FI

RSTTERM E-
LEARNI
NGNOTE

SUBJECT:
 
 BI
OLOGY 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
   
  
  
 CLASS:
 SS3

SCHEMEOFWORK

WEEK TOPI
C

Regul
ati
onofi
nter
nal
env
ironment
,st
ruct
uresandf
unct
ionoft
heki
dney
,di
seases,
eff
ect
sand
remedy.

Li
ver
:–St
ruct
ure,
funct
ionsanddi
seases,
Ski
n:–St
ruct
ure,
funct
ions,
diseasesandcar
e.

Hor
mones:
–Locat
ion,
secr
eti
on,
funct
ion,
eff
ect
sofov
er-
secr
eti
onandunder
-secr
eti
on.

Ner
vousco-
ordi
nat
ion:
–CNScomponent
,st
ruct
ureandf
unct
ionsoft
hebr
ainandspi
nal
cor
d

Theper
ipher
alner
voussy
stem andt
heneur
one.

Ref
lexandv
olunt
aryact
ions,
condi
ti
onal
ref
lex
.

Sensor
yor
gans:
–Ski
nasasenseor
gan,
organofsi
ght(
Theey
e).

Or
ganofhear
ing,
smel
landt
ast
e.
Devel
opmentofnewor
gani
sms(
Cour
tshi
pbehav
iori
nani
mal
s,St
agesi
ndev
elopmentoft
oad,
i
nsect
s)

Dev
elopmentofnewor
gani
sms(
Seeds,
frui
tsi
npl
ant
s,Ger
minat
ionofseeds)

Ski
ptot
hecont
ent

Sear
ch

St
opLear
n

Menu

Cat
egor
ies

BI
OLOGYEXAM LESSONS

Regul
ati
onOfI
nter
nal
Env
ironmentandHomeost
asi
s

Postaut
hor
By 
StopLear
nTeam

Postdat
e

CONTENT

Homeost
asi
s,mechani
sm andst
ruct
uresofhomeost
asi
s
St
ruct
uresoft
heKi
dney

Funct
ionsoft
heKi
dney
  

Ki
dneydi
seases,
eff
ect
sandr
emedy

HOMEOSTASI
S

Homeost asisisthepr ocessbywhi chaf ai

rl
yconstanti
nternalenv
ironmentismaintai
nedi
nan
organi
sm.  Theinternalenvi
ronmentofanor gani
sm ismadeupoft hebodyflui
dsuchasblood,
l
ymphandt issuefluid.
 Foreffi
cientfuncti
onsofbodycellsandheal t
hygrowth,al
ivi
ng
organi
sm mustbeabl etoadjusttoanychangei nthephysical
andchemi calcondi
ti
onsofit
s
bodyfl
uids. Thesecondi ti
onsi ncl
udet emperat
ure,PH,osmoticpressur
e,concent
rati
onsof
di
ssolvedsubst ancesandmi ner ali
ons.

MECHANI
SM OFHOMEOSTASI
S

Homeostat
icpr
ocessesar
econtrolmechani
smswhichareusedt
odetectandadj
ustt
o
changesi
nthei
nter
nalenv
ironmentoftheor
gani
sm.Thesemechani
smsusuallyi
ncl
ude:

Sensor
ydetect
orswhi
chr
ecogni
zeachangei
nagi
vencondi
ti
onandst
imul
atet
her
elev
ant
bodypart
s.

Ef
fect
orsor
gansorgl
andswhi
chr
eactandr
est
oret
henor
mal
stat
e.

STRUCTURESFORHOMEOSTASI
S

Osmor egulat
ion(homeostasi
s)inuni
cel
l
ularor
ganism i
sensuredbytheuseofcontr
acti
le
vacuole.Themai nor
gansinvolv
edinhomeostasi
sinmulti
cel
lularor
gani
smsincl
ude;ki
dney,
l
iver,
skin,ductl
essglands(hor
mones)andthebrai
nwhichhast heover
all
cont
rolofthe
homeost ati
cprocessinthebody.
EVALUATI
ON

Whati
shomeost
asi
s?Li
stf
ourf
act
orsofhomeost
asi
s.

Li
stf
ourst
ruct
uresofhomeost
asi
sinmul
ti
cel
l
ularani
mal
s

STRUCTUREOFTHEKI
DNEY



Themammal i
ankidneyi sabean- shaped,reddishbrownor ganlocatedint heposteriorendof
theabdomen.  Ther i
ghtki dneyissl i
ghtl
yloweri nthebodyt hantheleft
. Cutti
ngaki dney
l
ongi t
udinall
y,t
wodi sti
nctr egionsar eobser v
ed;an outercort
ex andan innermedul l
a.  Sev
eral
narrowt ubul
escalledurinaryt ubules(nephrons)passt hroughthetwor egionsstatedabov e.
Thet ubulesopenatt hetipsoft ri
angular–shapedmassesoft i
ssuescal l
edpyrami ds.The
pyramidsopeni ntoaf unnel -
shapedcav it
ycal l
edthe pelvi
s. 
Thekidneyhasmanyt i
nycapi l
lar
ies
whichar ebranchesoft her enalarteryandt herenalvei
n.Thepel vi
scont i
nuesasur et er,al
ong
narrowt ubeconnectingtheki dneyt otheur i
narybladder.

FUNCTI
ONSOFTHEKI
DNEY

Theki
dneyser
vesast
hechiefosmoregul
atorandexcr
etor
yor
gani
nthebodyofmammal
s,
per
for
mingthefol
l
owi
ngfuncti
ons:

I
tremov
est
oxi
cwast
esandhar
mful
subst
ances.

I
tpr
oducesheatdur
ingcol
d.

I
texcr
etesni
tr
ogenouswast
esl
i
keur
ea.

I
tregul
ateswat
erl
evel
int
hebody
I
tassi
stst
oregul
atepHoft
hebody
.

I
tmai
ntai
nssal
tori
on-
bal
ancei
nthebody
.

Thefi
rstt
hreear
eexcr
etor
yfunct
ionswhi
l
ethel
astt
hreear
eosmor
egul
ator
yfunct
ionsof
ki
dney

KI
DNEYASANOSMOREGULATOR

Kidneyi
sanosmoregul
atorbymai
ntai
ningt
hewater
,sal
tandpHbalanceoft
hebl
oodandt
his
occursi
nthedi
stal
tubul
esandcol
lect
ingduct
sofur
inar
ytubul
es.

WATERBALANCE

Whent hebodyisdehydrat
ed( l
it
tlewat erinthebody )whi chresult
sfrom dri
nkingsmal lquanti
ty
ofwaterorlosi
ngwaterthroughsweatonahotday ,theosmot i
cpressur
eoft hebl ood
i
ncreased.Theosmoreceptorsinthehy pothal
amusdet ectthechangesandst imulatesthe
pit
uit
aryglandtosecr
etemor eant i
diur
et i
chor mone( ADH)whi chmakest hewal l
soft heuri
nary
tubul
esmor epermeablesothatmor ewat erisreabsorbedi nt
ot hebl
ood; t
hereforelesswateris
l
ostfrom thebodyasconcentratedur i
ne.

Whent hebodyishydr
ated(t
oomuchwat eri
nthebody)whichresul
tsfr
om dr
inki
ngl
arge
quanti
tyofwateroroncolddayswhenwesweatless,
theosmot i
cpressur
eofthebl
oodis
l
oweredandl essADHissecret
edandthewalloft
hekidneybecomeslessper
meableandmor
e
wateri
slostfrom t
hebodyasdilut
euri
ne.

CONTROLOFBLOODSODI
UM I
ONSANDPHLEVEL

Whent heconcentr
ati
onofsodium ioninthebl
oodishi
ghert hannormal
,theexcessis
excret
ed. I
fiti
slower,t
henmor esodium i
onsarer
eabsorbed. Thi
sprocessi
sr egul
atedby
i
nhibit
ingorsti
mulati
ngthesecret
ionofthehormonealdosterone.

Thenor
malpHofthebl
oodis7.4.WhenthepHbecomesacidi
c,thehydr
ogeni
onsar
eex
cret
ed
andwheni
tbecomesal
kal
ine,
thehydrogencar
bonat
eionsareexcret
ed.
EVALUATI
ON

Out
li
nef
ivef
unct
ionsoft
hemammal
i
anki
dney

Descr
ibehowaki
dneyactasanosmor
egul
ator

KI
DNEY(
RENAL)DI
SEASES,
EFFECTSANDREMEDY

RENALDI
SEASES

Nephriti
s:–Thisistheinfl
ammat ionoft hebl oodvessels(glomeruli
)inBowman’ scapsul
eof
nephroncausedbybact eri
a(streplococci).Thebloodv esselsbecomepor ousandusef ul
material
sfrom t
hebl oodareleakedi nt
ot hegl omerul
arfil
trate.I
nfl
amedbl oodvessel
scanal
so
beblockedasar esultofaccumul ati
onofdeadcel l
swhi chcanl eadtokidneyfai
lur
e.

Diuresi
s: Thi
sisacondit
ioninwhi
chlar
gequanti
tiesofdi
lut
eur
ineareproducedbecausethe
cell
softhekidneytubul
esarenotr
eabsorbi
ngwaterf r
om t
hegl
omerularfi
l
trat
e. Di
uresi
sis
commoni npati
ent
ssufferi
ngfr
om di
abeti
csinsi
pidus.

Kidneystones:
 Thesearest
onymassesofminer
alsandorgani
cmatterf
ormedintheur
inar
y
tubul
es. Lowwaterint
akewithhi
ghsal
tint
akepr
edisposessomeonetothi
sdi
seasebycausing
cryst
all
i
zationofminer
alsal
tswhichdi
stur
bthef
reeflowofuri
ne.

Dropsy(
oedema):-Thisi
sadi seasecondi
ti
oni
nwhichthecel
lsofBowman’scapsuleare
unablet
oabsorbwat erf
rom thebloodint
heur
inar
ytubul
es.
 Thiscauseswat
erretent
ionint
he
bl
oodort i
ssueandresul
tingswelli
ngofsomebodypart
s

EFFECTSOFKI
DNEYDI
SEASES

Pr
esenceofpr
otei
nsandbl
oodcel
l
sinur
ine(
nephr
it
is)
. 
  
  
  
  
Swol
l
enf
aceandankl
esr
esul
ti
ngi
nconst
antweaknessandsl
uggi
shness(
oedema)
.

Excessi
veur
inat
ionwi
thr
esul
ti
ngwei
ghtl
oss(
diur
esi
s).

Abdomi
nal
painduet oobstruct
iont
opassageofur
ine.Al
so,
highbl
oodpr
essur
eandbl
oody
ur
inemayr
esult(
kidneystone).

Gener
albodypai
nsandf
ever(
anyoft
her
enal
disease)

Hi
ghbl
oodpr
essur
e,di
zzi
nessandf
ati
que

REMEDY

Useofdr
ugse.g.ant
ibi
oti
cs(
nephr
it
is)
,di
uret
ics(
oedema)

Ki
dneyt
ranspl
ant(
diur
esi
s,nephr
it
is)

Dial
ysi
s:useofdi
aly
sismachi
ne(
art
if
ici
alki
dney
)tof
il
terwast
eoutoft
hepat
ient
’sbl
ood
(nephr
it
is)
.

Reduct
ioni
nwat
eri
ntake(
oedema)

Taki
ngexcesswat
er,
andav
oidi
ngexcessi
vei
ntakeoff
oodcont
aini
ngcal
cium (
kidneyst
one)

Sur
gical
oper
ati
oncal
l
ednephr
ect
omy(
kidneyst
ones)

EVALUATI
ON
Li
stf
ourki
dneydi
seasesandexpl
aint
wo

Li
stf
ouref
fect
sofki
dneydi
seasesandf
ourr
emedyofki
dneydi
seases

GENERALEVALUATI
ON

Whati
shomeost
asi
s?St
atet
hreephy
sio-
chemi
cal
condi
ti
onsoft
hei
nter
nal
env
ironmentofan
or
gani
sm.

Di
scussbr
ief
lyt
hemechani
sm ofhomeost
asi
s.

Ki
dneyi
sbot
hexcr
etor
yandosmor
egul
ator
yini
tsf
unct
ion.
”Expl
ain

READI
NGASSI
GNMENT

Col
l
ege 
Biol
ogy
,chapt
er9,
page186–198

WEEKENDASSI
GNMENT

Themaint
enanceofaconst
anti
nter
nalenv
ironmenti
sref
err
edt
oas (
a)pl
asmol
ysi
s(b)
di
uresi
s (
c)homeost
asi
s. (
d)gl
ycol
ysi
s

All
theor
gansbel
owar
ehomeost
ati
cinf
unct
ionexcept(
a)l
i
ver(
b)ki
dney(
c)f
oodv
acuol
e(d)
ski
n

Whichoft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
snotaki
dneydi
sease?(
a)oedema(
b)hepat
isi
s(c)nephr
it
is(
d)ki
dney
st
ones

Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
snotoneoft
heef
fect
sofki
dneydi
seases 
  
 (a)absenceofbl
oodcel
l
s
i
nur
ine 
  (
b)oedema 
  (
c)hi
ghbl
oodpr
essur
e  (
d)excessi
ve ur
inat
ion.

Oneofthefoll
owingisnotaf unct
ionofki
dney.(
a)Remov
alofpoi
sons(
b)mai
ntai
ningsal
t
bal
ance(c)excret
ion(d)i
tregulat
eswaterl
evel.

THEORY

Whydopeopl
eur
inat
emor
eonacol
dday
?

Expl
ainbr
ief
ly‘
Dial
ysi
s

WEEKTHREE

LI
VERANDSKI
N:STRUCTURE,
FUNCTI
ONS,
DISEASESANDCARE

Postaut
hor
By 
StopLear
nTeam

Postdat
e

CONTENT

St
ruct
ureandf
unct
ionsoft
hel
i
ver

Di
seases,
eff
ect
sandr
emedyofl
i
verdi
seases

St
ruct
ureoft
heski
n
Funct
ions,
diseasesandcar
eoft
heski
n

Temper
atur
eregul
ati
on

Cont
rol
ofbodyt
emper
atur
e

STRUCTUREOFTHELI
VER



Theli
veri
sthelargestorgani
nthebodyofamammal withawei ghtofabout1.25kg. I
tis
reddi
shbr
own, softwit
ht wol
obesanditi
slocat
edbel
owt hediaphragm ontherightsi
deofthe
abdomen.
 Itpart
lyoverl
apsthestomachandhasbi
leductconnectingi
ttotheduodenum.  The
ducti
satt
achedt othegallbl
adder
.

FUNCTI
ONSOFTHELI
VER

Regulati
onofbloodgl
ucoselevelbyconver
ti
ngexcessglucosetoglycogenunderthecontrol
of
thehormoneinsuli
n.Wit
hlowgl ucosel
evel
,gl
ycogenisconvert
edtogl ucoseunderthe
i
nfluenceofhor
mone, gl
ucagon. Bothi
nsul
inandglucagonareproducedbyt hepancreas.

Regulati
onofbloodprotei
n. Thebodycell
scannotstoreexcessaminoacidsi
nt hebody.
 The
l
ivertheref
oredeaminat
esexcessami noacidsbybreakingthem downint
oami nogroup
(convert
edtoureaforexcreti
on)andcarboxyl
group(convertedt
ocarbohydr
ateswhichare
storedasglycogen)

Manufact
ureofessenti
albl
oodpr
otei
nsl
i
kef
ibr
inogen,
prot
hrombi
n,gl
obul
uset
cwhi
char
e
i
nvol
vedinbloodclot
ti
ng.

Regul
ati
onofl
i
pidsbyconv
ert
ingt
hem t
ogl
ucose.
Pr
oduct
ionofbi
l
eforemulsif
icat
ionoffats.
 Thebi
l
eisstor
edinthegal
lbl
adder
. (
bil
eis98%
wat
erand2%bil
esal
ts,bi
l
irubin,
inor
ganicsalt
sandchol
est
erol
) 
  
  
  
 

St
orageofv
itami
nsandmi
ner
alsl
i
kei
ron,
zinc,
copperandpot
assi
um.

Stor
ageofblood(upt
o1,
500cm3 
ofbl
ood)andr
egul
ati
onofbl
oodv
olumeandpr
essur
ein
general
cir
cul
ati
on.

For
mat
ionofr
edbl
oodcel
l
s(RBC)i
nfoet
usandbr
eakdownofRBCi
nadul
ts.

I
nact
ivat
ionofhor
mones

Det
oxi
fi
cat
ionofpoi
sonousandt
oxi
cmat
eri
alsl
i
kedr
ugs,
foodpr
eser
vat
ivesandpol
l
utant
sin
ai
randwat
er

Pr
oduct
ionofheatasaby
-pr
oductofi
tsnumer
ousmet
abol
i
cact
ivi
ti
es.

EVALUATI
ON

Descr
ibet
hest
ruct
ureofal
i
ver

St
atesi
xfunct
ionsoft
hel
i
ver

DI
SEASESOFTHELI
VER

Thesei
ncl
udediabet
es,vi
ral
hepat
it
is,
gal
lst
ones,canceroft
heli
ver
,andcirr
hosisoft
hel
i
ver
.
Jaundi
cei
sadiseasethatmaybeduetot
heliv
erdiseaseorsomeothercauses.
Di
abetes:
 
 Thi
siscausedbyi
nabi
l
ityofthel
i
vercel
lst
oconv er
texcessgl
ucosei
nthebl
oodt
o
gl
ycogenduetothefai
lur
eoft
hepancreast
oproducethehormoneinsul
i
n

Vi
ral
Hepat
it
is:
 
Thi
sisi
nfl
ammat
ionanddest
ruct
ionoft
hel
i
vercel
l
sbyv
iruses.

GallStones:Thesearestonymassesformedinthegal
lbl
adderorbil
educt. 
Thesearemostl
y
preci
pitati
onofcholest
erol.
 Thegal
lstonesobst
ructt
hef
lowofbile,subj
ecti
ngthegal
lbl
adder
toinfecti
ons.

Canceroft
heli
ver
: Thi
sisuncontr
oll
abl
eout
growt
hofl
i
vercel
l
swhi
chpr
event
sli
verf
rom
car
ryi
ngoutit
snormalfunct
ions.

