2.

5 Knowledge Management

In a knowledge economy, lost institutional knowledge can cost organizations real

money in the form of turnover, recruitment, and training costs. Knowledge
management is the explicit and systematic management of intellectual capital and
organizational knowledge as well as the associated processes of creating, gathering,
validating, categorizing, archiving, disseminating, leveraging, and using intellectual
capital for improving the organization and the individuals in it.

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Knowledge Management

2.5.1 Knowledge of Principles of Knowledge Management

I. Principles of Knowledge Management

TD professionals should understand the principles and elements of managing
organizational knowledge, the advantages of doing so for the organization, and how
to apply those principles and elements to the development of talent.
2.5.1.1 Knowledge Management Defined
Knowledge management (KM) is a systematic approach to achieving organizational
goals by creating, capturing, curating, sharing, and managing the organization’s
knowledge to ensure the right information and knowledge flow to the right people at
the right time. 
The concept of knowledge management as a distinct discipline arose from the
increasing need for organizations to effectively manage information and knowledge
assets in an economy that’s shifting from industrial to service. Industrial workers
relied primarily on the machinery of industry as the means to deliver value. As the
shift to services occurred, things like decisions, understanding based on experience,
and application of concepts to action became the value creation engine. No longer
could workers be trained to perform a discrete task on a piece of machinery and not
change how they execute that activity for the next several decades. Instead, activity
became varied and fluid, requiring workers to make many more decisions based on
changing information that was increasingly dispersed across the organization.
This shift was evident as early as 1966 when Peter Drucker coined the
term knowledge worker in his book The Effective Executive while discussing the
differences between manual workers and knowledge workers. 
To “manage knowledge” begins by differentiating between the different components
of KM. To understand and effectively apply knowledge management, TD
professionals need to understand what constitutes knowledge based on these
definitions:
 Data. The “facts of the world,” which are specific but unorganized. Data has
no context, and is limited by direct experience or interaction. Thierauf (1999)
defines data as "unstructured facts and figures that have the least impact on
the typical manager."
 Information. Information is data that is contextualized, categorized,
calculated, and condensed (Davenport and Prusak 2000); it is data with
relevance and purpose (Bali, Wickramasinghe, and Lehaney 2009).
Information may uncover trends or indicate a pattern of business in a
particular period. According to Ackoff (1999), information is found "in answers
to questions that begin with such words as who, what, where, when, and how
many."
 Knowledge. Knowledge is associated with action and implies understanding.
“The knowledge possessed by each individual is a product of his experience,
and encompasses the norms by which he evaluates new inputs from his
surroundings” (Davenport and Prusak 2000).

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2.5.1.2 Different Types of Knowledge
In addition to understanding the difference between data, information, and
knowledge, TD professionals should understand and be able to distinguish between
the different forms of knowledge that can exist in an organization. For example, while
knowledge can be easily shared if it is captured in a document or set of reports,
managing the knowledge that has been gathered over the years by experts and is
stored only in their heads would require a different approach.
Within KM, two types of knowledge are generally defined:
 Explicit Knowledge is typically captured in information systems. Sometimes
referred to as know-what (Brown and Duguid 1998), it is fairly easy to identify,
store, and retrieve. For this reason, explicit knowledge is aligned with and
managed by KM systems, which store, retrieve, and control versioning of
documents and text. Explicit knowledge is found in databases, memos, notes,
documents, and so forth.
 Tacit Knowledge, which was originally defined by educator Michael Polanyi,
is sometimes referred to as know-how (Brown and Duguid 1998). Tacit
knowledge is primarily experience based and intuitive; this means it only
resides in individuals’ memories and minds and is hard to define and
communicate. It is the most valuable source of knowledge, because it is
based solely on successful experience and performance, is not broadly
disseminated, and usually is not shared or understood by many. Many KM
experts believe it is the most likely type of knowledge to lead to breakthroughs
in the organization (Wellman 2009). Further, Gamble and Blackwell (2002)
link the lack of focus on tacit knowledge directly to the reduced capability for
innovation and sustained competitiveness. Knowledge stakeholders (holders
of tacit knowledge assets) hold knowledge about cultural beliefs, values,
attitudes, and mental models, as well as skills, capabilities, and expertise
(Botha, Kourie, and Snyman 2008).
TD professionals should understand the role that KM plays in talent development,
because it is another enabler in their toolkit to improve individual and organizational
performance. In the discipline of human performance improvement (HPI), knowledge
(and skill) represents a sixth of the potential factors affecting performance (Gilbert
2007). Knowledge alone, therefore, does not accomplish performance outcomes; it
needs to be combined with skill.
Finally, a distinction must be made between information management and
knowledge management. Information management seeks to use technology to
organize large quantities of data; for example, IT systems allow us to catalog and
contextualize data—to store our “facts.” Knowledge management, on the other hand,
is focused on people and capturing what they know, which is information that is
actionable and contains context, know-how, and experience. Information systems
may be used to support KM efforts, but they are not themselves knowledge
management. Think of information systems as the hardware and software that might
be used to house data and information (data and context) whereas a knowledge
management system are the maps that make connections, allow for application, and
demonstrate the location of the elements necessary for successful performance.

