation strategies (e.g., bluntness, use of the L1, nonverbal expressions of affect) that
they employed.
A welcome contribution of this volume is the attempt to more explicitly link L2 use
and L2 learning. In chapter 7, refusal episodes are presented in which English native
speakers steer the nonnative learners back within expected conversational boundaries
(though no “predictable script” is thought to be at issue; fn. 52, p. 224). More proficient
L2 learners notice these awkward moments and adjust (p. 172). In chapter 8, issues cen-
tral to SLA are discussed: Long’s Interaction Hypothesis, the nature versus nurture de-
bate, types of evidence and their availability, attention, noticing, and the development
of pragmatic knowledge. “Negotiation of meaning” is also related to “negotiation of ex-
pectations” (i.e., discourse).
This book contains rich examples of refusal-response sequences in English and pre-
sents a compelling case for the analysis of L2 use data at the discourse level. The au-
thors highlight the verbal and nonverbal resources available to Japanese learners of
English and illuminate the complexities involved in cross-cultural interaction. Interlan-
guage refusals is introductory in nature and is recommended for anyone interested in
refusals, cross-cultural interaction, L2 research methodology, or L2 learning.

REFERENCE

Beebe, L., Takahashi, T., & Uliss-Weltz, R. (1990). Pragmatic transfer in ESL refusals. In R. Scarcella,
E. Andersen, & S. Krashen (Eds.), Developing communicative competence in a second language
(pp. 55–73). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

(Received 12 February 2000) Russell Arent

St. Cloud State University

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