Cirr
hosi
softhel
iver
: 
 Thisisadiseasecondi
tioni
nwhichthedamagedliv
ercell
sbecome
repl
acedbyusel
essfibrousti
ssues,makingtheli
verf
ir
m andir
regul
ar.
 Thiscanbecausedby
excessi
vedr
inki
ngofalcoholandhepatit
is.

Jaundice:
causedbyi ncr
easei nthebloodbi
li
rubi
nlev
elduetoexcessi
vebreakdownofred
bl
oodcel l
sobservedinsicklecell
sorchroni
cmalari
apati
entsandobstruct
ionofbi
leductby
gal
lstonesordiseasesoft heli
ver.
 Thesymptom ofj
aundi
ceisyell
owingofskinoreyewhit
e.

GENERALEFFECTSOFLI
VERDI
SEASES

 
Weakness b.Jaundi
ce c.Sl
i
ghtf
ever
 d.Oedema 
 e.Hi
ghbl
oodpr
essur
e

REMEDY

Thelivercel
l
shav et
henat ural
capaci
tyofregener
ati
ng(di
vi
dingandproduci
ngnewcel
l
s).
 The
l
ivercantheref
oreheal
itselfwit
htheaidofthefol
lowi
ngprocedur
es:

Al
ongper
iodofbedr
est
Lowf
atcont
rol
l
eddi
et

Av
oidi
ngdr
inki
ngal
cohol
s.

Remov
ingt
hecauseoft
hedi
seasee.
g.gal
lst
ones.

Li
vert
ranspl
antcanbedoneinprogressi
vel
iverci
rr
hosisandcanceroft
hel
i
ver
.Al
obeoft
he
l
iv
ercanbedonatedwhil
etheremainingonesoonregenerat
es.

EVALUATI
ON

Li
stf
ivel
i
verdi
seasesandst
atef
ourr
emedyoft
hel
i
verdi
seases

STRUCTUREOFTHESKI
N

Theskinisthelargestorganofthebodywhichcoversi
tsenti
resur
face.I
tiscomposedofan
outerepi
dermis,aninnerlayerofder
misandalayerofsubcut
aneousfatundert
heskin(
below
thedermis)
. Anav erageski
ni sbet
ween1-2mm thick.

Epi
der
mis

I
tist
heout
erupperpar
toft
heski
nwhi
chconsi
stsoft
hreel
ayer
s,namel
y;

Cor
nif
iedl
ayer
  
  
 b.Gr
anul
arl
ayer
  
  
 c.Mal
pighi
anl
ayer

CORNI
FIED(
HORNY)LAYER

Thisistheoutermostlay
eroft heepi
dermiswhichconsist
soff at
s,deadcell
sandkerati
n. 
Kerati
nmakest helayertough,fl
exi
bleandwater-
proof
;itprev
entsmi cr
obial
ent
ranceaswel l
as
reduceswaterlossfr
om t hebody.Thecorni
fi
edlayeri
sconstantl
ywear i
ngawayandr epl
aced
f
rom t
hegr
anul
arl
ayerbel
ow.

GRANULARLAYERI tconsi
stsofl i
vi
ngcell
sproducedbythemalpighi
anlayer
. Thesecel
lsar
e
cont
inuouslyconver
tedtocornif
iedlay
ercell
sandkerat
inisdeposit
edinsi
dethem andthey
l
osetheirnuclei
andbecomef lat
tenedinshape.



MALPI
GHI
ANLAYER

Thisisconstantl
ydividingt
oproducenewepi der
mi s.
 Sweatglands,sebaceousglandsandhai
r
fol
li
clesarealsoproducedf r
om theepi
dermis. I
tcontai
nsthepigmentmel anin,
whi chgi
ves
col
ourt otheskin.
 Italsohaskerat
in,
aproteinwhichisresponsibl
eforthetoughnessand
fl
exibi
li
tyoftheskin.

Der
mis

I
tiscomposedmai
nlyofconnect
ivet
issues.Thesei
ncl
ude;

Bl
oodcapi
l
lar
ies 
whi
chsuppl
yfoodandoxy
genandr
emov
ewast
e.

Hairf
olli
cles.
 Themalpi
ghiancel
lsatthebaseoft
heski
nkeepdi
vi
dingtoproducesl
ong
cyl
i
ndricalhairs.
 Whenthehairi
stouched,t
hener
veendi
ngsi
nthefol
li
cler
espond.

Er
ect
ormuscle 
att
achedtoeachhairfol
l
icl
e.I
tscont
ract
ionandr
elaxat
ionmakest
hehai
rto
st
andupr
ightandfl
att
ensrespect
ivel
ywhenregul
ati
ngthebodyt
emper at
ure.

Sebaceousgland 
whi
chsecr
etessebum whi
chr
epel
swat
erandal
sopr
event
smi
crobesf
rom
multi
ply
ing.

Sweatgland 
whichconti
nuesassweatductandopensoutsi
deasthesweatpore.I
tabsor
bs
waterandsalt
sfrom t
hesurroundi
ngcapi
ll
ari
eswhichwhenrel
easeout
sideevaporat
eand
cool
sthebody
.

Sensor
yner
ve 
endi
ngs 
(ski
n,bei
ngasenseor
gan)

Subcut
aneousfat(adi
poseti
ssue)
 whi
chactasal
ongt
ermf
oodst
oreandani
nsul
ati
ngl
ayer
  
prev
enti
ngheatlossfr
om thebody.

EVALUATI
ON

Li
stf
ivest
ruct
ural
par
tsoft
heski
nandt
hei
rfunct
ions 

FUNCTI
ONSOFTHESKI
N

Prot
ect
ion:
Theski
nprotect
sthebodyagai
nstdehy
drat
ion,
inv
adi
ngmi
crobes,
mechani
cal
damagesandpoi
sonouschemical
s.

Sensi
ti
vi
ty:
Itcont
rol
srecept
orssensi
ti
vet
oheat
,col
d,t
ouchandpr
essur
einr
esponset
o
st
imuli
.

Temper
atur
eregul
ati
on:
thr
oughv
asodi
l
ati
onandv
asoconst
ri
cti
on

Excr
eti
on:
Itr
emov
esexcesswat
erandni
tr
ogenouswast
e(ur
ea)f
rom t
hebody

Pr
oduct
ionofv
itami
nDusi
ngul
tr
a-v
iol
entr
aysoft
hesun

St
orage:
stor
efat
sint
headi
poset
issueswhi
chf
ormsani
nsul
ati
ngl
ayer

DI
SEASES
Thediseasesoft
heskinmaybecausedbyvi
ruses,
bact
eri
a,pr
otozoaorf
ungi
. Thesei
ncl
ude
chi
ckenpox,measles,
pimpl
es,
ski
nrashes,
eczema,boi
let
c.

CAREOFTHESKI
N

Taki
ngbat
hregul
arl
y.

Eat
ingbal
anceddi
etespeci
all
ywi
thv
itami
nAandB.

Useofdeodor
ant
sandant
i-
per
spi
rant
swhi
chmaycont
rol
excessi
vesweat
ingandunpl
easant
odour
.

Regul
arexer
cise.

Wear
ingcl
eancl
othes.

Exposur
etof
reshai
randUVr
ays(
vit
ami
nD)

EVALUATI
ON

Out
li
nef
ivef
unct
ionsoft
heski
n

Li
stf
iveski
ndi
seasesandf
iveway
sofcar
ingf
ort
heski
n 

TEMPERATUREREGULATI
ON

Mammal
sli
kehumanmai
ntai
naconst
antbodyt
emper
atur
e. Thi
sal
l
owst
hem t
oli
vei
nany
t
ypeofweather
,“ar
cti
c”or“t
ropi
c”.Heatgainedorl
ossfrom t
hebodycausedar
iseorf
all
from
t
henormalbodytemperat
urewhichisapproximat
ely37oC.

Hypot
hal
amusmoni
tor
s,r
ecei
vesi
nfor
mat
ionandst
imul
atespr
ocessesf
orbal
ance.When
t
herei
s

Riseinbodyt emperat
ure 
whichmaybecausedbyhotweat her
,vigorousexerci
se,hi
ghfeveror
exposureto solar
 r
adi
ati
on. Anincr
easeinbodytemperatur
estimulat est
emperat
urereceptor
s
i
nt hehypothalamustosendner vei
mpulsestotheski
n. Theseimpul sessti
mulat
eprocesses
thatgetri
dofexcessbodyheat .Theseprocessesi
ncl
ude

Vasodi
lat
ion:–Theexpansi
on( di
l
ation)ofbl
oodcapil
lar
iesbeneat
htheskinepider
mi sand
rel
axat
ionofcapil
lar
iesi
ndeeplayeroftheski
n. Thi
sall
owsmor ebloodfl
owneart hesurf
ace
andheatislostt
hrought
heepidermisint
otheairbyconvect
ionandradi
ati
on,thusreduci
ngthe
temper
ature.

Sweati
ng:–Sweatglandsaresti
mulatedbynervei
mpul
sestosecret
elar
geamountofsweat
whi
chev apor
atesandcoolsthebody.Othermammalsl
oseheatby(pant
ing)i
.e.ev
apor
ati
onof
watert
hroughthemouth,noseandtongue.

Decr
easi
ngmet
abol
i
crat
e:Thi
smi
nimi
zesheatpr
oduct
ionwi
thi
nthebody
.

Lower
ingofhai
rs:
– Er
ect
ormuscl
esr
elaxkeepi
ngt
hehai
rfl
atont
heski
nsur
face.
 

Fal
li
nbodyt
emper
atur
e duet
ocol
dweat
hert
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
ocessesoccur
: 

Vasoconst
rict
ions:
 Thenar
rowingorcontr
acti
onoft hebloodcapil
l
ari
esbeneat
htheskin
sur
faceandexpansi onoft
hoseonesindeepl ay
ers.Lessbloodfl
owsnearthesurf
aceofthe
ski
n. Ther
efore,l
essheati
slostbyconvecti
onandr adi
ation,
thusmakingt
hepersonlookspal
e
andblue.

Shi
ver
ing:
 
rhy
thmi
ccont
ract
ionsofskel
etal
muscl
est
opr
oduceheat
.
I
ncreasi
ngmet abol
i
crat
e: Thethyroi
dgl
andissti
mulat
edbythehypothal
amustoproduce
hor
monet hyr
oxinewhi
chincreasesthemet
aboli
crat
e,hencemoreheatispr
oducedespeci
all
y
byt
hel i
ver

Rai
singofhai
rs:
 
Erect
ormuscl
escont
ractt
orai
set
hehai
rst
otr
apai
rwhi
chi
sabadconduct
or
ofheat.

EVALUATI
ON

Descr
ibef
ourway
sthr
oughwhi
cht
heski
ncancont
rol
ari
sei
nbodyt
emper
atur
e.

GENERALEVALUATI
ON

Whati
s(a)Deami
nat
ion 
  (
b)Det
oxi
fi
cat
ion

Descr
ibej
aundi
ce,
stat
ingt
hreecausesofi
t.

Li
stf
iveder
mal
str
uct
uresandst
atet
hei
rfunct
ions

Def
ine(
a)v
asodi
l
ati
on(
b)v
asoconst
ri
cti
on

Descr
ibet
her
oleoft
hel
i
veri
ndi
gest
ionandosmor
egul
ati
on

Descr
ibet
hehomeost
asi
sfunct
ionsoft
heski
n 

READI
NGASSI
GNMENT

Col
l
ege 
Biol
ogy
,chapt
er9,
page199–206,
chapt
er6,
page128

WEEKENDASSI
GNMENT
Thepi
gmentinthemalpi
ghianl
ayerr
esponsi
blef
orski
ncol
our
ati
oni
sknownas(
a)mel
ani
n  (
b)
haemogl
obi
n (c)haemoyani
n (
d)ker
ati
n

Whichofthefol
l
owingspeci
ali
zedstructur
esar
esti
mulatedbyt
ouch,
pressur
e,pai
nsheatand
col
d?(a)Recept
or 
 (b)sy
napse(c)cellbodi
es(
d)muscle

Theincreaseinwidt
hofthebloodvesselsi
nthemammali
anski
nathi
ght
emper
atur
eisknown
as(a)vasodil
ati
on(b)sweat
ing(c)vasoconst
ri
cti
on(
d)v
ascul
ati
on

Whichofthefol
l
owingsti
muli
isnotpr
ovi
dedt
hrought
heski
nofmammal
s?(
a)l
i
ght(
b)
pr
essure (
c)pai
n (
d)touch

Whichofthef
oll
owingpart
sofmammal i
anski
nisdir
ectl
yinv
olv
edi
nexcr
eti
on?
 (a)Sebaceous
gl
and(b)sweatgl
and(c)hornyl
ayer(
d)bl
oodcapi
l
lari
es

THEORY 
Expl
ainhowski
nact
sas:
(a)anor
ganoft
emper
atur
eregul
ati
on(
b)anexcr
etor
yor
gan.

WEEKFOUR

HORMONALCO-
ORDI
NATI
ON

Postaut
hor
By 
StopLear
nTeam

Postdat
e

CONTENT

Hor
monesandendocr
inegl
ands
Pi
tui
tar
yhor
mone

Thy
roi
dhor
mone

Par
athy
roi
dhor
mone

Pancr
eat
ichor
mone

Adr
enal
hor
mone

Repr
oduct
ivehor
mones

Pl
anthor
mones

Appl
i
cat
ionofhor
monest
o agr
icul
tur
e

HORMONESANDENDOCRI
NEGLANDS

Hormonesar echemical
substancesproducedorsecret
edbyendocri
neglands(duct
lessgl
ands)
i
nr esponsetovari
oussti
muli
.Hormonesar esecret
edintot
hebloodst
ream andcir
culat
edto
exertthei
reff
ectonthei
rtar
getorgans.
 Thiseff
ectcouldbetospeeduporslowdown
biol
ogicalr
eacti
ons.

Af ewhor monesli
kethy
roxi
neandot hergrowthhor monesexertthei
reffect
sonal l
bodycell
s. 
Ahor monecant her
efor
ebedef i
nedasachemi cal messengerthatisproducedinonepartofan
organism andbri
ngsaboutaspecifi
ceffecti
nat argetor
gansomedi st
anceaway .Hormones
(usuall
yneededinsmallamount)areactiv
einhomeost asi
s,growthanddev elopment.Af
ter
theiract
ions,hor
monesareinact
ivat
edint hel
iverandexcret
edi nuri
ne.  

EVALUATI
ON
Whati
shor
mone?

St
atef
ourchar
act
eri
sti
csofhor
mones

ANI
MALHORMONES

Ther
ear
ebasi
cal
l
yfi
vegr
oupsofani
mal
hor
moneswhi
char
esecr
etedbydi
ff
erentgl
ands 
 

PI
TUI
TARYHORMONE

Thepituit
aryglandcanbefoundbelowthehypothalamus.  Itconsist
sofant eri
orandposteri
or
part
s. Bothpartsofthepi
tui
tar
yglandrel
easehor mones.Theant eri
orpi t
uit
arygl
andsecretes
growthhor monesandseveralt
ropi
chormonest hatregulatet heacti
vit
iesofotherendocri
ne
gl
andst hroughhomeostat
icmechanism. Hence,thepituitaryiscall
ed“ mastergl
and”.These
hormonesi ncl
ude

Gonadotr
opinsi.e.fol
li
clesti
mulat
inghormone(whi
chcauset
heovar
ytoproducemat
ureeggs
andthetest
istoproducesper ms)andlut
eni
zinghor
mone(whi
chcausesov
ulati
oni
nfemale
andproduct
ionoft est
osteronei
nbyt het
esti
s)

Adr
enocor
ti
cot
ropi
chor
monewhi
chst
imul
atest
headr
enal
cor
text
osecr
etecor
ti
cost
eroi
ds

Thy
roi
dst
imul
ati
nghor
mones

Pr
olact
inwhi
chst
imul
atest
hesecr
eti
onofmi
l
kbyt
hemammar
ygl
and

Somatot
ropi
nwhichst
imul
atesthegrowt
hoflongbonesandincr
easesmetabol
i
crat
eint
he
cel
l
s.Growthhor
monesareproduceddur
ingchi
ldhoodandadol
escence.
Oversecr
eti
onofgr
owt
hhor
monesi
nchi
l
drencausesgi
gant
ism whi
l
eundersecr
eti
oncauses
dwarf
ism.

Thepost
eri
orpi
tui
tar
ygl
andpr
oduces

Ant
i-
diur
eti
chor
mone(
ADH)

Oxyt
ocinwhichst
imul
atesthecontr
act
ionoft
heut
eri
newal
landdi
l
ati
onoft
hecer
vixdur
ing
par
turi
ti
onandmilkl
etdownfrom t
henippl
es.

EVALUATI
ON

Li
stf
ourhor
monessecr
etedbyt
hepi
tui
tar
ygl
andandt
hei
rfunct
ions.

Descr
ibehowt
hepi
tui
tar
yactast
hemast
ergl
and

THYROI
DHORMONES

Thethyr
oidglandislocat
edintheregi
oncl
osetothelarynx(
theneckr
egion)
.Itproducest
hree
mainhormones,themosti mport
antofwhi
chist
hyroxine(ot
hersar
etr
ii
odothyroni
neand
cal
ci
toni
n). Thyr
oxine

r
egul
atest
hegr
owt
handdev
elopmentofal
lbodycel
l
s. 

i
ncr
easest
her
ateatwhi
chgl
ucosei
soxi
dizedi
nthebodycel
l
sandi
ncr
easesheatpr
oduct
ion
aswel
l.
 

Undersecr
eti
onoft
hyr
oxi
necauses 
cret
ini
sm 
thati
sobser
vedi
nphy
sical
l
yunder
dev
eloped
andmental
lyr
etar
dedchildr
en,sl
uggishnessand 
goi
ter
 i
nadul
ts.Ov
ersecr
eti
onoft
hyr
oxi
ne
causeshy
peracti
venessandrest
lessness.

PARATHYROI
DHORMONE

Par
athy
roi
dglandsar
eattachedtothet
hyr
oidglandandareobser
vedasf
ourt
inygl
ands.The
hor
mone,cal
l
edparathor
moner ai
sesbl
oodcalcium l
evel
by:

Rel
easi
ngcal
cium f
rom bone

I
ncr
easi
ngcal
cium absor
pti
oni
nthegut
.

Reduci
ngcal
cium excr
eti
onbyt
heki
dney
.

Cal
ci
toni
n(at
hyr
oidhor
mone)
 l
ower
sthebl
oodcal
cium l
evel
.