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As an example, when individuals talk about managing data in their information
system, they are referring to the facts they store—for example an employee’s age.
An employee can be either 35 or 45, but not both. This is the nature of facts.
Information is how facts are cataloged—it’s a point-in-time data storage. So, in the
case of the employee, the system could have the wrong information (that they are 35
and 45), but the data itself would not wrong, because data is always the fact. The
information could be wrong because it is contextualized and stored. Knowledge
allows the person to understand that a human cannot be both 35 and 45, and to
apply the correct action.

2.5.1.3 KM Concepts, Philosophy, and Theory

Because improving performance is a central goal to the TD professional, knowledge
must be connected to job accomplishments. In other words, the real indicator of the
value of knowledge to organization is performance and the relationship of knowledge
to performance. To this end, it is important to understand that the purpose of KM is
to harness the right knowledge to enable people to perform at a higher level. Not all
knowledge is created equal, and not all knowledge leads us to better outcomes and
improved results.
The real trick for the TD professional in executing KM effectively therefore is to
determine how it relates to performance excellence. It is not sufficient to gather all
knowledge relative to a task or job accomplishment and attempt to somehow transfer
this to the performer. The goal needs to be to present the knowledge in the form,
format, quantity, and context necessary to the performer, and this is the key, in the
service of achieving higher levels of performance. Determining what that knowledge
is, and how and when it should be delivered, is central to the mission of KM.
A simple way of thinking about this is the racecar driver who needs to understand the
braking system of the car. They could learn a lot about the system—brake fluid
hydraulics, friction, heat dissipation, and so forth. However, to win the race, the
driver only really needs to know when to press the brake, and for how long when
going into and coming out of a turn.

2.5.1.4 Types of KM Systems

KM systems have evolved to several forms. Systems like Microsoft SharePoint, for
example, are used by many for collaboration and sharing. Increasingly, as
organizations have realized that knowledge can be a key to competitive advantage,
more and more systems have sprung up to support efforts to manage that
knowledge. In short, any IT system that supports knowledge, enables collaboration,
catalogs knowledge sources, captures and uses knowledge, or supports or enables
the KM process is by default a KM system.
Some examples of KM systems include:
 groupware systems—software that supports multiple users working on
related tasks in local and remote networks
 intranet and extranet—intranets are internally shared networks; extranets
may be accessible to others outside the organization

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  data warehousing, data mining, and online analytical processing—
generally considered business intelligence, these systems allow rapid
analysis of large data sets
 decision support systems—systems that support judgements or courses of
action for an organization
 content management systems—systems that warehouse and manage large
quantities of digital content
 document management systems—systems to track, store, and manage
documents
 artificial intelligence tools—tools and systems that support the search,
optimization, and evaluation of knowledge and information
 simulation tools—tools that allow for simulation of performance events
where knowledge elements are deployed
 semantic networks—systems that map connections between ideas or
concepts in an organization (Bali, Wickramasinghe, and Lehaney 2009).

2.5.1.5 KM Elements
TD professionals should be familiar with the range of elements that cover the KM life
cycle, such as identifying the right knowledge and where it exists; connecting those
knowledge sources to specific initiatives and systems; and arranging and curating
knowledge content. The elements include:
1. Creation and capture. This is where the knowledge is created and how it can
be captured so that it can be shared and reused. Knowledge mapping is one
technique for this element.
2. Curation, enrichment, and sharing. This is how the accuracy of the
knowledge elements can be confirmed, what additional context is required,
and where the knowledge is needed.
3. Storage and retrieval. This includes the appropriate mechanisms for storing
captured knowledge, including IT systems.
4. Knowledge dissemination. This is the embedded processes and
mechanisms for disseminating knowledge, including collaboration,
communities of practice, and peer networks.