Oversecr
eti
onofparat
hormonecausesthebonest
obecomef
ragi
l
e,sof
tandpr
onet
ofr
act
ure
whil
eundersecr
eti
oncausesmusclespasms.

EVALUATI
ON

Whati
stheef
fectofundersecr
eti
onandov
ersecr
eti
onoft
hyr
oxi
ne?

Li
stt
wopar
athy
roi
dhor
monesandt
hei
rfunct
ions.

PANCREATI
CHORMONES

Thepancreasisadigest
iveaswel
l asanendocri
negland.Hence,i
thasbothexocri
neand
endocri
nefuncti
ons.Mostcel
lsi
nthepancreasproducedigesti
veenzymes.
 Amongt hesecel
l
s
arehormone–pr oduci
ngcell
scal
ledIsl
etsofLangerhanswhichproducet
wohor mones, 
i
nsul
in
andglucagon.
I
nsuli
nlowerst
hebloodgl
ucoselevel
byst
imul
ati
ngt
hel
i
vercel
l
stoconv
ertexcessgl
ucoset
o
gl
ycogenforst
oragei
nthel
iverandmuscl
es

Defi
ci
encyofinsul
i
ncausesdi abet
esmell
i
tusi.e.excret
ionofgl
ucoseinur
ine,l
essappetit
e
andgreatt
hir
st.Oversecr
eti
onofinsul
i
ncausesf al
linbl
oodsugarlev
elandincessanthunger
.

Gl
ucagonrai
sest
hebl
oodgl
ucosel
evel
byst
imul
ati
ngt
hel
i
vert
oconv
ertst
oredgl
ycogent
o
gl
ucose.

ADRENALHORMONES

Theadrenalglandsar el
ocatedabov ethekidneyandt heypr oducet wodisti
nctgroupsof
hormones. Theadr enalcort
exproduces cort
icoids whileadr enalmedullaproduces adrenali
ne
andnoradrenali
ne (t
heemer gencyhormones) .Corticoidsi ncl
ude;glucocort
icoi
ds( whichraise
bl
oodglucosel evelduri
ngstresse.g.cort
isol
)andmi ner alocort
icoi
dswhi chregulat
et helevels
ofsodi
um andpot assi
um ionsinbodyf l
uidse.g.aldost eroneincreasessodium ionsabsor pti
on.

Adrenal
inasanemergencyhor
monepr
epar
est
hebodyf
ori
mmedi
ateact
ioni
nti
meoff
ri
ght
,
dangerandangerby

i
ncr
easi
ngmuscul
art
one

i
ncr
easi
nghear
tbeatr
ateandr
espi
rat
ion

ai
dingpupi
l
sdi
l
ati
on

i
ncr
easest
her
ateofconv
ersi
onofgl
ycogent
ogl
ucosebyt
hel
i
ver

Undersecr
eti
onofadrenali
nresul
tsi
nslowresponsetoemergency
,lowbl
oodpr
essur
eand
hear
tbeatwhil
eoversecreti
onresul
tsi
noveranxi
etyandexci
tement.

EVALUATI
ON

Descr
ibehowadr
enal
i
neactasanemer
gencyhor
mone
Whatar
ethef
unct
ionsofpancr
eat
ichor
mones?

REPRODUCTI
VEHORMONES

Cert
aincell
si nther
eproducti
veor gansproducehormones.
 Thet est
espr oducetestoster
one,
themalesexhor moneandt heov ari
esproduceoestr
ogenandpr ogesterone(femalesex
hormones). Sexhormoneproduct i
onbeginsatpuberty(
aperiodinlat
echi l
dhood,between10
and14y earofage),t
henthepr oductionofsexhormoneisgreat
lyincreased,causi
ngt hebody
togrowrapidlyandchangeintoasexual l
ymat ur
eform.

Theproduct
ionofsexhor
monesi
sst
imul
atedbygonadr
otr
opi
chor
monessecr
etedbyt
he
pi
tui
tarygl
and

Mal
esexhor
mone,
test
ost
eronest
imul
ates:

t
hegr
owt
handmat
urat
ionoft
hepeni
s,t
est
esandaccessor
ysex st
ruct
ures.

t
hedev
elopmentofmalesexchar
act
eri
sti
cssuchasmuscularbody
,gr
owt
hofhai
rint
hepubi
c
r
egi
on,
armpit
,chestandt
hefaceanddeepeni
ngofthev
oice.

Femal
esexhor
mone 
oest
rogen 
whi
chper
for
mst
hef
oll
owi
ngf
unct
ions.

bri
ngsaboutthedev
elopmentofsecondar
ysexual
char
acteri
sti
cssuchastheenlar
gementof
thebr
easts,
growthofhai
rinthepubi
cregi
onandarmpit
,wideni
ngofhipandfatsdist
ri
but
ion.

r
egul
atest
her
epr
oduct
iveormenst
rual
cycl
e.

Pr
ogest
erone

i
nhi
bit
seggpr
oduct
ion(
ovul
ati
on)dur
ingpr
egnancy
pr
epar
esandmai
ntai
nthel
i
ningoft
heut
erus

ai
dsi
mpl
ant
ati
onanddev
elopmentoft
heembr
yoi
ntheut
erus

Over-secr
eti
onofr eproduct
ivehor
monescausesexcessivedevel
opmentofsexualor
gansand
abnormal ur
gef orsexwhileunder
-secret
ionresul
tsi
npoordev
elopmentofsecondar
ysexual
character
s,sexualorgansandlowur geforsex.

EVALUATI
ON

Li
stt
hreer
epr
oduct
ivehor
monesandt
hei
rfunct
ions

Descr
ibehowf
emal
esexhor
monescont
rol
sther
epr
oduct
ivecy
cle

PLANTHORMONES

Co-
ordi
nat
ioni
nplant
sissi
mplert
hani
nani
mals.
 Iti
sensuredbychemi
cal
sknownaspl
ant
hor
mones.
 Thesearesi
mil
art
oanimal
hormonesi
nthattheyare:

onl
yneededi
nsmal
lamountt
obr
ingaboutt
hei
ref
fect
s.

pr
oducedi
nonepar
toft
hebodyandt
ranspor
tedt
oanot
herpar
twher
etheyexer
tthei
ref
fect
s. 

Animal hormonesar eproducedinspecificglandsandbr i

ngaboutresponsei nspecifi
ctarget
organs. Inplant s,
hormonesar enotproducedi ntissuesspeciali
zedfortheirproducti
on. Thei
r
effect
sar eal somor egeneralvary
ingwi t
hconcent rati
onandt ypesoforgans.Pl anthormones
sti
mulat eori nhibi
tgrowthinthetargetti
ssuesi nresponsetoext er
nalsti
mul isuchasl i
ght,
temperat ure,gravi
tyandtouch. Thesesubstancesar eknownaspl antsgrowt hhormones, but
theyaffectot heracti
vit
iessuchasf rui
tsformation,rootsdevelopmentandl eaffall
.
Combi nat i
onofpl anthormonesbr i
ngsaboutr esponsest hataredif
ferentfr
om whateach
hormonewi l
lproducealone. Thi
stypeofi nt
eractionisalsocommoni nanimal s.
 The
responsesofpl anthormonesar eusuall
ymuchsl owert hanmostofani mals. Thisisbecause
r
esponsesi
npl
ant
sar
emai
nlybr
oughtaboutbygr
owt
h.

TYPESOFPLANTSHORMONE

Oneofthemostimport
antgroupsofpl
antshormonesare 
auxi
ns.Ot
hergr
oupsi
ncl
ude
gi
bber
elli
ns,
cyt
okini
ns,absci
sicaci
dandethene(
ethyl
ene)
.

AUXI
NS

Themostimport
antnat ural
lyoccurr
ingauxi
nisi ndol
eacet
icaci
d(I
AA). Iti
sproducedatthe
api
cesofashootandi tistranspor
tedinonedirecti
onawayfrom t
heti
p.  I
tmovesacrossshor
t
di
stancebydi
ff
usionandl ongerdistancet
hrought hephl
oem.Auxini
nfluencescel
ldi
visi
on,
el
ongati
onanddif
ferentiati
on.It
 

i
nfl
uencethegrowthofst
em t
owardsli
ght(posi
ti
vephot
otr
opi
sm)androotawayfrom i
t
(
negati
vephototr
opism)
.Simi
l
arl
y,i
tcausesthegrowt
hofroot
stowar
dstheforceofgravi
ty
(
geotr
opism).
 

sti
mulat
est
hedev
elopmentofl
ater
alandadv
ent
it
iousr
oot
sfori
ncr
easedwat
erandmi
ner
al
absor
pti
on.

causesapi
cal
domi
nancebyi
nhi
bit
ingt
hegr
owt
hofl
ater
albuds

pr
omot
est
hedev
elopmentoff
rui
ts.

br
eaksdor
mancyi
nseedsensur
ingear
lyger
minat
ion

del
ayl
eaff
all

GI
BBERELLI
NS

Theseplanthormonesarefoundinrootandstem api
ces. Theypr
omot
egrowthbysti
mul
ati
ng
bothcel
lelongati
onandcel
l di
vi
sion.
 Theyalsosti
mulategrowthi
ndwarfv
ari
eti
es.Ot
her
eff
ectsofgibber
ell
insi
ncl
ude
I
nduci
ngdor
mantseedst
oger
minat
e

Causi
ngdor
mantauxi
l
iar
ybudst
ogr
ow

I
ncr
easi
ngf
rui
tsi
ze.

CYTOKI
NINS

Cytoki
ninsareproducedinroot
s. Theyarealsogrowthpromoti
nghor moneslikeauxinsand
gi
bberell
ins.Toget
herwithauxi
ns,theysti
mul at
ecelldi
vi
sionsothatstemsandr ootsgrow
normall
y. Unli
keauxins,
theyst
imulatethelater
albudstogrowintobranches.
 Theydelay
ageingi
npl ant
s.

ABSCI
SICACI
D

Thi
shormoneispr
oducedi
nmat ur
egreenleav
es,
frui
tsandrootcaps.
 Iti
sagr
owt
hinhi
bit
or
whoseef
fect
sgeneral
l
yopposebothauxi
nsandgibber
ell
i
ns.It
:

suppr
essest
hegr
owt
hofbud.

i
nducesdor
mancy

br
ingsaboutagei
ngi
nleav
es.

cont
rol
stheopeni
ngandcl
osi
ngofst
omat
a.

Theef
fect
sofabsci
sicaci
denabl
ethepl
ant
stowi
thst
andsev
ereenv
ironment
alcondi
ti
on.

ETHENE

Thisisasimpl
ehy dr
ocar
bonwhichi
sproducedinl
eaves,st
emsandy
oungf
rui
ts.I
tret
ards
l
ateralbuddev
elopmentandhast
enstheri
peni
ngoffr
uits.
EVALUATI
ON

Li
stf
ourpl
ant
shor
monesandt
hei
rfunct
ions

Descr
ibehowauxi
nsactasgr
owt
hhor
monei
npl
ant

APPLI
CATI
ONOFHORMONESTO 
AGRI
CULTURE

Natur
alpl
anthor
monesandsy
nthet
iconesar
eusedi
nhor
ti
cul
tur
eand 
agr
icul
tur
e. Theuses
ar
e:

Art
if
ici
alveget
ati
vepropagati
on:
 Auxi
nsar eusedinr
ooti
ngpowderswhi
chareappli
edatt
he
endofcutti
ngtoinducerootf
ormati
on.Synthet
icaux
insareusedt
okni
ttoget
herpart
sof
pl
antsaft
ergraft
ingbyinduci
ngwoundtissueformat
ion.

Weedcont
rol
:Thesy
nthet
icauxi
nisusedasasel
ect
iveweedki
l
ler(
her
bici
de)e.g.2,
4–D

Har
vest
ing:
Auxi
nsar
eusedt
oensur
eal
ongerst
ayoff
rui
tsont
hepl
ant
s.

Par
thenocar
py:
Auxi
nandgi
bber
ell
i
nscausesf
lower
stodev
elopi
ntof
rui
tswi
thoutf
ert
il
izat
ion

Preser
vati
on:Cyt
oki
ninsusedi
nstor
ingveget
ablesprev
enty
ell
owing.Gr
owthinhi
bit
ors
(absci
sicaci
d)ar
eusedtoprev
entonionsandpotat
oesinst
oresf
rom spr
outi
ng.

EVALUATI
ON

Out
li
nef
iveappl
i
cat
ionsofpl
anthor
monest
o agr
icul
tur
e.

GENERALEVALUATI
ON

Whatar
ehor
mones?
Whatar
educt
lessgl
ands 

Out
li
nef
ivegener
alf
unct
ionsofhor
mones

Di
scusst
heexocr
ineandendocr
inef
unct
ionsoft
hepancr
eas

Descr
ibehowt
hef
emal
esexhor
monescont
rol
sther
epr
oduct
ivecy
cle

I
ntwoway
s,showhowpl
antandani
mal
hor
monesar
esi
mil
ar.

St
atef
ourdi
ff
erencesbet
weenhor
monal
coor
dinat
ioni
npl
ant
sandani
mal
s

Howr
elev
antar
epl
anthor
monest
o agr
icul
tur
e

READI
NGASSI
GNMENT

Col
l
ege 
Biol
ogy
,chapt
er13,
page244–250

WEEKENDASSI
GNMENT

Whichofthefol
lowi
ngst
atementi
scorr
ect
?Hormonesare(a)secret
edintothebl
oodthr
ough
ducts(
b)secret
eddir
ect
lyi
ntot
hebloodst
ream (
c)i
nact
ivechemicalsubst
ancesi
ntheblood
str
eam (d)noti
mport
ant

Thepit
uit
aryiscall
ed“mast
erglands”because(a)i
tisl
ocatedi
nthebrai
n(b)it
ssecret
ionsar
e
morenumer ousthananyot
herglands.
 (c)i
tsecret
ioncont
rol
sothergl
ands(d)i
tisusedin
master
inglearni
ng.

Thecondi
ti
onknownascr
eti
nism i
scausedbyt
hedef
ici
encyof(
a)t
hyr
oxi
ne 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  (
b)
adr
enal
i
ne(
c)v
itami
nA(
d)oxy
toci
n.

Auxi
nsarepr
oducedinthe(a)api
cal
regi
onofr
oot
sandshoot(
b)edgesofl
eav
es 
  
  (
c)
epi
dermi
sofroot
s(d)epider
misofshoot
s.

Al
lthesear
epl
anthor
monesexcept(
a)t
hyr
oxi
ne(
b)auxi
ns(
c)absci
sicaci
d  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 (d)
et
hylene

THEORY

St
atesi
xef
fect
sofadr
enal
i
neasanemer
gencyhor
monesonbodyor
gans

Inatabul
arf
orm st
atethegl
and, l
ocat
ion,functi
ons,
eff
ect
sofunder
secr
eti
onandov
er
secr
eti
onof 
  
 (a)t
hyr
oxine 
  
 (b)i
nsul
in  
  (c)somat
otr
opi
n

WEEKFI
VE

Ski
ptot
hecont
ent

Sear
ch

St
opLear
n

Menu

Cat
egor
ies
BI
OLOGYEXAM LESSONS

Ner
vousCo-
ordi
nat
ion:
Ner
voussy
stem,
Brai
nandSpi
nal
cor
d

Postaut
hor
By 
StopLear
nTeam

Postdat
e

CONTENT

Thener
voussy
stem

Thecent
ral
ner
voussy
stem.

Thebr
ain(
component
s,descr
ipt
ionsandf
unct
ions)

St
ruct
ureandf
unct
ionsoft
hespi
nal
cor
d

THENERVOUSSYSTEM

Thenervousandhor monalsyst
emsco- or
dinat
ev ari
ousbiologicalacti
vit
iesinthebodyof
multi
cel
lul
arani mal s,t
hebasicstr
uctur
alunitofnervoussy st
em isthener vecell
cal
led 
neurone. Itconsistsofadense,cel
lbodyandpr ot
oplasmicpr ocesses
cal
led 
nerve 
fi
br es. Abundleoflongnervefibr
eiscalleda nerve.
  
Themai nmechanism of
i
nformati
ont r
ansf eriselect
ri
cimpulsesknownas  nerveimpulses al
ongt henervefi
bres.

Al
lthener
voussy
stemsi
ncompl
exani
mal
shav
ethef
oll
owi
ng:
Thecent
ral
processi
ngr
egi
on(
thebr
ain)

Thener
vesbr
ingi
ngi
mpul
sesf
rom r
ecept
orst
othebr
ain.

Ner
vescar
ryi
ngi
nfor
mat
ionf
rom t
hebr
aint
otheef
fect
ors.

Sensoryrecept
orsdetectstimul
ifr
om theexternalandint
ernalenvi
ronmentandsoactas
i
nformati
oncollect
ors. Theyareoft
enf oundinthesenseorgans. Eff
ectorsincl
udemuscl
es
andglandsthatgointoactiononreceiv
ingnerveimpulsesfrom t
hebr ai
n. Suchacti
onsi
ncl
ude
muscularcontr
acti
on,enzymespr oducti
on,hormonesecreti
onet c.

Thener
voussy
stem i
sdi
vi
dedi
ntot
hecent
ral
andt
heper
ipher
alner
voussy
stems

CENTRALNERVOUSSYSTEM (
CNS)

TheCNSconsi st
softhespinalcordandthebrai
nwhichareenclosedprotectiv
elywit
hinthe
vertebral
col
umnandt heskul
lrespect
ivel
y.TheCNS,incoor
dinati
ngbiologicalact
ivi
ti
es,
receivesaconstanti
nputofimpulseswhichkeepiti
nfor
medofchangesi ntheanimal’si
nter
nal
andext er
nalenvir
onment.

Impul
sestot
heCNSf r
om r eceptor
saretransmit
tedalongsensor
ynervesandarether
efor
e
knownassensoryi
mpulses. Thoseimpulsesfr
om theCNSt otheef
fector
sareknownasmotor
i
mpulsessi
ncetheyar
et r
ansmi t
tedalongmotornerves.