2.5.1.6 Advantages for the Organization

Effective knowledge management provides many organizational advantages. As the
economy continues to value intangible or non-physical resources, these assets have
become a source of competitive advantage (Mitrović, Maksimović, and Tešić 2008).
Documented advantages of effective KM include:
 improved employee performance, productivity, and job satisfaction
 reuse of knowledge with confidence
 increased innovation and agility

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  improvements in speed and responsiveness to organizational needs
 enhanced shareholder and customer value.

2.5.1.7 Advantages to TD Professionals

Knowledge management holds numerous advantages for TD professionals:
 Embeds learning in the organizational information chain. KM allows
knowledge to be a part of the knowledge ecosystem and incorporated into a
variety of solutions.
 Improves quality and productivity. A validated and easily referenced
source of knowledge, it enables TD professionals to provide timely quality
services and solutions.
 Ensures higher value TD products and solutions. TD professionals can
ensure that products and solutions are targeted to optimize performance and
value.
 Creates confidence in knowledge resources. Capturing, mapping,
validating, codifying, and curating knowledge needs, elements, and sources
increases confidence in the available knowledge.
 Lowers costs of learning. TD professionals can focus less time and
resources on sharing available knowledge.

2.5.1.8 KM’s Relationship to Learning and Performance

Knowledge is a key differentiator between average or poor performance and key or
exemplary performance (Holloway and Mankin 2004). By drawing knowledge or
knowledge sources into the development process, TD professionals can examine the
work in a way that only a small percent of the workforce is able to discover on its
own. This is because the knowledge often resides in isolated pockets until the TD
professional brings it to the attention of the broader workforce. It is through this
identification, mapping, and inclusion of knowledge and knowledge sources that the
TD professional can leverage KM as a way to enhance learning and improve
performance.
To ensure organizational consistency, TD professionals should strategically link KM
with learning and performance and deliver a coordinated organizational approach.
Managing and delivering knowledge through TD solutions are not two separate and
discrete activities. By interweaving talent development and knowledge management,
TD professionals can create an explicit connection between what knowledge
performers need, where that knowledge resides, and how they can access it. Once
this is established, TD professionals should know whether the knowledge is
internalized or external:
 Internalized (learned reference) knowledge is stored in the performer’s
memory. This is necessary when an immediate access to the information is
required.
 External (accessed reference) knowledge is stored elsewhere, for example
a system or other storage option. This is possible if the performance
requirements allow for more time for knowledge retrieval and access.

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Determining where the knowledge is stored relies on a combination of factors:
 Speed of performance. How fast does the performer need to respond to a
particular signal to perform?
 Frequency of performance. How often will the knowledge be accessed in
the course of the performer’s daily activity?
 Consequence of error. How significant are the consequences of making a
mistake in the performance of the activity?
TD professionals also need to know when in the performance sequence the person
will need the knowledge. This provides the necessary context to effectively embed
knowledge elements within solutions.

2.5.1.9 Organizational Knowledge Sources

Knowledge can exist on several levels:
 Individual knowledge is personal; often tacit and held by individuals as
expertise or particular “know-how.” It can be explicit if it is closely held, but
tacit if stored in files, notebooks, or other locations.
 Group and community knowledge is held by a group, but not shared with
the rest of the organization.
 Structural knowledge is embedded in the DNA of the organization’s
routines, processes, culture, and the like.
 Organizational knowledge is the sum total of accessible knowledge in the
organization when other knowledge elements are combined to form new
knowledge.
 Extra-organizational knowledge exists outside the organization.
[See 3.5.7.5]

2.5.1.10 Organizational Learning

Organizational learning is the creation, retention, and dissemination of knowledge

within an organization to ensure improvement over time. It is based on a systematic
implementation of best practices throughout the entire organization, and governance
bodies are often created for each function to oversee these efforts. KM can be a key
enabler of effective learning organizations by identifying, documenting, and making
all tacit and explicit knowledge available for knowledge sharing.
[See 3.3.7.2]

2.5.2 Knowledge of Methods and Techniques for Capturing and Codifying

Knowledge

I. Knowledge Mapping

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TD professionals should be aware of the methods and techniques for capturing and
codifying knowledge.

2.5.2.1 Develop the Organizational Knowledge Map Based on Performance

Requirements

Knowledge mapping is a visual representation that connects knowledge

requirements to knowledge sources, the type of knowledge element, and the nature
of the requirement. Mapping enables TD professionals to make decisions about how
to use these connections when developing client solutions.
Knowledge mapping is one of the most effective means of understanding the
organization’s knowledge landscape. Well-developed knowledge maps help identify
intellectual capital, socialize new employees, and enhance organizational learning
(Liebowitz 2003; Wexler 2001). To be effective in this approach, TD professionals
should understand the key factors and constraints of knowledge mapping:
 Knowledge is transient. It develops, is passed on, and expires according to
organizational needs and cycles.
 Knowledge must be connected to organizational value.
 Knowledge often has boundaries. Whether real or perceived, it is important
to understand these boundaries from the individual’s perspective. For
example, revenue formulas or pricing decisions may be held by only a few
and are therefore out of the boundaries of many.
 Knowledge is not always known; some will need to be identified before it
can be mapped.
 Knowledge exists in many forms in the organization; it can be tacit, explicit,
or embedded.
The American Productivity and Quality Center (2018) identifies seven types of
knowledge maps in three broad categories:
 Expertise Knowledge Maps
o Strategic overview map. The largest in scope, this map outlines the
knowledge required for each strategic focus area, how critical that
knowledge is to achieving the organization’s goals, whether the needed
knowledge currently exists in the organization, and where any existing
knowledge resides.
o Expertise overview map. This map provides a broad understanding of
what knowledge an organization has in various parts of the
organization and what may be at risk.
 Cross-Functional Knowledge Maps
o Expertise tacit map. This map is used to identify specific experts and
their areas of expertise. It usually works best inside an organizational
unit or a division with similar units.

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 o Technical or functional knowledge map. This map helps an
organization more clearly understand its strengths and gaps within
specific technical or functional knowledge domains (such as ship
design or component assembly).
 Process- and Role-Based Knowledge Maps
o Process-based map. This map identifies specific knowledge needs,
as well as the sources, recipients, locations, and formats of that
knowledge within a process or domain. It is particularly useful for
establishing a baseline for KM solutions, such as communities or
mentoring.
o Job- or role-based map. This map inventories the knowledge required
for various jobs or roles. It is similar to the functional or technical
knowledge map, but it includes the specific knowledge each job role
needs.
o Competency or learning needs map. This map explicitly articulates
the learning or competency needs associated with a business process
or job role.

2.5.2.2 Knowledge Mapping Considerations

The goal of knowledge capture in KM is to understand:

 What knowledge is required to successfully get work done?
 Who has that knowledge or how can it be accessed?
 When and where is that knowledge needed? (APQC 2018)
Because knowledge is most often scattered across the organization and can exist in
different domains and serve different requirements or needs, the knowledge
collection activity must be appropriately broad and consider knowledge sources
across an array of potential categories. Typical sources include individuals, groups
and communities, structural, organizational, and extra-organization (KMT 2010).
[See 2.5.1.7]
TD professionals may capture knowledge through interviews, focus groups,
document review, stories, decision trees, and data mining. They start with an
understanding of how knowledge flows in the organization, and those involved must
have sufficient understanding of the organization’s strategic goals and processes.

2.5.2.3 Creating Taxonomies

The captured knowledge must be codified and ordered in some meaningful way
before it can be useful. One of the purposes of KM is to make the organization’s tacit
and embedded knowledge (knowledge that is assumed in the organization’s
structures, processes, and shared memory) explicit and shareable (or reusable).
Codification is a means of translating that knowledge into content.

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Codifying knowledge relies on the application of some system of order: a taxonomy.
This taxonomy focuses on enabling the efficient retrieval and sharing of knowledge,
information, and data across an organization. It is built around work processes and
knowledge needs in an intuitive structure (Lambe 2007; Malafsky 2008).
Creating a KM taxonomy should be viewed as a unique project within the broader
context of the knowledge management program. TD professionals should consider
the content domain (what general area of skills, activities, and abilities the
knowledge relates to), metadata strategy (what are the words and ideas that the
typical person would search for when looking for the knowledge), location of and
availability of SMEs, and organizational knowledge lexicon (definitions of
organizational knowledge terms and where they are found). Ultimately, taxonomies
need to reflect the working environment and culture of the organization. And, since
working environments change continuously, taxonomies should also be flexible and
adapt to the changing environment (Pellini and Jones 2011).
TD professionals should tie taxonomy development to the overall mechanisms of the
KM program and systems. This should involve:
 Senior leadership support. For the taxonomy to be successful (as with
many programs) it must have unwavering commitment from senior leadership.
 Effective scoping and analysis. The analysis should include a clear
description of why it is being undertaken, who will be involved, how it will be
implemented, and some reasonable estimate of cost. The scoping should also
account for key stakeholders, required skills for the team, and specific needs
and requirements from the organization.
 Synthesizing information captured from multiple sources. A taxonomy
must be designed to allow for the recognition of different knowledge sources
that may address requirements in subtly or in distinctly different ways.
 Appropriate design. Complexity is a key consideration in the design. It
requires a decision about how complex (or simple) the taxonomy needs to be
to meet the purpose.