THEBRAI
N

Anav erage-sizedbrainforanadul tweightis1.2–1. 4kg.thebrainconsistsoft housandsof

neuronesencl osedint heskullandcov eredbyt hr
eel ayer
edmembr anesi .e.meni nges(out
er
dura,middlear achnoidandi nnerpiamat ter)
.Thev entr
icl
esbet weenlayer softhemeni ngesar
e
fi
ll
edwi thcerebrospinalfl
uid.Thebr ainconsumesabout25per centofthebody ’
soxy gen
supply.Thebr ainhast hr
eer egions,theforebrai
n,middlebr ai
nandhindbr ain.

FOREBRAI
N
Thi
sisthemostpredomi
nantpartofthebr
ain,
connect
edwit
hint
ell
i
genceandspeech.I
t
compri
sesoft
hreemajorpar
ts;cerebr
um,thal
amusandhypot
hal
amus.

Cer
ebr
um

Thisoccur sint wohal ves,connectedt ogetherthroughfibr

escall
edcorpuscallosum. The
hal
v esar ecall
edt hecer ebralhemispher es.
 Eachhemi sphereismadeupoff ouri ndi
stinct
l
obeswhi char efrontal,pari
etal,
tempor alandocci pi
tal
. Themostactiv
er egi
onoft hecer ebrum
i
st heout erlayercalledcerebr al
cortexwhi chismadeupofgr eymatter.
 Thecor t
exi shighly
conv ol
utedf orincreasedsur facearea. Themor econvolut
edthecort
ex, t
hemor et hecer ebr
al
capacity.
 Thecer ebrum carri
esouti tsfunctionswi t
heachareaspeci
alizi
nginapar t
icular
activi
ty.Cerebrum

cont
rol
all
vol
unt
aryact
ions.

i
treceivessensor
yinf
ormati
on,
processesi
tandsendst
her
esponset
hrought
hemot
or
neuronestotheeff
ector
s.

i
tist
heseatofconsci
ousness,
memor
y,l
ear
ning,
int
ell
i
gence,
reasoni
ngandj
udgement

Thal
amus

Thi
sisov
ali
nshapeandact
sasar
elay
ingcent
er.
 Thal
ami

recei
vessensoryinfor
mati
onfr
om l
owerpar
tsofthebr
ainandt
hespi
nal
cor
d,i
ntegr
atei
tand
passitt
orelevantregi
onsoft
hecer
ebral
cort
ex.
 

i
thel
pst
oexper
iencesensat
ion.

Hy
pot
hal
amus

Thi
sist
her
egi
onbel
owt
het
hal
amus.I
t
cont
rol
sthepi
tui
tar
ygl
and

i
tactsmai
nlyi
nthebody
 homeost
asi
s i
.e.cont
rol
sbodyt
emper
atur
e,wat
erbal
anceandbl
ood
pr
essur
e

i
tal
socont
rol
semot
ione.
g.anger
,fr
ight
,joyet
c.

i
tcont
rol
s appet
it
eandspeech

EVALUATI
ON

Out
li
net
hecomponentoft
hener
voussy
stem

St
atet
wof
unct
ionsoft
hecer
ebr
um



MI
DBRAI
N

Themidbr
ainconnect
sthef
orebr
ainandt
hehi
ndbr
ain.i
tconsi
stsofopt
icl
obesandt
hepi
neal
body
.

cont
rol
sref
lexesconnect
edwi
thsi
ghtandhear
ing

i
tisal
i
nkbet
weent
hef
oreandt
hehi
ndbr
ain.

HI
NDBRAI
N

Thehi
ndbr
ainconsi
stsoft
hreepar
ts;
cer
ebel
l
um,
ponsv
arol
i
iandmedul
l
aobl
ongat
a.

Cer
ebel
l
um
I
thasthreepar
ts;
acentralpar
tconnect
edtotwolat
eralpar
tst
hrought
heponsv
arol
i
i.
 Thet
wo
l
ater
alpart
sarecal
ledcerebel
l
arhemispher
es.
 Thecerebel
l
um

cont
rol
sthebodypost
ure

coor
dinat
esmuscul
armov
ementt
omai
ntai
nthebodybal
ance.

Medul
l
aobl
ongat
a

Thi
si stheposter
iorendofthebr
ainwhi
chcontinuesi
ntothespinal
cor
d. Unl
i
kethe
cer
ebellum andcerebrum,
themedull
aoblongat
ahasani nnergr
eymatt
erandatouterwhi
te
matter.
 It

cont
rol
sal
li
nvol
unt
aryact
ionse.g.y
awni
ng,
bli
nki
ngoft
heey
e

cont
rolsinvol
unt
arymov
ementoft
hebodyespeci
all
ythosei
nvol
vedi
nrespi
rat
ion,
hear
tbeat
anddigesti
on.

 
Regul
atet
hebl
oodpr
essur
ebycont
rol
l
ingdi
l
ati
onandconst
ri
cti
onofbl
oodv
essel
s.

EVALUATI
ON

St
atet
wof
unct
ionseachofa.cer
ebr
um b.hy
pot
hal
amusc.cer
ebel
l
um

THESPI
NALCORD(
STRUCTUREANDFUNCTI
ONS)

Thespinalcordconsist
soft housandsofneur oneswhi chr undownt helengthoft heneur al
canalatthebackofv er
tebrates.
 Thespi nal cordi senv elopedwithi
nthreelay er
edmembr ane
call
edmeni nges.Anarr
owcanal ,t
hespi nal canal r
unsdownt hecentr
eofthecor d. Thecanal i
s
fi
ll
edwithaf l
uidcall
ed 
cerebrospinal f
lui
d.Thet ransver sesecti
onofthespi nalcordshowsa
greyi
shregioncall
edthe greymat t
er surroundedbyal ight err
egioncall
edthe  whitemat ter.
 The
greymatteriscomposed, practi
call
yofal lthecell bodiesoft heneuronesint hespi nalcord.
Sincethecel
l bodiesar
edense,andgranul
ar,
theygivet
hisregi
onittypi
calgrey
ishappearance.
 
Thewhi t
emat terconsi
stsoft
henervefibr
esofthesecell
bodies.
 Someoft hesefi
bresrun
alongthespinal cor
dtothebr
ainconnecti
ngbothtoget
her.
 Otherfi
bresl
eavethespinalcordto
formthespinal nerv
es.



Thespi
nal
cor
dfunct
ionsi
n:

coor
diant
ingsi
mpl
eref
lexact
ionssuchaskneej
erk 
andaut
omat
icr
efl
exessuchassweat
ing.

I
tsendsi
mpul
sest
othet
othebr
ainandr
esponsesf
rom t
hebr
aint
otheef
fect
ors

EVALUATI
ON

Descr
ibet
hest
ruct
ureandf
unct
ionsoft
hespi
nal
cor
d.

GENERALEVALUATI
ON

Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weenf
orebr
ainandhi
ndbr
ain

Whatar
emeni
nges

St
atet
hreef
unct
ionsofcer
ebr
ospi
nal
flui
d

Descr
ibet
hebr
ain

Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weendor
sal
rootandv
ent
ral
root

READI
NGASSI
GNMENT
Col
l
ege 
Biol
ogy
,chapt
er10,
page207–211

WEEKENDASSI
GNMENT

Theforebrai
nismadeupoft
hef
oll
owi
ngexcept(
a)cer
ebel
l
um (
b)t
hal
amus 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  (
c)
hypot
halamus(d)cer
ebr
um

Thepartofthebr
aint
hatcontr
olsthebodyhomeost
ati
cist
he(
a)t
hal
amus 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  (
b)
medull
aoblongat
a(c)hypot
halamus(d)cer
ebrum

Thehumanbr
ainconsumes_
___oft
hebodyoxy
gensuppl
y(a)10% (
b)25%(
c)50%(
d)75%

Theshockabsorberfl
uidfi
l
li
ngupthespinalcanalandthebrai
nvent
ri
cleis 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 (a)
i
nter
cel
lul
arfl
uid(b)cerebr
ospi
nal
flui
d(c)vertebr
ater
ialf
lui
d(d)amni
oticfl
uid

Thebandoffi
bresconnecti
ngthetwohal
vesofthecerebrum t
oget
heri
scal
l
ed 
  
  
  
  
  
 (a)
medianf
issur
e (b)ponsvar
oli
i
 (c)cor
puscal
losum (d)thal
amus

THEORY

Expl
ainbr
ief
lyt
hedor
sal
rootgangl
i
on

Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weencer
ebr
um andmedul
l
aobl
ongat
a

CONTI
NUATI
ON

Ski
ptot
hecont
ent

Sear
ch
St
opLear
n

Menu

Cat
egor
ies

BI
OLOGYEXAM LESSONS

Ner
vousCo-
ordi
nat
ion:
Ner
voussy
stem,
Brai
nandSpi
nal
cor
d

Postaut
hor
By 
StopLear
nTeam

Postdat
e

CONTENT

Thener
voussy
stem

Thecent
ral
ner
voussy
stem.

Thebr
ain(
component
s,descr
ipt
ionsandf
unct
ions)

St
ruct
ureandf
unct
ionsoft
hespi
nal
cor
d

THENERVOUSSYSTEM


Thenervousandhor monalsyst
emsco- or
dinat
ev ari
ousbiologicalacti
vit
iesinthebodyof
multi
cel
lul
arani mal s,t
hebasicstr
uctur
alunitofnervoussy st
em isthener vecell
cal
led 
neurone. Itconsistsofadense,cel
lbodyandpr ot
oplasmicpr ocesses
cal
led 
nerve 
fi
br es. Abundleoflongnervefibr
eiscalleda nerve.
  
Themai nmechanism of
i
nformati
ont r
ansf eriselect
ri
cimpulsesknownas  nerveimpulses al
ongt henervefi
bres.

Al
lthener
voussy
stemsi
ncompl
exani
mal
shav
ethef
oll
owi
ng:

Thecent
ral
processi
ngr
egi
on(
thebr
ain)

Thener
vesbr
ingi
ngi
mpul
sesf
rom r
ecept
orst
othebr
ain.

Ner
vescar
ryi
ngi
nfor
mat
ionf
rom t
hebr
aint
otheef
fect
ors.

Sensoryrecept
orsdetectstimul
ifr
om theexternalandint
ernalenvi
ronmentandsoactas
i
nformati
oncollect
ors. Theyareoft
enf oundinthesenseorgans. Eff
ectorsincl
udemuscl
es
andglandsthatgointoactiononreceiv
ingnerveimpulsesfrom t
hebr ai
n. Suchacti
onsi
ncl
ude
muscularcontr
acti
on,enzymespr oducti
on,hormonesecreti
onet c.

Thener
voussy
stem i
sdi
vi
dedi
ntot
hecent
ral
andt
heper
ipher
alner
voussy
stems

CENTRALNERVOUSSYSTEM (
CNS)

TheCNSconsi st
softhespinalcordandthebrai
nwhichareenclosedprotectiv
elywit
hinthe
vertebral
col
umnandt heskul
lrespect
ivel
y.TheCNS,incoor
dinati
ngbiologicalact
ivi
ti
es,
receivesaconstanti
nputofimpulseswhichkeepiti
nfor
medofchangesi ntheanimal’si
nter
nal
andext er
nalenvir
onment.

Impul
sest
otheCNSf r
om r eceptor
saretr
ansmit
tedalongsensor
ynervesandarether
efor
e
knownassensor
yimpulses. Thoseimpul
sesfr
om theCNSt otheef
fector
sareknownasmotor
i
mpul
sessi
ncet
heyar
etr
ansmi
tt
edal
ongmot
orner
ves.

THEBRAI
N

Anav erage-sizedbrainforanadul tweightis1.2–1. 4kg.thebrainconsistsoft housandsof

neuronesencl osedint heskullandcov eredbyt hr
eel ayer
edmembr anesi .e.meni nges(out
er
dura,middlear achnoidandi nnerpiamat ter)
.Thev entr
icl
esbet weenlayer softhemeni ngesar
e
fi
ll
edwi thcerebrospinalfl
uid.Thebr ainconsumesabout25per centofthebody ’
soxy gen
supply.Thebr ainhast hr
eer egions,theforebrai
n,middlebr ai
nandhindbr ain.

FOREBRAI
N

Thi
sisthemostpredomi
nantpartofthebr
ain,
connect
edwit
hint
ell
i
genceandspeech.I
t
compri
sesoft
hreemajorpar
ts;cerebr
um,thal
amusandhypot
hal
amus.

Cer
ebr
um

Thisoccur sint wohal ves,connectedt ogetherthroughfibr

escall
edcorpuscallosum. The
hal
v esar ecall
edt hecer ebralhemispher es.
 Eachhemi sphereismadeupoff ouri ndi
stinct
l
obeswhi char efrontal,pari
etal,
tempor alandocci pi
tal
. Themostactiv
er egi
onoft hecer ebrum
i
st heout erlayercalledcerebr al
cortexwhi chismadeupofgr eymatter.
 Thecor t
exi shighly
conv ol
utedf orincreasedsur facearea. Themor econvolut
edthecort
ex, t
hemor et hecer ebr
al
capacity.
 Thecer ebrum carri
esouti tsfunctionswi t
heachareaspeci
alizi
nginapar t
icular
activi
ty.Cerebrum

cont
rol
all
vol
unt
aryact
ions.

i
treceivessensor
yinf
ormati
on,
processesi
tandsendst
her
esponset
hrought
hemot
or
neuronestotheeff
ector
s.

i
tist
heseatofconsci
ousness,
memor
y,l
ear
ning,
int
ell
i
gence,
reasoni
ngandj
udgement

Thal
amus

Thi
sisov
ali
nshapeandact
sasar
elay
ingcent
er.
 Thal
ami
recei
vessensoryinfor
mati
onfr
om l
owerpar
tsofthebr
ainandt
hespi
nal
cor
d,i
ntegr
atei
tand
passitt
orelevantregi
onsoft
hecer
ebral
cort
ex.
 

i
thel
pst
oexper
iencesensat
ion.

Hy
pot
hal
amus

Thi
sist
her
egi
onbel
owt
het
hal
amus.I
t

cont
rol
sthepi
tui
tar
ygl
and

i
tactsmai
nlyi
nthebody
 homeost
asi
s i
.e.cont
rol
sbodyt
emper
atur
e,wat
erbal
anceandbl
ood
pr
essur
e

i
tal
socont
rol
semot
ione.
g.anger
,fr
ight
,joyet
c.

i
tcont
rol
s appet
it
eandspeech

EVALUATI
ON

Out
li
net
hecomponentoft
hener
voussy
stem

St
atet
wof
unct
ionsoft
hecer
ebr
um



MI
DBRAI
N

Themidbr
ainconnect
sthef
orebr
ainandt
hehi
ndbr
ain.i
tconsi
stsofopt
icl
obesandt
hepi
neal
body
.
cont
rol
sref
lexesconnect
edwi
thsi
ghtandhear
ing

i
tisal
i
nkbet
weent
hef
oreandt
hehi
ndbr
ain.

HI
NDBRAI
N

Thehi
ndbr
ainconsi
stsoft
hreepar
ts;
cer
ebel
l
um,
ponsv
arol
i
iandmedul
l
aobl
ongat
a.

Cer
ebel
l
um

I
thasthreepar
ts;
acentralpar
tconnect
edtotwolat
eralpar
tst
hrought
heponsv
arol
i
i.
 Thet
wo
l
ater
alpart
sarecal
ledcerebel
l
arhemispher
es.
 Thecerebel
l
um

cont
rol
sthebodypost
ure

coor
dinat
esmuscul
armov
ementt
omai
ntai
nthebodybal
ance.

Medul
l
aobl
ongat
a

Thi
si stheposter
iorendofthebr
ainwhi
chcontinuesi
ntothespinal
cor
d. Unl
i
kethe
cer
ebellum andcerebrum,
themedull
aoblongat
ahasani nnergr
eymatt
erandatouterwhi
te
matter.
 It

cont
rol
sal
li
nvol
unt
aryact
ionse.g.y
awni
ng,
bli
nki
ngoft
heey
e

cont
rolsinvol
unt
arymov
ementoft
hebodyespeci
all
ythosei
nvol
vedi
nrespi
rat
ion,
hear
tbeat
anddigesti
on.

 
Regul
atet
hebl
oodpr
essur
ebycont
rol
l
ingdi
l
ati
onandconst
ri
cti
onofbl
oodv
essel
s.

EVALUATI
ON
St
atet
wof
unct
ionseachofa.cer
ebr
um b.hy
pot
hal
amusc.cer
ebel
l
um

THESPI
NALCORD(
STRUCTUREANDFUNCTI
ONS)

Thespi nalcor dconsi stsoft housandsofneur oneswhi chr undownt helengthoft heneur al
canal atthebackofv ertebrates. Thespinal cordi senv elopedwi thi
nt hreelay er
edmembr ane
calledmeni nges.Anar r
owcanal ,thespinal canal r
unsdownt hecent reofthecor d. Thecanal i
s
fi
lledwi t
haf l
uidcal l
ed cerebrospi nalf
lui
d.Thet ransver sesect ionoft hespi nalcordshowsa
grey i
shregioncal l
edt he greymat ter 
surroundedbyal i
ght erregi oncal l
edthe  whitemat ter. 
The
greymat t
eriscomposed, practi
callyofallthecell bodiesoft heneur onesi nt hespi nalcord.
Sincet hecell bodiesar edense, andgr anular ,
theygi vet hisregioni ttypical
gr eyishappear ance.
 
Thewhi t
emat terconsi stsoft hener v
ef i
bresoft hesecel lbodi es. Someoft hesef ibresrun
alongt hespi nal cor
dt ot hebr ai
nconnect ingbot ht ogether .
 Ot herfibresleav ethespi nalcor dto
formt hespi nal nerves.



Thespi
nal
cor
dfunct
ionsi
n:

coor
diant
ingsi
mpl
eref
lexact
ionssuchaskneej
erk 
andaut
omat
icr
efl
exessuchassweat
ing.

I
tsendsi
mpul
sest
othet
othebr
ainandr
esponsesf
rom t
hebr
aint
otheef
fect
ors

EVALUATI
ON

Descr
ibet
hest
ruct
ureandf
unct
ionsoft
hespi
nal
cor
d.