2.5.2.4 Using Tools

TD professionals should be aware of the range of tools that can support KM

activities. There are seven tool categories that support the KM effort:
 Content repository. Tools that allow users to manage and share knowledge
content. Document management systems have historically dominated this
category, but organizations have recently begun to engage tools that can
manage a broader range of content. Examples include content management
systems (CMS), enterprise content management (ECM), and cloud content
management (CCM).
 Knowledge search. Search is an essential function that allows users to find
what they need.

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  Communication tools. This category includes email, chat, instant
messaging, VOIP, speech recognition, video conferencing, and collaboration
tools.
 Social software. Tools that support the social sharing of knowledge are
increasingly embedded in enterprise software like enterprise resource
planning (ERP) and customer relationship management (CRM) systems.
 Knowledge visualization. These tools are used to visually communicate
knowledge, such as PowerPoint and 3-D data representation systems.
 Decision support. Tools that allow users to discover patterns of knowledge
in large volumes of data.
 Big data. Tools that store, manage, and explore high velocity, variety, and
volume data, including structured (database tables) and unstructured data
(documents and conversations).

2.5.3 Skill in Designing and Implementing Knowledge Management Strategy

I. Designing and Implementing a KM Strategy

TD professionals should be skilled in designing and implementing a KM strategy that
effectively supports talent and learning for organizational objectives.
2.5.3.1 Understanding Business Processes That Support Knowledge Exchange
TD professionals should connect the organization’s knowledge needs and sources
with the way in which the work gets done. To do this, they can overlay the KM map
with the work process map (a visual representation of the work process) for the
workgroup in question. This is not as complicated as it sounds—it is simply
comparing work process maps to knowledge needs and sources according to the
KM map. This will require some work to ensure that all needs are accurately
identified and linked. The combined deliverable clearly shows knowledge needs at
the point in the work process where they are needed, then connects the associated
knowledge source that can satisfy the need. [See 3.5.2.8]
Further, since all work processes are not equal in complexity or in contribution to
overall organizational value, TD professionals should use the map to highlight critical
processes where knowledge elements are key. This is done by connecting business
drivers to job outcomes and mapping them to the associated work processes that
have been connected to the knowledge sources. The result is a prioritization
framework for understanding the value contribution of both the knowledge and its
application in support of the workflow.

2.5.3.2 Corporate Culture and Leadership

Knowledge management is more about people than systems. For KM to succeed in
an organization, it must be valued as a strategic asset and recognized as a core
cultural element. Leadership should encourage and reward collaboration, the public
sharing of information, and any other processes that create and scale knowledge. It
is, therefore, a requirement of the TD professional to engage leadership early in the
process, share observations and findings, make recommendations for required

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improvements, and maintain effective communication through the process. [See
2.5.3.1]

2.5.3.3 Attitude of Management

Management’s attitude toward knowledge management and the implementation of
KM systems and strategies is paramount to the success of any KM effort, program,
or initiative. TD professionals should enlist the support of management early on and
that support must be continuous, demonstrable, and more than just providing budget
and approval. Management should be actively engaged through messaging,
oversight, and review and accountability. TD professionals should help managers
develop a mantra of “document, participate, and, when in doubt, participate and
document” (documenting effort and progress, and active participation being two of
the most important facets of management participation). When managers encourage
and become champions of the KM effort, employees will be more likely to view it as
something that makes their jobs easier, not more difficult.

2.5.3.4 Rewards and Incentives

Driving the right behavior is central to the success of a KM system and strategy. One
of the most straightforward ways ofdoing this is by establishing measures for
participation and creating reward programs linked to measurable action. Some
examples of this include:
 revising job descriptions and reviewing process so that contributing to the KM
system is required; for example, staff might be required to contribute three KM
articles per quarter
 conducting periodic appraisals and awarding spot bonuses based on
participation
 linking awards for outstanding performance to KM contribution
 using gamification to challenge and reward participation and sharing.

2.5.3.5 Align KM With TD Needs

KM supports one of talent development’s central goals: the application of knowledge
to accomplish organizational objectives. This is done by identifying, mapping,
capturing, codifying, and sharing knowledge that was previously unknown or known
to only a few. Talent development applies this work by creating solutions to connect
competencies, skills, and knowledge. The common denominator is knowledge.
TD professionals should understand what knowledge is required by each role and
level of responsibility in the organization to accomplish organizational objectives. For
TD professionals, the KM system should provide a clear line of sight to the
knowledge needs by role and level, and to the knowledge required to accomplish the
objectives.

2.5.3.6 Identify the Efficient and Effective Application of Knowledge

Huang, Lee, and Wang (1999) identified 10 strategies for the successful
implementation and application of knowledge:

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 Establish a KM methodology. Decide on policies, rules, techniques, and
procedures that prescribe how work is to be performed and provide proven
ways to do it successfully. This may be organic in nature (developed entirely
within the organization), it may rely on established methodologies from the
broader KM community, or it may be a combination of both.
 Designate a point-person. Appoint a chief knowledge officer to promote and
manage the KM activities in the company.
 Empower knowledge workers. In any organization, knowledge originates
from its knowledge workers. Thus, it’s critical to empower and support
knowledge workers by making them a key component of the knowledge
management system. Sometimes in an organization, empowerment for KM is
as simple as giving explicit permission to participate and share.
 Capture customer-centric knowledge. TD professionals should assist
organizations in strengthening their position in a competitive environment not
only by emphasizing customer satisfaction but also by focusing on both
learning about and learning from their customers and incorporating this into
the overall KM approach.
 Manage core competencies. Identify and understand what the organization
is good at. Core competencies can vary based on unique benefits
organizations provide their customers by combining human capital, intellectual
and intangible assets, processes, and technologies. Thus, the core
competencies of one firm may not be easily replicated by other firms.
 Foster collaboration and innovation. Organizations can nurture
collaboration by accentuating the importance of teamwork, learning, sharing,
trust, and flexibility. Developing an appropriate reward structure for innovation
also fosters high creative potential among individuals. Collaboration is a key
element of KM—without it, the SECI cycle (socialization, externalization,
combination, and internalization) breaks down through failure of the first two
elements.
 Learn from best practices. By recording and sharing best practices,
organizations can prevent reinvention and encourage reuse of the best ideas
and methods, which in turn makes them more efficient and effective. In the
past, firms shared and learned about best practices through symposiums,
conferences, and seminars. Now, web-based approaches are becoming
norm.
 Extend knowledge sourcing. Knowledge sourcing is the successful retrieval
of information and dissemination of knowledge. Sourcing can be extended
through different media such as the internet, intranet, and extranet.
Organizations can use these mechanisms to retrieve and deliver knowledge.
 Interconnect communities of expertise. Links between internal and
external communities can be created using formal virtual communities and
teams and through electronic libraries such as whitepapers or knowledge
banks. Internal experts aid in problem solving, while experts are generally
connected with senior management for advice on specific areas.

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  Report the measured value of knowledge assets. It is important that
organizations measure how knowledge management contributes to the
organization. It is a difficult but important task to validate the development and
use of a knowledge management system, as is true for any information
system.

2.5.3.7 Knowledge Management Support

TD professionals should provide support for the KM contribution and efforts of the
employees. This can take several forms:
 Peer KM champions are local KM champions assigned to provide
troubleshooting and support for KM issues.
 KM self-help is the knowledge base or FAQ for questions and support.
 Help desk provides phone support (typically through the IT helpdesk or
customer care).

2.5.3.8 Effects of Knowledge Management

KM can have significant positive influence on organizations:
 Introduction and implementation of metrics. Because we are managing
knowledge, we can measure its use, effectiveness, and access. Rather than
allowing knowledge to be an unknown asset (in terms of measurable value),
KM offers a way to connect and measure that knowledge.
 Improved quality of information. Knowledge systems provide the ability to
track and review the knowledge assets, allowing the knowledge sources to
improve through review, feedback (from consumers of the knowledge), and
curation by the knowledge manager.
 Information updates. Information and information systems can be mined for
other hidden elements using data analytics and machine learning.
 Cost and productivity benefits. Knowledge and best approaches are shared
and embedded in structural knowledge, which means that costs in hours
worked (as represented in cost per output) may be reduced. By reducing the
amount of time seeking knowledge and applying better knowledge to the
performance, both measures can be lowered.
 Improved customer metrics. Higher-quality knowledge access and sources
may enable staff to better serve the customer resulting in improved customer
metrics.
 Improved staff morale. Valuable employees can become dissatisfied with
their jobs when they don’t have ready access to the knowledge they need to
be successful.