GENERALEVALUATI
ON

Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weenf
orebr
ainandhi
ndbr
ain

Whatar
emeni
nges
St
atet
hreef
unct
ionsofcer
ebr
ospi
nal
flui
d

Descr
ibet
hebr
ain

Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weendor
sal
rootandv
ent
ral
root

READI
NGASSI
GNMENT

Col
l
ege 
Biol
ogy
,chapt
er10,
page207–211

WEEKENDASSI
GNMENT

Theforebrai
nismadeupoft
hef
oll
owi
ngexcept(
a)cer
ebel
l
um (
b)t
hal
amus 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  (
c)
hypot
halamus(d)cer
ebr
um

Thepartofthebr
aint
hatcontr
olsthebodyhomeost
ati
cist
he(
a)t
hal
amus 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  (
b)
medull
aoblongat
a(c)hypot
halamus(d)cer
ebrum

Thehumanbr
ainconsumes_
___oft
hebodyoxy
gensuppl
y(a)10% (
b)25%(
c)50%(
d)75%

Theshockabsorberfl
uidfi
l
li
ngupthespinalcanalandthebrai
nvent
ri
cleis 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 (a)
i
nter
cel
lul
arfl
uid(b)cerebr
ospi
nal
flui
d(c)vertebr
ater
ialf
lui
d(d)amni
oticfl
uid

Thebandoffi
bresconnecti
ngthetwohal
vesofthecerebrum t
oget
heri
scal
l
ed 
  
  
  
  
  
 (a)
medianf
issur
e (b)ponsvar
oli
i
 (c)cor
puscal
losum (d)thal
amus

THEORY

Expl
ainbr
ief
lyt
hedor
sal
rootgangl
i
on
Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weencer
ebr
um andmedul
l
aobl
ongat
a

WEEKSI
X

Ski
ptot
hecont
ent

Sear
ch

St
opLear
n

Menu

Cat
egor
ies

BI
OLOGYEXAM LESSONS

ThePeri
pher
alNer
vousSy
stem,
Somat
icandAut
onomi
cner
voussy
stem,
Neur
onesandNer
ve
I
mpulses

Postaut
hor
By 
StopLear
nTeam

Postdat
e

CONTENT

Per
ipher
alner
voussy
stem
Somat
icandaut
onomi
cner
voussy
stems

Theneur
ones(
Str
uct
ureandf
unct
ion)

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofneur
ones

Tr
ansmi
ssi
onofner
vei
mpul
ses 
  
 

THEPERI
PHERALNERVOUSSYSTEM

Theseincludethesensorysystem (
recept
orandner vesl
eadi
ngfrom al
lpart
softhebodyt
ot he
CNS)andt hemot orsyst
em (nervesrunni
ngf r
om theCNStotheeff
ectors)
.ThePNSconsists
oftwelve 
crani
alnerves 
(connect
ingthebraintotheheadandneckregi
on)andthi
rt
yone 
spinal
nerves 
(connecti
ngthespinalcordtothethorax,
abdomenandlimbs).

Themot
orsy
stem i
ssubdi
vi
dedi
ntosomat
icandaut
onomi
cner
voussy
stem.

EVALUATI
ON

Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
ween t
hecr
ani
alandspi
nal
ner
ves 

SOMATI
CANDAUTONOMI
CNERVOUSSYSTEMS

TheSNSconsist
sofmot
or(ef
ferent
)neuronesthatconnectt
heCNStoeachskel
etalmuscl
e.I
t
ser
vesthepar
tsoft
hebodywhichtakeparti
nresponsestoexter
nal
sti
muli
andallvol
untar
y
act
ions.

TheANSconsi
stsofmot
or(
eff
erent
)neur
onest
hatconnectt
heCNSt
ogl
ands,
smoot
h
muscl esandcardi
acmuscles.I
tregul
atesal
lthebody’
sinvol
unt
aryact
ivi
ti
essuchasheartbeat
,
respir
atorymovemente.t
.c.TheANSi ssubdivi
dedint
osy mpat
heti
candparasympat
heti
c
nervoussy st
em whi
chworksinopposit
iontooneanother.

Sympatheti
cnervoussyst
em  i
smadeupofner veswhi chconnecti
nter
nalor
ganstot he
thor
acicandlumberareasofthespinalcor
d.Theeffectofthi
snervoussy
stem dominatesin
ti
mesofemer gencyandexer t
ion;
itr
egulat
eshomeost ati
cmechanismssuchasv asodi
lat
ion,
vasoconst
ri
cti
onandsecr et
ionbysweatglandetc.

Parasympathet
icner
voussystem 
ismadeupofnerveswhi
chconnecti
nter
nalor
ganst
osev
eral
crani
alnerv
esandspinalner
vesofthesacr
alr
egi
on.Theef
fectoft
hisnerv
oussyst
em
dominatesduri
ngnormalrel
axedperi
ods.

EVALUATI
ON

Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weensomat
icandaut
onomi
cner
voussy
stem

Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weensy
mpat
het
icandpar
asy
mpat
het
icner
voussy
stem

THENEURONES(
STRUCTUREANDFUNCTI
ON)

Neur
ones(nervecel
ls)ar
ethebasi
cstr
uct
uralandfunt
ional
uni
toft
hener
voussy
stem andar
e
r
esponsi
blefortr
ansmissi
onofimpul
seswit
hinthebody.

Eachneur
onei
scomposedofsomebasi
cpar
tsnamel
y:

acel
lbody(
soma)

Oneormoreshortext
ensionsorpr
ocessescal
l
edDENDRONSeachofwhi
chbr
anchest
ofor
m
manyDENDRITES. 
  
  
  
 .
al
ongpr
ocesscal
l
edaxonswhi
chbr
anchatt
hef
reeendandt
ermi
nat
eatt
hesy
napt
icknobs.

The cel
lbody
 maybeoval,poly
gonalorstarshapedwit
halar
genucleusanddensegr
anulat
ed
cytopl
asm whichgi
vei
tit
sgr eyi
shcolour
.Itrel
aysimpul
sesi
trecei
vesfr
om t
hedendronsto
theaxon.

The dendr
ons 
carrynervei
mpulsesthatt
heir
 dendr
it
es 
recei
vedt
othecel
lbody.Thedendrit
es
arethemainrecepti
veregi
onsoftheneuronesandmaybest i
mulat
edbysensoryrecept
orsand
otherneur
onescarryi
ngimpul
ses.

The axons carryelectr
icimpul sesawayf rom thecellbodi
est othepr operdest i
nati
onusuall
y
somedi stanceaway .Theaxonofamot orneur onegoingtoaskel etal musclemaybesev er
al
metreslong.  I
tmayal sodi vi
dei ntoseveralbranchessothatimpul sesf rom oneneuronegot o
severalplaces.Somet imes,af attysheathknownas  my el
i
nsheat h sur r
oundst heaxon. The
myelinisinterr
uptedati nter
val sbyconstricti
onsknownas  nodesofr anvier
. My el
i
nsheathacts
asanel ectri
calinsulator
.Italsoincreasest hespeedatwhi chimpul sest rav
elalongtheaxon.

EVALUATI
ON

Descr
ibet
hest
ruct
ureandf
unct
ionoft
heneur
one

CLASSI
FICATI
ONSOFNEURONES

I
nver
tebr
ates,
iti
scommont
ogr
oupneur
onesaccor
dingt
othei
rfunct
ions,
thesear
e:

Sensor
y(af
fer
ent
)neur
oneswhi
cht
ransmi
timpul
sesf
rom t
her
ecept
orst
otheCNS.

Motor(
eff
erent)neur
oneswhi
cht
ransmi
timpul
sesawayf
rom t
heCNSt
otheef
fect
ors(
mus 
  
cl
esandglands).

Rel
ay(associ
ati
onori
nter
mediate)neur
oneswhichconnectt
hepat
hway
sofsensor
yandmot
or
i
mpulses.
 Theyaref
oundmainlyinthecent
ral
nervoussyst
em.
EVALUATI
ON

Cl
assi
fyneur
onesbasedonf
unct
ions

TRANSMI
SSI
ONOFNERVEI
MPULSES

Transmi
ssi
onofimpulsesalonganeuronei
sbyelectr
ical
(thr
oughaner
vef
ibr
e)andchemi
cal
(acr
ossasynapse)means.Threephasesi
nvol
vedincl
ude

 
RESTI NGSTATE:–Ast at
ewhenaneur oneisnottransmit
ti
ngani mpulse.I
nthi
sstat
e,t
he
nervefibr
eisel
ectr
ical
l
ypol ar
izedwit
hexcesssodium ions(Na+)outsi
dethecel
landexcess
potassium (
K+)i
nsidethecell
.Theref
orethecel
lbecomesposi t
ivel
ychargedout
sideand
negati
velychar
gedinsi
de.

ACTIONSTATE: –Whent hedendr

it
esofaneuronerecei
veimpul
ses,t
heneuronebecomes
depolar
izedandthecell
membr anesuddenl
ypermit
stheinfl
owofsodium i
onsandoutf
lowof
potassi
um ions.Thecel
lbodythentr
ansmit
stheimpulsetoit
saxon.

TRANSMI SSIONBETWEENNEURONES: –Transmissi

onhereisbychemicalmeans.Whenan
i
mpulser eachesthesynapse,i
tst
imul
atest
hesecr et
ionofachemical
substancecal
led
acet
ylcholi
newhichtransmitst
heimpul
setoanotherneuroneormusclefi
bres.

EVALUATI
ON

Di
scussbr
ief
lyt
het
ransmi
ssi
onofi
mpul
sebyaneur
one

GENERALEVALUATI
ON

Out
li
net
hener
voussy
stem gr
aphi
cal
l
y.

St
atef
ivef
unct
ionseachofsy
mpat
het
icandpar
asy
mpat
het
icner
voussy
stem.
Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weensomat
icandaut
onomi
cner
voussy
stem.

Whati
saneur
one

Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weenaf
fer
entandef
fer
entneur
ones

READI
NGASSI
GNMENT

Col
l
ege 
Biol
ogy
,chapt
er10,
page211–217

WEEKENDASSI
GNMENT

Themuscleandt
hegl
andt
oget
herar
eref
err
edt
oas_
___
__a)r
ecept
orb)ef
fect
orc)neur
oned)
sensor
ycell

Aneuronet
hatt
ransmi
tsmessagesfr
om thesenseorgantothecent
ral
ner
voussy
stem i
sa)
sensor
yneur
oneb)motorneur
onec)rel
ayneuroned)eff
ector

Whichofthef
oll
owi
ngi
snotast
ruct
ural
par
tofat
ypi
cal
neur
onea)axonb)dendr
onc)cel
l
bodyd)dendr
it
e

Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngneur
onshasnomy
eli
nsheat
ha)af
fer
ent
 b)ef
fer
ent
 c)r
elay
 d)mot
or

Apoi
ntwhereoneneur
oneconnect
swi
thanot
heri
scal
l
edaa)dendr
onb)my
eli
nsheat
hc)
sy
napsed)gangl
i
on

THEORY

Gi
vefi
veexampl
esoft
heant
agoni
sti
cact
ionsofsy
mpat
het
icandpar
asy
mpat
het
icner
vous
sy
stem.
St
atet
hef
unct
ionsoff
ivest
ruct
ural
par
tsofa

WEEKSEVEN

Ski
ptot
hecont
ent

Sear
ch

St
opLear
n

Menu

Cat
egor
ies

BI
OLOGYEXAM LESSONS

Ref
lex,
Vol
unt
aryAct
ionsAndCondi
ti
onal
Ref
lexes

Postaut
hor
By 
StopLear
nTeam

Postdat
e

CONTENT
Ref
lexandv
olunt
aryact
ions

Ther
efl
exar
c

Di
ff
erencesbet
weenr
efl
exandv
olunt
aryact
ions

Condi
ti
onedr
efl
exes

Di
ff
erencesbet
weenhor
monal
andner
vouscoor
dinat
ion

REFLEXANDVOLUNTARYACTI
ONS

Act
ionsarer
esponsest
ost
imul
i
.Theseact
ionsar
egr
oupedi
ntot
wo:
inv
olunt
ary(
ref
lex)and
vol
untar
yact
ions.

REFLEXACTI
ONS

Refl
exacti
onsar
eaut omati
cresponsest
ost i
muliwhichdonotinvolvetheconsci
ousorhi
gher
centr
eofthebr
ain.
  Theseacti
onsaremainlypr
otect
ive,
guardi
ngusf r
om danger
oussti
muli
andhelpi
ngustomai nt
ainpost
ureandbalance.
 Refl
exacti
onsincludejerki
ngofthel
egs,
bli
nki
ngoftheeyesetc.

THEREFLEXARC



Ther
efl
exar
cinv
olv
est
hef
oll
owi
ng:
t
hesensor
yrecept
orst
hatr
ecei
vet
hest
imul
us.

t
hesensor
yneur
onesal
ongwhi
cht
hesensor
yimpul
set
rav
els

t
her
elayori
nter
medi
ateneur
onet
hroughwhi
cht
hesensor
yimpul
sei
spassedon.

t
hemot
or(
eff
erent
)neur
onesal
ongwhi
cht
her
esponsei
str
ansmi
tt
ed.

theeffectors(musclesandgl
ands)whi
cht
hemot
ori
mpul
sest
ri
ggert
obr
ingaboutan
appropriateresponse.

Ref
lexact
ionscanbe:

Spi
nal
ref
lexi
nvol
vi
ngt
hespi
nal
cor
de.
gkneej
erk

Cr
ani
alr
efl
exi
nvol
vi
ngt
hebr
aine.
gcl
osi
ngofpupi
li
nthepr
esenceofbr
ightl
i
ght
.

EVALUATI
ON

Descr
ibet
hepat
hwayofasi
mpl
eref
lexar
c.

Whatar
eref
lexact
ions?Gi
vef
iveexampl
es

VOLUNTARYACTI
ONS

Theseareacti
onsini
ti
atedandcontr
oll
edbytheconsci
ouspar
toft
hebr
ain,
whi
chi
nvol
ve
thought
sbeforeperf
ormance.Theyi
nvolv
e:
t
heconsci
ouspar
tsoft
hecer
ebr
um

mostoft
her
efl
exar
ccomponent
s

ascendi
nganddescendi
ngf
ibr
esi
nthespi
nal
cor
d.

Exampl
esofvol
unt
aryact
ionsar
epl
ayi
ngf
oot
bal
l
,sol
vi
ngmat
hemat
ical
probl
ems,
wal
ki
ng,
dri
vi
ngetc.

DI
FFERENCESBETWEENREFLEXANDVOLUNTARYACTI
ONS

REFLEXACTI ONVOLUNTARYACTI ON1.Act ionsdoesnotinvol

vehighercentreoft
hebr ai
n
(unconsci
ous)Acti
onsi
nvolveshighercent
r eofthebrai
n(conscious)
2.Involv
essmallernumber
ofneurones.
Invol
vesnumerousneur ones.
3.ResponseisrapidResponseisslow4.Responseis
stereot
ypedResponsevar
ieswithcircumstances.5,
Iti
sinbor
nItcanbel earnt

CONDI
TIONEDREFLEXES

Ar ef
lexact
ionmaybei nsti
nct
ive(doesnothavetobelearned)e.g.sucki
ngbehavi
ourofnewly
bornbabyorconditi
onedrefl
ex(lear
nedresponsesorbehaviourthatcanbeper
formedwi t
hout
thi
nkingabouti
t)e.g.walki
ng,r
idingabicy
cle,wri
ti
nge.t.c.AfamousRussianbiol
ogist,
Ivan
Pav l
ondemonstrat
eswhati smeantbyconditi
onedref
lexusingapuppyandassoci at
ingit
s
foodt i
mewitht
hesoundofabel l
.

ROLESOFCONDI
TIONEDREFLEXONBEHAVI
OUR

I
thel
psust
oacqui
renewski
l
lsbyl
ear
ningsuchhabi
ts.
I
thel
pst
omodi
fymanysi
mpl
eref
lexact
ionsbecauseofcondi
ti
onsassoci
atedwi
tht
hem.

I
thel
psust
obehav
einhi
ghl
ycompl
i
cat
edmanner(
mov
ement
sbecomef
ast
erandaut
omat
ic.

EVALUATI
ON

Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weencondi
ti
onedandi
nst
inct
iver
efl
exact
ions

Whatar
evol
unt
aryact
ions?Gi
vef
iveexampl
es

DI
FFERENCESBETWEENHORMONALANDNERVOUSCOORDI
NATI
ON

NERVOUSCOORDI NATIONHORMONALCOORDI NATI ON1.Messagesar etransmi t

tedas
el
ectricalimpulses.
Messagesar et r
ansmit
tedaschemi cali
mpul ses.2.Transmi ssionisvia
nervef i
bres.Tr
ansmissionisviabl oodstr
eam. 3.Tr ansmissionisv eryfastTransmi ssi
onis
sl
ow. 4.Responsei sfast,shot
-l
ivedandpr ecise.Responsei sslow, long-l
astingand
widespr ead.
5.Itismainlycontr
olledbythebr ainandt hespinalcord.Iti
scont rol
ledbyt he
pi
tuit
ar ygland.
6.Effectors(musclesandgl ands)r eceivethemessage. Targetorgansr ecei
vet
he
message.

GENERALEVALUATI
ON

Whatdoy
ouunder
standbya)v
olunt
aryact
ionb)r
efl
exact
ion

Gi
vef
iveexampl
eseachofa)v
olunt
aryact
ions b)r
efl
exact
ions

Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weenv
olunt
aryandr
efl
exact
ions

Gi
vef
iveexampl
escondi
ti
onedr
efl
exes
Whatar
ether
olesofcondi
ti
onal
ref
lexesonbehav
iour

READI
NGASSI
GNMENT

Col
l
ege 
Biol
ogy
,chapt
er10,
page217–221

WEEKENDASSI
GNMENT

Aut
omati
cresponsestosti
muliwhi
chdonoti
nvolv
ehighercent
reoft
hebr
ainar
eref
err
edt
oas
———-act
ionsa)volunt
aryb)r
efl
exc)muscul
ard)ner
vous

Behavi
oural
patter
nsacqui
redonl
ythr
oughl
earni
ngar
eref
err
edt
oasa)r
efl
exact
ionb)
condi
ti
onedref
lexc)vol
unt
aryact
iond)l
ear
ning

Whi
choft
hesei
snotacondi
ti
onedr
efl
exa)wal
ki
ngb)t
ypi
ngc)dr
ivi
ngd)sneezi
ng

Transmissi
oni
nhor
monal
coor
dinat
ioni
sthr
ougha)bl
oodst
ream b)ner
vef
ibr
ec)l
ymphd)
neurone

Whi
char
rangementshowst
hecor
rectpat
hwayofi
mpul
set
ransmi
ssi
on

 
Axon—–cel
lbody—–dendr
it
es—–sy
napt
icknob

Dendr
it
es—–sy
napt
icknob—–cel
lbody—–axon

Dendr
it
es—–cel
lbody—-axon—-sy
napt
icknob
Cel
lbody—-dendr
it
es—–sy
napt
icknob—-axon

THEORY

Descr
ibewhathappenswheny
ouacci
dent
all
ypi
ckedupahotobj
ect

Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weeni
nst
inct
iveandcondi
ti
onedr
efl
exes.