2.5.3.9 The Value of Knowledge Management

The TD professional should be prepared to discuss the strategic and tactical benefits
and values of knowledge management.
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KM helps organizations increase their strategic benefits by:
 enhancing decision making based on facilitated access to expertise
knowledge and practices
 improving innovation and collaboration across disconnected parts of the
organization
 reducing loss of expert knowledge by formally capturing explicit and tacit
knowledge
 exploiting market opportunities through building strategy and planning on
current validated knowledge.
Knowledge management helps at the tactical level by:
 enabling performers to safely share best practices
 capturing work process innovation for reuse
 increasing efficiency and productivity and reducing rework and reinvention
 reducing time to competence by creating targeted onboarding and providing
access to knowledge.


2.5.4 Knowledge of Methods, Techniques and Structures for Disseminating

and Sharing Knowledge Across Individuals, Groups, and Organizations

I. Techniques to Establish Knowledge Sharing

TD professionals should be aware of the methods for disseminating and sharing
knowledge across the organization.

2.5.4.1 Determine Organizational Preferences for Knowledge and Information

Sharing

TD professionals should be aware of and account for the organization’s preferences

for knowledge sharing in three areas:
 how well the organization’s culture supports the concept of sharing and
transferring knowledge
 the organization’s strategy for using knowledge resources to support
organizational goals and objectives
 information systems that are available to support knowledge dissemination.
Of the three, culture is the dominant factor: It often informs strategy and is therefore
a precursor to it. KM systems are an investment or expense (depending on the point
of view) that is made in alignment with corporate needs, values, and culture. The
long-term success of any KM program requires TD professionals to determine the
cultural influences on knowledge creation, sharing, and learning. If the organization
doesn’t currently have an effective culture of learning and knowledge sharing, TD
professionals should begin in this area or any other efforts are likely to fail.

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Fortunately, the cycle of knowledge is well documented, and there are a number of
models that address this aspect of KM. The SECI model or SECI KM Spiral is one of
the most referenced (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995). This model identifies four distinct
areas or quadrants as knowledge moves from tacit to explicit (Figure 2.5.4.1-1).
Figure 2.5.4.1-1. The SECI KM Spiral

zoom image
Source: Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995)
In this model, tacit knowledge (held by the individual) is socialized in some way,
which has the effect of externalizing the knowledge and results in it becoming explicit
(rather than tacit). As knowledge is never static, the new explicit knowledge is
combined with new perspectives and experiences, resulting in an internalization of
discovery—in other words, the formation of new (and now tacit) knowledge. The
cycle then repeats, thus the term SECI spiral.
It is easy to see how culture would influence how effectively organizations leverage
this cycle. In cultures where knowledge is weaponized for personal gain, for
example, it can be extremely difficult for TD professionals to move knowledge from
the tacit to socialized. The important element here is to recognize the status of
cultural elements in advance to execute against the SECI model and determine if
specific cultural initiatives should be introduced first.
For the TD professional, the challenge is effectively supporting and operationalizing
this cycle in the service of learning and development. After identifying where the
knowledge exists, deliberate effort should be invested in encouraging socialization
and supporting externalization through systems and solutions. The result of those
efforts can then be monitored as new knowledge is created and internalized. [See
3.3.3.2, 3.3.7, 3.3.8, and 3.3.9]

2.5.4.2 Techniques to Share Knowledge Across Organizations

One of the primary goals for TD professionals is to use explicit methods to

operationalize this spiral; that is to say, “How can we not leave it to chance?” They
should ensure that this knowledge can be effectively shared, consumed, and
operationalized. Methods that can be used to achieve this goal fall into three
categories:
 Peer to peer (informal). Also thought of as decentralized, solutions in this
category are directed toward enabling users to interact directly as opposed to
through an intermediary knowledge curator or capture system. While powerful
for collaboration, they can be limiting in how broadly the knowledge is
disseminated. These methods are one-to-one (me to you) or many-to-many
(us to them) in nature. Social collaboration sites or social networks are typical
solutions in this category.
 Structured (formal). Also thought of as centralized, solutions in this category
are collected and curated. There is specific governance and control over the
addition, maintenance, and expiration of knowledge assets. These methods
are one-to-many in nature.