WEEKEI
GHT

Ski
ptot
hecont
ent

Sear
ch

St
opLear
n

Menu

Cat
egor
ies

BI
OLOGYEXAM LESSONS

SenseOr
gans:
Sensor
y,Ski
n,Si
ght
,Ey
e

Postaut
hor
By 
StopLear
nTeam
Postdat
e

CONTENT

Sensor
yrecept
ors

Ski
nasasenseor
gan

Theor
ganofsi
ght
, 
Str
uct
ureoft
heey
e

Funct
ionsoft
heey
e(I
magef
ormat
ionandaccommodat
ion)

Def
ect
soft
heey
eandt
hei
rcor
rect
ion

SENSORYRECEPTORS

Alll
ivi
ngor gani smsr espondtochangesintheirenvi
ronment(stimuli
).
 Thesechangescanbe
mechani cal,electr
omagnet ic,
chemicalort
hermal .
 Thoughmostcel l
sinthebodiesof
organismsar esensitivetosti
muli
,cert
aincel
lsspecial
izeindetect
ingaparti
cul
artypeof
sti
mul us,thesear ecalled 
sensecell
sorsensoryreceptors 
whicharequit
emanyi nhuman
bodies,moni toringtheinter
nalenvi
ronment. 

Sensoryrecept
orssensi
ti
vetomechani
calchangesarecal
l
edmechanor
ecept
orsl
i
kewise
thermorecept
ors,
chemorecept
orsandphotor
eceptor
saresensi
ti
vet
oheat
,chemi
cal
andlight
respect
ivel
y.

Thesensoryreceptorschangethe 
detect
edstimulusint
oel ect
ri
cali
mpulses 
whichwhen
recei
vedbythebrainaretransl
atedi
ntopictur
es,sounds,smell,t
ast
esensati
ons.St
ruct
ures
contai
ningsensoryrecept
orsareref
erredtoassenseor gans
A senseorgan 
isdef
inedasagroupofspeci
ali
zedcel
l
sorti
ssuesorwhi
chareabletorecei
ve,
percei
veordetectst
imulusandtr
ansmitt
heinfor
mati
ontot
hecentr
alner
voussystem.There
arefiv
etypesofsenseorgansinmammals;t
heseincl
ude

Ski
ndet
ect
ingt
ouch,
pai
n,pr
essur
eandheatorcol
d.

Ey
edet
ect
ingl
i
ght(
senseofsi
ght
)

Eardet
ect
ingsound(
senseofhear
ingandbal
anci
ng)

Nosedet
ect
ingsmel
l

Tonguedet
ect
ingt
ast
e

EVALUATI
ON

Whatar
esensor
yrecept
ors

Whatar
esenseor
gans?Li
stmaj
orsenseor
gansandt
hei
rfunct
ions

SKI
NASASENSEORGAN

I
nthemammal i
anski
n,t
herearemanysensoryr
eceptor
sfordet
ectingsev
eralst
imuli
li
ketouch,
pr
essur
e,pai
n,col
dandheatunl
ikeot
hersenseorganswhi
chdetectonetypeofsti
muluseach.
 

General
l
y,sensor
yrecept
orsarenotevenl
ydi
str
ibut
edt
hroughoutt
heski
n. Eacht
ypei
smor
e
concent
rat
edincert
ainbodyregi
on. 

Sensor
yner
vesendi
ngsensi
ti
vet
opr
essur
e(cal
l
edpaci
niacor
puscl
es)ar
efounddeepesti
n
theskin.
 Hencet heyneedstrongerstimulat
ion.
 Thosesensit
ivetotouch(meissner’
s
corpuscl
es)ar el
argel
ydistr
ibutedclosesttotheski
nsur f
ace(intheepider
mis)especi
all
yin
hair
lessregionsl
iketongue,fi
ngers,li
ps,for
eheadetc.hencetheyneedagent l
estimulat
ion.
 In
betweenpr essur
eandt ouchreceptorsarethosedetecti
ngcol
d, heatandpain.

EVALUATI
ON

Li
stf
ivesensor
yrecept
orsi
ntheski
nandt
hei
rfunct
ions

THEORGANOFSI
GHT(
EYE)

Theeyei
stheorganofsight,
spheri
cali
nshapeandprot
ectedbyoccularoropt
ical
str
uct
ures
l
ikeey
esocket
s,eyel
ids,
ey el
ashes,
tearorl
acr
imalgl
andsandconjuncti
va.

Theey
esocket
shouset
heey
es.

Ey
eli
ds(
upperandl
ower
)pr
otectt
heey
efr
om f
orei
gnpar
ti
clesormechani
cal
inj
ury
. 

Tearorl
acri
malglands,
atthemeeti
ngpointoft
heeyel
idssecret
esasalt
yflui
dcal l
edtear
whichwashesdustanddestr
oysbact
eri
ausingit
schemicalsubst
ancecal
ledlysozyme.

Eyel
ashesarer
owsofhair
sontheeyel
idwhichpr
otectt
heey
ebal
lfr
om dust
,excessi
vel
i
ght
andshi
eldt
heeyeagai
nstsweatandwater
. 
 

Conjuncti
vaisathintr
ansparentmembraneli
ningt
hei
nsi
deoftheeyel
i
dsandpr otect
ivel
y
coversthecornea. 
Theconjuncti
vaget
sinfl
amedduri
ngi
nfect
ion(
conjunct
ivi
ti
s).

STRUCTUREOFTHEEYE

Thewal
loft
heey
ebal
lconsi
stsoft
hreel
ayer
snamel
y(f
rom out
sidei
nwar
ds)
:scl
era,
chor
oid
andr
eti
na
THESCLERA: -
theoutermostwhit
elay erwhi
chgivesshapetotheeyeandprotectstheinner
par
toftheeye.Thesclerot
icl
ayerbulgesoutinf
rontoftheeyetofor
mt hetr
anspar entcornea.
 
Thecorneaadmitsl
ightint
otheeye,bringst
heli
ghttofocusonthereti
naandpr otectstheeye
ext
ernal
ly.

THECHOROI DLAYER: – Thisishi

ghlyvasculari
zedandpi
gment ed(black)
. Thi
slayerpr
ovides
foodandoxy gentothecellsintheeye.
 Thebl ackpi
gmenthelpstoabsor bli
ghtraysand
preventsl
ightref
lect
ion.I
tconsistsoft
heci l
i
ar ymuscl
es,
iri
s,pupil
s,suspensoryli
gamentsand
thelens.

IRI
S:– abandofmuscl
efi
bresthatcont
ractsandrel
axest
oal
tert
hesi
zeoft
hepupi
l
sther
eby
contr
oll
ingt
heamountofl
ightpassi
ngthroughtheeye.

PUPI
L: 
– Thi
sist
heopeningbetweentheupperandlowerI
ri
sandi
tcontr
olst
heamountofl
i
ght
whi
chenterst
heeye.
 Br
ightl
ightmakesthepupilsmall
whil
edi
mlightmakesi
tbi
g.

CI
LIARYMUSCLE:– I
tconsi
stsofci
rcul
arandradi
almuscleswhichcont
ract
sandr
elaxest
o
al
tert
hef
ocall
engthofthel
enstofocusnearanddist
antobject
s.

SUSPENSORYLI
GAMENTS:
–Hol
dthel
ensi
npl
ace

LENS:–Thisi
satr
anspar
entbiconvexel
ast
icstr
uct
ureheldinposi
ti
onbysuspensor
y  
 
l
igament
. I
thel
pst
orefr
actl
ightray
senteri
ngtheeye.
 Ital
somakesfineadj
ust
menttof ocus
thei
mageofanobj
ectonthereti
na.

THERETI NA:– Thi
sisthepartoftheeyesensi
tivet
olight
. I
tisalsovascul
arized,
pigment
ed
andelasti
c.Li
ghtrayscomet ofocusontheret
ina.I
magesf ormedont heret
inaarealwaysreal,
i
nverted,
andsmal l
erthantherealobj
ect
.Twot ypesofsensorycell
s(photoreceptor
s)f
oundi n
ret
inaareconesandr ods.

Cones 
arecel
l
sint
her
eti
na,
whi
char
esensi
ti
vet
ocol
our
edv
isi
onsandhi
ghl
i
ghti
ntensi
ti
es.
 
Theycontai
naphot
ochemi
cal
subst
ancecal
l
edi
odopsi
nwhi
chi
snoteasi
l
ybl
eachedbyhi
gh
l
ighti
ntensi
ti
es.

Rods 
aremor ethanthecones.Theyar
esensiti
vetocolourl
essvi
sionandlowli
ghti
ntensi
ti
es.
 
Apurpl
epigment–pr ot
eincomplexmadef r
om vi
taminAcal l
edr
hodopsinisf
oundont he
sur
faceofrods.Rhodopsiniseasi
lybl
eachedwhenlightfal
l
sonit.

11.YELLOW SPOT(Foveacentr
ali
s):
–Thisi
sthemostsensi
tiv
epartoft
her
eti
nafrom wher
e
theful
l
estvi
suali
nfor
mationissenttot
hebr
ain.
 Iti
sthepoi
ntwher
eimagei
sfocused.

 
12.BLINDSPOT: –Thisi
sthepoi
ntwheret
hecell
sarenotsensi
ti
vetoli
ghti
.enoconesor
r
ods  her
e. Theopt
icner
vegoesoutoft
heeyetothebr
ainfrom t
hebli
ndspot.

13.OPTI
CNERVES:
Thi
sner
vet
ransmi
tssensor
yimpul
sest
oandf
rom t
hebr
ain.

14.AQUEOUSHUMOUR: –Thisist
hetranspar
entwateryl
iqui
dwhichfil
lsthespacebet
ween
thecor
neaandthel
ens.
 Iti
smadeupofsol ut
ionsofprot
ein,
sugar,
saltandwater.
 Thi
sli
qui
d
ref
ract
sli
ghtr
aysont
othereti
naandhelpstomaintai
nthespher
icalshapeoftheeye.

15.VITREOUSHUMOUR: –Thisiswider,
transparent
,jel
l
y -
li
keli
quidwhichfil
l
sthespace
betweenthel
ensandtheret
ina.
 Iti
salsoami xtureofprotei
n,sugar
,saltandwater
. I
tcar
ri
es
outthesamefunct
ionast
heaqueoushumour .

EVALUATI
ON

Li
stf
iveocul
arst
ruct
uresandt
hei
rfunct
ions

St
atet
hef
unct
ionsoft
hef
oll
owi
ngpar
tsoft
heey
ea)i
ri
sb)r
eti
nac)l
ensd)ci
l
iar
ymuscl
es

FUNCTI
ONSOFTHEEYE

Theey
eper
for
mst
womaj
orr
oles;
Imagef
ormat
ionandaccommodat
ion.
1.I
mageFor
mat
ion:
-

Lightraysf r
om anyobj ectpassent ert heey ethroughcornea, passthrought heaqueous
humour ,lensandv i
treoushumourt ot her eti
na.Thesest ruct
ur esarealltransparentand
contri
butet otherefr
act i
on( bending)oft hel i
ghtraysthusenabl ingtheray stoconv ergeont he
reti
na.Thei mageoft heobj ect(real,
inv ertedandsmal ler
)isthenf ormedont heret i
na. The
stimulusofl i
ghtref
lectedfrom theobj ecti sreceivedbyther odsorconesdependi ngont he
l
ightintensityandareconv er t
edtoel ectrical i
mpul se.Theimpul seistransmi t
tedthr oughthe
opticnervet otheopticlobeoft hebr ainwhi chcorrectl
yinter
pr etestheimage.  Tof orm asharp
i
mageoft heobject
,allthelightraysr efractedmeetatapar t
icularpointont hereti
nacal led
yell
owspot .

2.Accommodat
ion:
-

Thi
sistheabi
l
ityoft
heeyet
ofocusnearanddistantobj
ect
sont
her
eti
nai
.e.t
heabi
l
ityt
osee
cl
earl
ythr
oughtheadj
ust
mentofthef
ocallengt
hoft hel
ens.

TOSEENEAROBJECTS

Theci
l
iar
ymuscl
escont
ract
s,maki
ngt
hesuspensor
yli
gament
srel
axt
hei
rat
tent
ionont
hel
ens.

Thelensthenbecomesmoreconv
exi
nshapet
husr
educi
ngt
hef
ocal
lengt
hoft
hel
enst
o
focustheimageonther
eti
na.

TOSEEDI
STANTOBJECTS

Theci
l
iar
ymuscl
esr
elax,
maki
ngt
hesuspensor
yli
gament
scont
ractandpul
l
ingont
hel
ens.

Thelensbecomesf
lat
tened(
elongat
ed)i
ncr
easi
ngi
tsf
ocal
lengt
htof
ocust
hei
mageont
he
ret
ina.

EYEDEFECTSANDCORRECTI
ONS

Aney
eisdef
ect
edwhenani
magecannotbepr
oper
lyf
ormedont
her
eti
na.
 Thedef
ect
sincl
ude;
Shortsightedness( myopia):
 –Thisisadef ectinwhi chaper sonseesnear byobjectclearl
ybut
dist
antonesappearbl urredbecauset heey eballi
slongert hannormal (
from backtof ront
).
 
Therefore,li
ghtraysfrom distantobjectarebroughtt ofocusinfrontofthe
reti
na. 
  
   
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 CORRECTION: –  
Using
spectaclesorglasseswi thsuitabl
econcav eordi vergi
nglenswhi chdivergetheli
ghtray sfr
om a
dist
antobj ectbeforeenteri
ngt heeyesot hattheey ecanbr ingtheraystoaf ocusri
ghtont he
reti
na.

LongSi ghtedness( hypermetropia):-Thisi

st hedefectinwhi chaper sonseesf arobj
ectcl
early
butnearonesappearbl urr
edbecauset heeyebal li
sshor t
erthannor mal,.Ther
eforeli
ghtray
s
from nearobj ectarebr oughtt oaf ocusbehindther eti
na.
 
    
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
   
  
  
   
  
  
  
  
   
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 CORRECTION:
–  Usingspect aclesorgl asseswi t
hsui t
ableconv exorconv ergi
nglenswhi chconv er
getheli
ght
raysfrom thenearobj ectbef oreenteri
ngtheey esot hattheey ecanbr i
ngt heraystoafocus
ri
ghtont her etina.

Presby opi
a:– Thi
sisaney edefectresul
ti
ngwhent helensandt hecil
iarymuscl el
osethei
r
el
asticitywit
hadvancingage. Therefor
e,l
ightray
sfrom nearbyobjectarenotbentinward
suffi
cientl
yandsoar ebroughttoaf ocusbehindtheret
ina.
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 CORRECTION:
-
 
Byt heuseofconv ergingl
ens.

Asti
gmat
ism:– 
Thisi
scausedbyunev
encor
neasur
faceandcanbecor
rect
edbyusi
ngl
ens
wit
hcompensat
ingunev
ensurf
ace.

Cat
aract
:-
  
Thi
soccur
smainl
yinoldpeoplei
nwhichey
elensbecomescl
oudyandcanbe
cor
rect
edwithapl
ast
icl
ensorspect
acleswit
hsuit
abl
elens.

Ni
ghtBl
i
ndness:
- 
Thi
sisduet
odef
ici
encyofv
itami
nA

Conj
unct
ivi
ti
s:-
  
Inf
lammat
ionoft
heconj
unct
ivacausedbyt
hebact
eri
aori
rr
it
ant
sint
hewi
nd.

EVALUATI
ON
Descr
ibet
womaj
orey
edef
ect
sandt
hei
rfunct
ions

Descr
ibet
hemechani
sm ofi
magef
ormat
ionbyt
heey
e

GENERALEVALUATI
ON

Whati
sasenseor
gan

Whati
sar
ecept
or

Li
stf
oursensor
yrecept
orsf
oundi
ntheski
nandt
hei
rfunct
ions

Compar
eandcont
rastt
hemammal
i
aney
eandt
hecamer
a.

Whatar
etheadv
ant
agesofhav
ingt
woey
es

Descr
ibet
hev
isual
condi
ti
on‘
col
ourbl
i
ndness’

READI
NGASSI
GNMENT

Col
l
ege 
Biol
ogy
,chapt
er11,
page222–229

WEEKENDASSI
GNMENT

Speci
ali
zedcell
sfordet
ect
ingst
imul
iar
eref
err
edt
oas_
___
__whi
chchanget
hedet
ect
ed
st
imulii
nto___
_____
____
_

Whichofthef
oll
owingisf
alse(
a)sensor
yreceptor
sareevenl
ydist
ri
butedintheskin(
b)the
noseishumanolf
actor
yorgan(
c)bothsmallandtast
esensat
ionsareclosel
yrel
ated.
 (d)
chor
oidl
ayeroft
heey
eishi
ghl
yvascul
ari
zed.

Thei
mageofanobj
ecti
sfor
medont
he_
___oft
heey
eatapoi
ntcal
l
ed_
___

Allt
hesearet
rueaboutseei
ngadist
antobj
ectwi
ththeey
eexcept  (
a)theci
li
arymusclesrel
ax 
(b)t
hesuspensor
yli
gamentsrel
ax (
c)thel
ensbecomeselongat
ed  
  (
d)thesuspensory
l
igamentcont
ract
. 

Convergi
nglensisusedt
ocorr
ectthef
oll
owingeyedef
ect
sexcept(
a)my
opi
a  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  (
b)
hyper
met r
opia (
c)pr
esby
opi
a (d)l
ongsi
ghtedness

THEORY

Expl
ainwhyaper
soni
nadar
kroom f
eel
dazzl
edf
orsomesecondswhensuddenl
yexposedt
o
bri
ghtli
ght
.

Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weeny
ell
owandbl
i
ndspot
soft
heey
e

WEEKNI
NE

Ski
ptot
hecont
ent

Sear
ch

St
opLear
n

Menu
Cat
egor
ies

BI
OLOGYEXAM LESSONS

ORGANOFHEARI
NG,
SMELLANDTASTE

Postaut
hor
By 
StopLear
nTeam

Postdat
e

CONTENT

Theor
ganofhear
ing(
Str
uct
ureoft
heearandt
hei
rfunct
ions)

Mechani
sm ofhear
ing

Mechani
sm ofbal
anci
ng

Or
ganofsmel
l(st
ruct
ureandf
unct
ionofnose)

Or
ganoft
ast
e(st
ruct
ureandf
unct
ionsoft
het
ongue

THEORGANOFHEARI
NG

Mammal
shav
etwoear
soneachsi
deoft
hehead.
 Thegr
eat
erpar
tofi
tisencl
osedi
ntheskul
l
f
orpr
otect
ion.
 Theeari
sforhear
ingaswel
lasf
ormai
ntai
ningbal
ance.

STRUCTUREOFTHEEARANDTHEI
RFUNCTI
ONS

Themammal
i
aneari
sdi
vi
dedi
nto3par
ts.

Theout
erear
.

Themi
ddl
eear
.

Thei
nnerear
.



Theout
erear

Thi
sismadeupoft
hef
oll
owi
ngf
rom out
sidet
heor
gani
sm:

ThePinna:– 
Thi
sisflexi
blebei
ngmadeupofsoftcart
il
agecoveredwi
thski
n. Thepi
nna
col
lect
ssounds,det
ectsthei
rdir
ect
ionanddi
rect
sthem i
ntothecanal
cal
ledexter
nalaudi
tor
y
meatus(eart
ube).

Exter
nalAudit
oryMeat
us: 
–Thi sconsist
soffi
nehai
rsandglandswhi
chproducewax.
Theref
oreitpr
event
sgerms,insect
sanddustsfrom ent
eri
ngandaff
ect
ingtheear
.Ital
l
owst
he
passageofsoundwavesfrom thepinnatot
heeardrum.

TheTympanicMembr ane(EarDr
um):- 
Thisisathi
nmembranewhichv
ibrateswhensound
wavesgett
oit.
 Itseparat
estheext
ernalearfr
om themi
ddl
eear.
 Ther
efore,i
ttr
ansmit
ssound
wav
esf
rom t
heout
ereart
othemi
ddl
eear
.

Themi
ddl
eear

Thisisasmallai
r-
fi
ll
edchamberi
ntheskul
l
,whi
chi
smadeupoft
hreet
inysof
tbones(
ear
ossicl
es)andEust
achiant
ube.

EarOssi
cles:– 
Theseincl
udemalleus(hammer),i
ncus(anv
il
),andst
apes(sti
rrup).Theossicles
for
m abri
dgel i
nki
ngtheouterandinnereart
hroughamembr anecoveredopeningcalledround
window.
 Theossicl
estransmitvi
brat
ionsacr
ossthetympanicmembr anetotheov alwindow
andthepressur
einthewindowismagni f
ied.

EustachianTube:
 
–Thi si
sanar r
owtubeinthemiddl
eearconnecti
ngi
ttothephary
nx.
 Thi
s
usuall
yopenswheny awning,
ital
lowsairt
oenterorl
eav
ethemi ddl
eearsothatt
heair
pressureonbothsideoft
heeardrum i
sequal.

Thei
nnerear

 
Thisi
smadeupofabonycompl expassagewaycal
ledbonylaby
rint
h,whi
chisfi
ll
edwitha
f
lui
dcall
edper
il
ymph.Insi
dethebonylabyri
nthar
emembr anoussacsandtubescal
led
membranousl
abyr
int
h  fi
l
ledwit
ht hef
lui
d,endol
ymph.

Thebonyandmembr anouslaby
rinthfor
msthet
woauditor
ystr
uctureswhi
chincl
udethe
cochleaandt hesemici
rcul
arcanals.Theset
wostr
uct
uresareconnectedt
otheutr
icul
usand
sacculusrespecti
vel
y.

TheCochlea:–asnailshel
l
-li
kestr
uctureofheari
ngisconcer
nedwit
hhear
ing.I
tcont
ains
sensor
yhaircell
s(mechanorecept
ors)whichsynapsewit
hsensor
yneur
onesthatf
ormt he
cochl
earnerves;t
heybothformtheorganofcorti
. 
  

Semi-ci
rcul
arcanal
: 
–thethreecanalsl
ieatr
ightangletooneanother,t
heyhav eswoll
enends
cal
ledampullaewhichcont
ainsensoryhai
rcell
sandot ol
it
hs(earstones).Thesest
ructur
esar
e
concernedwithbal
anceandmai nt
aini
ngthepostureofthebody.
EVALUATI
ON

Ment
ionf
ivest
ruct
ural
par
tsofmammal
i
anearandt
hei
rfunct
ions

Ment
iont
wosensor
ycel
l
sfoundi
ntheear

FUNCTI
ONSOFTHEEAR

Thet
womaj
orf
unct
ionsoft
heeari
shear
ingandbal
anci
ng.

Mechani
sm ofhear
ing

Thepinnadet ect sandcol l

ectssoundwav esintheai randconcent r
at esthem andpassest hem
onthrought heext ernalauditor
ymeat us. Thewav ecausesthet ympani cmembr anetovibrate
andthev i
brationsar epassedont otheearossi cleswhichampl i
fythem.Theov alwindows
magnifythev ibrati
ons,passingt hem i
nt otheinnerear(cochlea)wher etheper i
l
ymphand
endolymphv ibrate. Thev i
brati
onsoft heendol y
mphst i
mulatet heorganofcor tii
nthecochlea
toconvertthesoundv i
brati
ontoel ect
ricalimpulse.Theimpul sesthenst i
mulatetheauditory
nerv
esoft heacoust icbranchtot hebrainforinterpr
etati
on.

Mechani
sm ofbal
anci
ng

Headmov ementi nanydir

ecti
oncausesthefl
uidinthesemici
rcularcanalsandtheot
oli
thsi
n
theampullaetomov e.I
mpulsesaresetupandtransmitt
edthroughthev est
ibul
arbr
anchofthe
audit
orynervestothebrai
nforint
erpr
etat
ion.
 Thebrainrel
aysimpulsest ot
hebodymuscles
forbal
ancingthepositi
onofthebody.

DI
SEASESOFTHEEAR

Themajordiseaseoftheeari
sdeaf ness. I
tcanbetemporaryorper
manent.
 Itcanbecaused
bydamaget othetympanicmembr ane,eustachi
antubeorsensor
ycell
sint
hecochlea. Al
so,
waxblocki
ngt heearcanal
,i
nfect
ionoft heearorsuddenveryl
oudorconst
antnoisecauses
deaf
ness.
Car
eoft
heear

Regul
aruseofcot
tonwool

Av
oidt
heuseofshar
pobj
ecti
ncl
eani
ngt
heear
.

Av
oidl
oudnoi
se

Av
oidbei
ngbl
ownont
heearsi
det
hatcandamaget
heeardr
um.

Consul
ti
ngmedi
cal
doct
orsi
ncaseofanyearpr
obl
em.

EVALUATI
ON

Descr
ibet
hemechani
sm ofhear
ingandbal
anci
ng.

Out
li
nef
iveway
sofcar
ingf
ort
heear
.

ORGANOFSMELL(
NOSE)

Thehumanolf
actoryorgani
sthenose. Theepi
theli
ali
ningofthenasal
cavi
tyi
sri
chinsensor
y
ner
veendi
ng.
 Compar edtolowercl
assanimalsli
kedog, manhasapoorsenseofsmel
l.
 We
det
ectsmel
lquickl
ybutforashortt
ime.

MECHANI
SM OFSMELLI
NG

Nosef unct
ionswel l
whenwet . Thesmel lrecept
orsar
estimulat
edbychemi cals. Parti
clesof
vol
ati
lechemi calsubstancesint heairdissolvei
nthemucuslayeroverthecel lreceptorsinthe
nostr
il
s. Thestimulati
onoft her eceptorsgivesr
iset
onerveimpulseswhi chtrav elt
hrought he
olf
actorynervetotheol f
actorylobeoft hebrain.
 Thebrai
nthenint
erpretstheki ndofsmel l
.

ORGANOFTASTE(
TONGUE)
Thesensor
ycell
sfortast
earecalledt
ast
ebudslocatedontheti
nyswell
ingsont
heexposed
sur
faceonthetongue.
 Theyareconnect
edbyfoursensor
ynervestothebrai
nwhi
chint
erpr
ets
whatist
asted.
 Thetonguether
eforei
ssensi
ti
vetofourpr
imarytast
es:

Sweett
ast
e:det
ect
edbychemor
ecept
orsatt
het
ipoft
het
ongue.

b.
Sal
tyt
ast
e:det
ect
edbychemor
ecept
orsbyt
hesi
de(
front
al)
.

Sourt
ast
e:det
ect
edbychemor
ecept
orsatt
hesi
deoft
het
ongue(
towar
dst
heback)
.

Bi
tt
ert
ast
e–det
ect
edbychemor
ecept
orsatt
heback.

MECHANI
SM OFTASTI
NG

Chemical
sfrom anysubst
anceputinthemouthdi
ssol
vesi
nthesali
vaonthetongue,t
his
sti
mulat
esthesensoryner
veendingsintast
ebudswhi
chthenpassthei
mpulsestothebrai
n
fori
nter
pret
ati
onassweet,bit
ter
,sourorsal
ty

NOTE:– 
Bothsmel
landt ast
esar ecl
oselyrelatedsensati
ons,hencewesmell whatwet ast
e. 
Whenweeatanddrink,t
hetastereceptorsarest i
mulat
ed,atthesameti
mef lavourproducing
chemi
calf
rom t
hefooddissolvesinthemoi stairi
nthemout handflowi
ntothenasal cavit
yto
sti
mul
atethesmel
lreceptor
s. Thesmel l
sensat i
onismor eseveret
hantast
esensat i
on.

EVALUATI
ON

Dr
awt
hest
ruct
ureoft
het
onguet
oshowt
hemaj
orsensi
ti
vear
eas 

Descr
ibet
heol
fact
oryf
unct
ionsoft
henose

GENERALEVALUATI
ON

St
atet
headv
ant
agesofhav
ingt
woear
s
Di
scussbr
ief
lyt
wot
ypesofdeaf
ness

Dr
awawel
ll
abel
eddi
agr
am oft
het
onguet
oshowt
hear
east
hatar
esensi
ti
vet
opr
imar
ytast
es

Descr
ibet
hemechani
sm ofsmel
l
ing

St
atef
ourf
unct
ionsoft
heor
ganofsmel
l

READI
NGASSI
GNMENT

Col
l
ege 
Biol
ogy
,chapt
er11page229–234

WEEKENDASSI
GNMENT

Thefol
lowingarepar
t soft
hei
nnerearexcepta)ampul
l
ab)semi
-ci
rcul
arcanal
 
  
  
  
  
  c)
cochl
ead) earossi
cles

——–helpst
oequal
izeai
rpr
essureonei
thersi
deoft
heeardr
um.a)saccul
us 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  b)
Eust
achi
ant
ubec)ampul
lad)endol
ymph

Thefol
lowi
ngareconcer
nedwi
thhear
ingexcepta)or
ganofcor
tib)semi
cir
cul
arcanal
sc)
cochl
ead)acoust
icner
ve

Whichpar
toftheearisresponsi
blef
orthemai
ntenanceofbal
ancea)cochl
ea 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  b)
per
il
ymphc)semi-ci
rcul
arcanald)st
apes

Thei
nnereari
sfi
l
ledwi
th——–and———f
lui
d

THEORY
Expl
ainwhyaper
sont
hathasbeenspi
nni
ngf
eel
dizzyf
orsomet
imeaf
terst
oppi
ng.

St
atef
ivecausesof

WEEKTEN

Ski
ptot
hecont
ent

Sear
ch

St
opLear
n

Menu

Cat
egor
ies

BI
OLOGYEXAM LESSONS

Dev
elopmentOfNewOr
gani
sms,
Stagesi
ndev
elopmentoft
oad,
housef
lyandcockr
oach

Postaut
hor
By 
StopLear
nTeam

Postdat
e
CONTENT

Cour
tshi
pbehav
iori
nani
mal
s

St
agesi
ndev
elopmentoft
oad

Met
amor
phosi
sini
nsect
s

Li
fehi
stor
iesofhousef
lyandcockr
oach

COURTSHI
PBEHAVI
OURSI
NANI
MALS

Cour
tshi
pisareproducti
vecommunicat
ionbet
weenmalesandf
emal
esofaspeci
est
hatends
i
nsexualuni
on.Courtshi
pbehav
iour
sinanimal
sincl
ude

PAIRING:–Afor
m ofcourt
shi
pinwhi
chacompatibl
emaleandfemal
eseparat
ethemselv
es
fr
om otheri
nagrouptofor
m amati
ngpai
r.Pai
ri
ngoccur
sinhuman,t
oad,f
ish,wi
ngedter
mit
es
etc.

DISPLAY: –Aprocessinvol
vi
ngfi
xedpat
ter
nmov ementsorattr
acti
veexhibit
ionsand
responsesbetweenamal eandafemal
ewhichendsi
nmat ing.Examplesofdisplayincl
ude
croakingint
oads,danci
ng,si
ngi
nginhuman,pr
oduct
ionofodourbyf emales,stunni
ngtail
feathersofapeacocketc.

TERRI
TORIALITY:–Af or
m ofbehaviori
nwhi
chamemberofaspeci emar ksoutafi
xedarea
anddef
enditagainstintr
uder
soft hesamespeci
es.Usual
lymalesestabli
shterr
it
ori
espr
iorto
mati
ng.Ter
ri
tori
esar eestabl
i
shedbymostv er
tebr
atesexceptamphibians.

SEASONALMIGRATION:–Seasonal
movementofani
malsf
rom oneplacet
oanotherin
connect
ionwi
thbr
eedi
ng,f
eedi
ngandescapi
ngunfav
our
abl
ecli
mat i
ccondi
ti
ons.Termites,
bi
rds,
fishet
cexhi
bitseasonal
migr
ati
on.

STAGESI
NDEVELOPMENTOFTOAD

Intoad,anamphibianandav er
tebr
ate,
 Court
shi
p takesplaceduri
ngr ainyseasonwhenmal e
toadsmakel oudcroaki ngnoisetoattr
actfemaleswhi chareswoll
enwi theggs.Themalelater
cli
mbst hefemaleback, hol
dingherfi
rmlywitht
het hickpart
soni t
st humbs.Ast hef
emalelays
hereggs,themaler eleaseitsspermsont hem (
externalfer
ti
li
zat
ion).Thedev el
opmental
stages
afterf
erti
l
izat
ioninclude

Theeggst age:–theeggslai
dareenclosedinstr
ingsofjel
lywhichper
for
mt hefol
lowingr
oles:
(i
)Protect
ingtheeggfrom mechani
caldamage( i
i)Ensuri
ngeasyaccesstooxygenforsur
vival
(i
i
i)Preventi
ngmicrobi
alat
tack(i
v)Prevent
ingtheeggf r
om dry
ingup

Thezygote(fer
ti
lizedegg)st
age:
  
Afterf
ert
il
izat
ionthezygot
efor
medundergomit
oti
ccel
l
di
vi
sionfortheembr yotoemerge.Theembry ogetsit
sfoodfr
om eggy
olkanddi
ssol
ved
oxygenthr
ought hejel
ly.

They oungtadpol
estage: –They oungtadpoleemer gesf r
om thejel
lyafter1-
2day s.The
tadpoleatt
achesit
selftoawaterweedbyast ickysubstancesecretedbyi t
sv-shapedcement
gland(fr
om underit
shead)Thet adpol
ef eedsoneggy olk(nomout hyet)andgetsitsdissol
ved
oxygenthroughtheskin.Dev
elopingeyes,earsandnost ri
lsareseenwi t
hmar kedpor t
ionfor
mout h.

Theexter
nalgi
llstage:
 
–They oungtadpol
ehasahead, bodyandtai
l.Thr
eeexter
nal
gill
sare
foundoneit
hersideofthehead.I
tdevel
opshornyjawswhichareusedtofeedonwaterweeds.
Theint
esti
neislongandcoil
edwi t
hthecementglandst
il
lpresent
.

I
nternalgi
ll
stage:–6-10af
terhatching,
theext
ernal
gil
l
sdisi
ntegrat
ewhilet
heinter
nalgi
l
ls
develop.Agil
lcovercal
l
edoperculum gr
owsoverthegi
ll
s.Thetadpolenowbreat
hesli
keafish.
I
tstailel
ongatesandmuscl
esdev elop.

Thel
i
mbst
age:
–Thehi
ndl
i
mbsgr
owf
ir
standdev
elop.Thef
orel
i
mbst
henst
artt
ogr
owout
.
Theleftforeli
mbappear sfi
rstthr
oughtheopercul
aropeni
ngfol
lowedbytheri
ghtforeli
mb.The
i
nternalgil
lsgraduall
ydi
sintegr
atewhi
lethelungsstar
tdev
elopi
ng.Themouthdevelopsand
repl
acest hehornyjaws.I
ntesti
neshort
ensandt het
adpolestar
tseati
ngsmall
animal sint
he
water.Theey esbecomebi gandprominent
.

Youngtoadst
age:–Thetadpol
ereabsor
bsthetai
landthenchangesi
ntosmal
ltoad.I
tcomes
outoft
hewatertot
helandwhereitgr
owsintoaful
ladultt
oad.

Met
amorphosi
sintoad(
from eggt
ot headul
ttoad)takesabout40-
45daysundert
hecontr
olof
t
hehor
monet hy
roxi
neproducedbythethyr
oidgland(foundbet
weentheheadandthet
runk).

EVALUATI
ON

Li
stt
hest
agesi
nmet
amor
phosi
soft
oad.

Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weenext
ernal
andi
nter
nal
gil
lst
agesoft
oadmet
amor
phosi
s.

METAMORPHOSI
SINI
NSECTS

Met
amor phosi
sisthegradualchangesthatoccurdur
ingt
hedevel
opmentofananimal
from
t
hezygote(fer
ti
li
zedegg)totheadultst
age.Therearetwoty
pesofmetamorphosi
sini
nsects
whi
chinclude

compl
etemet
amor
phosi
s

i
ncompl
etemet
amor
phosi
s

Compl
etemet
amor
phosi
s

Thi
sist
heser
iesofgr
adual
changeswhi
cht
akespl
acei
ninsect
sfr
om f
ert
il
izedeggst
olar
va
t
hent
opupaandf
inal
l
ytot
headul
tst
age:

Egg——–l
arv
a——-pupa——-adul
t

Noresembl
ancebetweenpupaandadul
tstage.
Insectundergoi
ngcompl
etemet
amor
phosi
s
i
ncl
udehousefl
y,mosqui
to,
butt
erf
ly,
bees,
waspsandbeet les.

I
ncompl
etemet
amor
phosi
s

Inthistypeofmetamorphosi
s,t
heegghat
chesint
oanymphwhichgener
all
yresembl
est
he
adultexceptthati
tissmal
ler
,wi
ngl
essandsexual
lyi
mmatur
e.

Egg——-ny
mph——-adul
t

EVALUATI
ON

Whati
smet
amor
phosi
s

Namet
hest
agesi
nvol
vedi
ncompl
eteandi
ncompl
etemet
amor
phosi
s

LI
FE 
HISTORY 
OFHOUSEFLY

Housef
lyunder
goescompl
etemet
amor
phosi
s.I
tsl
i
fe 
hist
ory
 i
nvol
ves:
–

Eggst
age: –2–7bat chesofeggs(
100–150eggsi
nabatch)ar
elai
dbyt
hefemalehousef
ly
i
namoi stdir
tyenv
ironment
.Theeggshat
chi
ntowhi
tel
arv
aeinabout8–24hour
s.

Larv
astage:–Thelar
vacal
ledmaggothasasegmentedbody.Theheadbearsapai
rofhook
fort
ear
ingfoodanddrawi
ngthel
arvaal
ong.Onthevent
ralsur
faceofthesegment
edbodyli
e
spinypadsformovement.I
thast
wopai
rsofspi
racl
esf
orbr
eat
hing.Thel
arv
amoultssever
al
ti
mesandl astsf
orabout5–14daysaf
terwhi
chitmov
estoadryplacet
obegi
nthepupal
stage.

Pupalstage:–Themaggotshor t
ens;i
tsskinbecomeshar dandbrownfor
mingthepupalcase
(pupar
ium).Itdoesnotfeedormove.I
nternalre-
organisat
iont
akespl
aceatt
hisst
age.I
nabout
3–10day s,
they oungadul
that
chesoutoft hepuparium.

Adultstage:–Theadulthousef
lycal
l
edimagoemer
gesfrom t
hepupari
um usi
ngasac-
li
ke
or
gan( ptil
i
num)tobreakitopen.I
tmovestot
hesur
faceofthedi
rtandf
li
esawaywhenthe
wingsar edry
.

LI
FE 
HISTORY 
OFCOCKROACH

Cockr
oachunder
goesi
ncompl
etemet
amor
phosi
s.I
tsl
i
fe 
hist
ory
 i
nvol
ves:
–

Eggstage:–Af emalecockr
oachlaysabout 10–16eggsi nahornyeggcase(ootheca)which
shecarr
iesinherabdominalpouchforsomet i
meandlaterdeposi
titi
nasafedark.After30–
100days,theeggshatchint
ony mphswhicharewi
ngless,smallandwhit
ishi
ncolour.

Nymphstage:
–Theny
mphsf
eed,
grow,
becomebr
own,
moul
tabout13t
imest
obecome
adul
ts.

Adul
tst
age:–Intheprocessofmoult
ing,
thewi
ngsf
ir
stappearaswingpadandl
ateri
ntof
ull
gr
ownwings.Acockroachrequi
res11–20monthst
odevelopfr
om eggstoi
mago.

EVALUATI
ON
Descr
ibebr
ief
lymet
amor
phosi
sina)cockr
oachb)housef
ly

GENERALEVALUATI
ON

Def
inemet
amor
phosi
s

Descr
ibet
hest
agesi
nvol
vedi
nthedev
elopmentoft
oad.

Def
inecompl
eteandi
ncompl
etemet
amor
phosi
sini
nsect
s.Gi
vet
woexampl
esi
neachcase.

Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weencompl
eteandi
ncompl
etemet
amor
phosi
s.

Descr
ibet
hel
i
fecy
cleofanamedi
nsectt
hatunder
goescompl
etemet
amor
phosi
s.

READI
NGASSI
GNMENT

Col
l
ege 
Biol
ogy
,Chapt
er16,
page354–360,
370–373

WEEKENDASSI
GNMENT

Thefol
lowi
nginsect
sundergoincompl
etemet
amor
phosi
sexcept(
a)gr
asshopper
 (b)
cockr
oaches(
c)butter
fl
y(d)t
ermite

 They
oungt
adpol
efeedson——–(
a)smal
lani
mal
s(b)wat
erweed(
c)eggy
olk 
  
  
  
  
  
 (d)f
ish

Whichofthesei
snotaf unctionofthestr
ingofjel
lycover
ingoneggsl ai
dbytoad 
  
  
  
  
  (
a)
nouri
shtheembryo(b)protecteggsfrom micr
obialat
tack(c)pr
otecteggsf
rom mechanical
damage(d)prot
ecteggsf r
om dryingup

Lar
vaeofmosqui
toi
scal
l
ed(
a)cat
erpi
l
lar(
b)gr
ub(
c)wr
iggl
er(
d)i
mago
Acommonprocessthatoccur
sinmetamor
phosi
sofi
nsect
sis(
a)moul
ti
ng  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 (
b)
f
eedi
ng(
c)f
erti
li
zati
on(d)dormancy

THEORY

Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weenmet
amor
phosi
sinbut
ter
fl
yandt
ermi
tes

Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weent
heext
ernal
andi
nter
nal
gil
lst
ageoft
oad’
sdev
elopment

WEEKELEVEN

Ski
ptot
hecont
ent

Sear
ch

St
opLear
n

Menu

Cat
egor
ies

BI
OLOGYEXAM LESSONS

Dev
elopmentOfZy
got
eInFl
ower
ingPl
ant
s,Ger
minat
ionOfSeeds,
Adapt
iveFeat
uresI
nA
Dev
elopi
ngAnimal
Postaut
hor
By 
StopLear
nTeam

Postdat
e

CONTENT

Fer
ti
li
zat
ionanddev
elopmentofzy
got
einpl
ant
s

For
mat
ionofseedsandf
rui
ts

Ger
minat
ionofseedsandcondi
ti
onnecessar
yforger
minat
ion

Adapt
ivef
eat
uresi
nadev
elopi
ngani
mal

Def
ini
ti
onofov
ipar
it
y,v
ivi
par
it
yandov
ovi
vi
par
it
y

DEVELOPMENTOFZYGOTEI
NPLANTS

Poll
inat
ioni
sfol
lowedbyf er
ti
li
zati
onandthedev el
opmentofzy goteinf
loweri
ngplantsduring
whichthefl
owerchangesintoafrui
tencl
osingtheseeds.Themal eandf emal
esexcellsthat
for
m zygoteatf
ert
il
izat
ionarethepoll
engrainandtheovule.Thefoll
owingaretheprocesses
i
nvolved



Af
terpol
l
inat
ion–t
hepol
l
engr
ainabsor
bsasugar
yli
qui
dont
hest
igmaswel
l
s,andger
minat
es.

Theout
ercoatoft
hepol
l
engr
ainspl
i
tsandt
hepol
l
ent
ubegr
owsoutanddowni
nsi
det
hest
yle.
Thenucl
eusoft
hepoll
engr
aindi
vi
desint
otwo–al
arget
ubenucl
eusandasmal
l
ergener
ati
ve
nucl
eus.
Themalenucl
eusi
sthemalegamete.

Oneofthemalenucl
ei–aft
erthei
rrel
easei
ntotheembry
osac, f
useswi
tht
heov
ulet
ofor
ma
zygot
ewhichdevel
opsi
ntotheembryothi
siscall
edf
ir
stfer
ti
li
zati
on.

Secondfer
ti
li
zati
ontakesplacewhent
hesecondmalenucl
eusfuseswi
tht
hesecondar
y
nucl
eustoform endosper
m nucl
euswhichpr
oducest
heendosperm(f
oodstor
ehouseoft
he
embryo)
.

FORMATI
ONOFSEEDSANDFRUI
T(DEVELOPMENTOFEMBRYO)

Thezy
gotedi
vi
desbymi
tosi
stof
orm manycell
swhichdif
fer
ent
iat
eandbecomeor
gani
zedi
nto
anembry
o.Theembr
yoi
smadeupoft hef
oll
owingpart
s:

t
hepl
umul
e(embr
yoni
cshoot
)b.t
her
adi
cle(
embr
yoni
croot
)

c.
 oneort
wocot
yledon(
seedl
eav
es)
  
  
  d.endosper
m(t
heycoul
dbeabsent)

Astheembryodevel
ops,t
heov
aryandt
heov
ulesunder
gochangesanddev
elopi
ntof
rui
tand
seedorseedsr
especti
vel
y.

SEED

Aseedisdef
inedast
her
ipenf
ert
il
izedanddev
elopedov
ule.
Thest
ruct
ureoft
heseedhav
ethe
f
oll
owingpar
ts

seedcoat–Thi
sist
heout
ermembr
aneoft
heseed

hi
l
um –i
sthepoi
ntofat
tachmentoft
heseedt
otheseedst
ock
Micr
opyle–Thetinyholethr
oughwhi
chai
randwat
ergeti
ntot
heembr
yooft
heseed.Embr
yo
i
stheinnermostpartoftheseed.

Aseedwithoneseedli
ngiscal
ledmonocot
yledone.g.cer
eal
ssuchasmai ze,mil
let,
rice,
sorghum,
wheatetc.Thosewit
htwoseedleavesarecall
eddi
cotyl
edonousplante.g.mango,
beans.

EVALUATI
ON

(
a)Whati
saseed 
  (
b)Descr
ibet
hest
ruct
ureofaseed

Descr
ibet
hest
agesi
nvol
vedi
ndev
elopmentofzy
got
einf
lower
ingpl
ant
s

GERMI
NATI
ONOFSEEDS

Germinati
onistheprocessofgradualdevel
opmentoftheembryoseedint
otheseedli
ngorthe
youngplant.Theembryoofthedevelopedseedsusual
lyunder
goesarestper
iodcal
led
dormancyandt heseedremainsinthi
sconditi
onaslongasthecondi
ti
onsforger
minationare
unfav
ourable.Ther
earetwot ypesofgerminat
ion

Epi
gealger
minati
on:– 
 Thisi
swhent heseedl
ingemer
gingf
rom t
hesoi
lcar
ri
est
hecot
yledon
abovet
hesoilsur
facee.g.di
cot
yledonouspl
ant

Hypogealger
minat
ion:
– Thi
siswhentheseedl
i
ngemer
gesf
rom t
hesoi
lwi
tht
hecot
yledonl
eft
bel
owt hesoi
le.
g.monocoty
ledonouspl
ant
.

CONDI
TIONSNECESSARYFORSEEDSGERMI
NATI
ON
Adequat
esuppl
yofwaterormoi
stur
ewhi
chhel
pst
oact
ivat
ethesoi
landmaket
heseedcoat
sof
tforf
urt
herdev
elopment.

Oxy
geni
sneededf
orr
espi
rat
ionf
ort
hegener
ati
onof
 ener
gy 
neededf
ort
hegr
owt
hoft
heseed.

Opt
imum t
emper
atur
e

Enzy
mesar
eneededt
ospeedupt
her
ateatwhi
cht
hef
oodi
sbr
okendownt
orel
ease 
ener
gy.

Foodor 
energy
 (i
ndicotseed,
thef
oodi
sst
oredi
nthecot
yledonwhi
l
einmonocotpl
antt
he
foodi
sstoredi
nt heendosper
m).

Theseedsmustbev
iabl
e.

EVALUATI
ON

Whati
sger
minat
ion?

Whatar
ethecondi
ti
onsnecessar
yforger
minat
ionofseeds

ADAPTI
VEFEATURESI
NDEVELOPI
NGANI
MALS

EGGSOFFI
SH,
AMPHI
BIANS,
REPTI
LESANDBI
RDS

All
ver
tebr
atesexceptmammal
sar
eeggl
ayi
ngani
mal
s.Theegghast
hef
oll
owi
ngf
eat
urest
hat
hel
ptheembryotodevel
opi
nsi
dei
t.

SHELL:
–Har
d,por
ousandr
ichi
ncal
cium car
bonat
e.I
tpr
otect
stheeggandai
drespi
rat
ion.
MEMBRANES:
–Al
soai
dpr
otect
ionoft
heegg.

ALBUMEN:
–Iti
scal
l
edt
heeggwhi
teandaccount
sforov
er50%oft
heegg.I
tnour
ishest
he
embry
o.

YOLK:–Locat
edatt
hecent
reoft
heegg.I
tisr
ichi
nvi
tami
ns,
prot
einandmi
ner
alst
onour
ish
theembr
yos.

CHALAZA:–Apieceoft
hickpr
otopl
asm t
hatext
endst
obot
hsi
deoft
hey
olkt
ohol
dthe
embry
oinposi
ti
on.

DEVELOPI
NGEMBRYO/
FOETUSI
NMAMMALS

Theembr
yoorf
oet
ushast
hef
oll
owi
ngadapt
ivef
eat
ures.

UTERUS:–I
mmedi
atel
yaf
terf
ert
il
izat
ioni
ntheov
iductt
heembr
yoi
spl
ant
edi
nthewal
loft
he
ut
erus.

PLACENTA:
–theconnect
ionbet
weent
heembr
yoandt
hemot
heri
nmammal
s.

I
tcar
ri
esoxy
gen,
wat
erandf
oodf
rom t
hemot
herbl
oodt
otheembr
yobl
ood.

 
Ital
soremovesexcr
etor
ywastel
ikeurea,sal
tandcarbondi
oxi
def
rom t
heembr
yosbl
oodand
t
ransf
ersi
ttothemother
’sbl
oodstream f
oreli
minat
ion.

 
Itpr
oduceshor
moneswhi
chhel
pst
hemot
hert
oadaptt
othepr
egnancy
.
 

UMBLICALCORD: –Ithel
pstoatt
achtheembryot
otheplacenta.
Thear
teri
esandveinoft
he
cordcar
rythebl
oodofthefoet
ustoandfrom t
hepl
acent
a. Thebl
oodofthemotherandoft
he
foet
usaresepar
atedandsodonotmix

EMBRYONICMEMBRANES:– Thesemembr
anesenv
elopt
hef
oet
ust
opr
ovi
dei
tadequat
e
pr
otect
ion.
Themembr
anesincl
ude

Amnionwhichi
stheinnermostmembranef i
l
ledwit
htheamnoioti
cfl
uidwhichser
vesasa
cushi
onorshockabsorberf
ortheembryo.Thefl
uidal
soneut
rali
zest
heeffectofchangesof
exter
nal
temperat
ure.

Chor
ioni
stheout
ermostmembr
anewhi
chabsor
bsoxy
genf
ort
heembr
yo.

Al
l
ant
oisi
samembr
anewhi
chai
dsr
espi
rat
ionandexcr
eti
oni
ndev
elopi
ng

EVALUATI
ON

Descr
ibet
hest
ruct
ureofeggi
nbi
rds.

Whatar
ethef
unct
ionsofpl
acent
ainmammal
s

DEFI
NITI
ONOFOVI
PARI
TY,
VIVI
PARI
TYANDOVOVI
VIPARI
TY

OVI
PARI
TYi
sapr
ocessofr
epr
oduct
ioni
nwhi
cheggsar
elai
dint
otheext
ernal
env
ironment
wheretheembr
yoscomplet
ethei
rdev
elopmentandhat
choutoftheeggsasy
oung.Most
f
ishes,
amphibi
ans,
rept
il
eandeggsundergot
histy
peofrepr
oducti
on.

VIVI
PARITYisaprocessofreproducti
oninwhi
cht
heyoungdevel
opsandnour
ishedinsi
dethe
female’
sbodythr
oughtheplacentaandarebor
nali
vewhenful
l
ydevel
oped.Afewfishes,
rept
il
esandall
mammal sar
ev i
v i
parousani
mal
s.

OVOVIVIPARITYtakesplacei
nfewfishesandr
epti
leswherethel
aideggsar
er et
ainedi
nthe
bodyofthefemalewithoutpl
acent
aandwhenf ul
l
ydeveloptheyounghat
chfrom theeggsand
arer
eleasedfrom t
hefemale’
sbody.

EVALUATI
ON

Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weenov
ipar
it
y,v
ivi
par
it
yandov
ovi
vi
par
it
y.

GENERALEVALUATI
ON

Descr
ibet
hepr
ocessofzy
got
efor
mat
ioni
nfl
ower
ingpl
ant
s.

Whati
saseed

Wi
thal
abel
eddi
agr
am,
descr
ibeaseed.

Whati
sger
minat
ion?

Def
ineepi
geal
andhy
pogeal
ger
minat
ion

Whatar
ethecondi
ti
onsnecessar
yforseedger
minat
ion

Wi
tht
heai
dofal
abel
eddi
agr
am,
descr
ibet
headapt
ivef
eat
uresofeggi
nbi
rds
Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weenov
ipar
it
y,v
ivi
par
it
yandov
ovi
vi
par
it
ygi
vi
ngoneexampl
eineachcase.

READI
NGASSI
GNMENT

Col
l
ege 
Biol
ogy
,chapt
er16,
page324–326,
382–387

WEEKENDASSI
GNMENT

Theprocessbywhichfruit
sdevel
opwithoutf
ert
il
izat
ioni
sknownasa)ger
minat
ionb)
pat
henocarpyc)v
ivipar
ityd)pol
li
nat
ion

Whi
choft
hesei
snotanov
ipar
ousani
mal
a)goatb)pi
geonc)l
i
zar
dd)t
oad

Aseedconsi
stsoft
hef
oll
owi
ngpar
tsexcepta)mi
cropy
leb)endosper
m c)endocar
pd)hi
l
um

Anembr y
oni
cshooti
npl
anti
sknownasa)r
adi
cal
b)pl
umul
ec)endosper
m  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  d)
cot
yledon

Thepar
tofaneggt
hathol
dst
heembr
yoi
nposi
ti
oni
sthea)y
olkb)al
bumenc)shel
ld)chal
aza

THEORY

Descr
ibet
hest
ruct
ureandf
unct
ionsoft
hepl
acent
ainmammal
s.

Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weenhy
pogeal
andepi
geal
ger
minat
ion