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  Reference sources (IT based). These methods are characterized by the
technology systems on which they exist. Document repositories and content
management systems are typical methods deployed.
Each method comes with benefits and challenges as well as specific tools to
support. For example, peer to peer offers immediacy and the notion of access to
other experts in the organization, but can lack structure, consistent participation, and
validation of what is shared. On the other hand, structured and reference sources
have the benefit of curation and can be maintained on a consistent basis; however,
they are often more costly to maintain and lack some of the immediacy and intimacy
of the peer to peer method. TD professionals should determine which approach (or
set of approaches) most effectively aligns to the goals of the KM activity and the
culture and preferences of the organization.

2.5.4.3 Ensuring Reliability and Validity of Knowledge

TD professionals should establish mechanisms to ensure that knowledge is trusted,

valued, and consumed once shared. To do this, they should be deliberate about the
value of the knowledge, which requires a process that involves:
 A formal review cycle, which should include recognized experts (by peers) in
the knowledge areas being shared.
 Establishing methods for contributing new and incremental
knowledge because participation and use will generate even more
participation. The KM approach will fail if it is limited to the organizational elite
(that is, any segment of the organization generally perceived to receive
special treatment).
 Easy access to knowledge sources. Too many calls, requests, or clicks will
create obstacles for use and cause overall rejection of the KM efforts.

2.5.4.4 How Knowledge and Information Support Daily Actions

Knowledge management supports work in daily processes through:

 Decision making. KM systems and processes must be aligned to the need
and support the ability to make the necessary (optimal) decisions for the
organization.
 Analysis. KM must support ongoing analysis in the service of organizational
strategy formation and execution.
 Operations. Having awareness of current best practices and expertise, as
well as expansion of tacit knowledge, must be embedded in a cycle of
continuous improvement for organizational operations.

2.5.4.5 Support Typical Functions

TD professionals should focus on embedding KM efforts in multiple systems and
functions to derive maximum benefit for the organization. Some examples include:

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  sales and marketing—best practices, techniques, and competitive analysis
 manufacturing—process innovations, safety procedures, and cost savings
approaches
 service departments (HR, IT, contracts, accounting)—service
improvements and risk mitigation
 R&D—innovation and new product and service creation
 supply chain—knowledge process outsourcing, up-chain efficiency, and
information accuracy
 management and supervision—strategy, organizational performance,
productivity improvements, and engagement.

Curation

2.5.5 Skill in Identifying the Quality, Authenticity, Accuracy, Impartiality, and

Relevance of Information From Various Sources

I. Establish Governance for Content Curation

TD professionals should be knowledgeable of curation and the methods for
establishing effective governance for content curation in KM systems. Curation is the
process of identifying, gathering, organizing, and preparing to disseminate related
content or information.
2.5.5.1 Content Curation Governance
Successful curation requires effective governance. TD professionals should establish
proper curation guidelines and oversight to ensure the success of the KM program
over time. This means determining what model is most effective given the needs and
culture of the program and organization.
Rohit Bhargava (2011) identified five distinct models of curation that serve different
sources and purposes:
 Aggregation is the act of curating the most relevant information about a
particular topic into a single location.
 Distillation is the act of curating information into a more simplistic format
where only the most important or relevant ideas are shared.
 Elevation refers to curation with a mission of identifying a larger trend or
insight from smaller daily musings posted online.
 Mashups are unique, curated juxtapositions in which merging existing content
is used to create a new point of view.
 Chronology organizes historical information based on time to show an
evolving understanding of a particular topic.
TD professionals should incorporate more than one of these five curation models
when developing the governance structure. The decision on which to use is based

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on different knowledge content sources (internal or external) and according to the
knowledge consumption needs. Further, because content is not knowledge, curation
requires active participation with the knowledge sources to ensure that accurate
context in maintained. While the content objects can be managed by a traditional
library function, an effective knowledge curation system requires the input of
knowledge experts.
Establishing an effective curation process requires:
 Determining who owns the curation function. The owner typically acts in
an oversight capacity to ensure that contributors, reviewers, and approvers
meet their functional obligations and that the system remained healthy (from a
knowledge content perspective).
 Establishing processes for content intake, review, maintenance, and
removal. This includes who can contribute, what content must be reviewed,
who the reviewers are, where approvals are required (for inclusion and
deletion). It also outlines the process to support (for example, is there a
transition period between content marked for removal and its actual removal
or archival?).
 Ensuring the quality, authenticity, impartiality, and relevance of
information. This requires TD professionals to establish measures by content
type or source outlining the minimum acceptable levels for these criteria (for
example, specific credential requirements for expert sources, attributions, or
age of content).
 Designing a governing structure and cadence for ongoing
oversight. This addresses who has responsibility at each level, frequency of
reviews, and corrective actions for knowledge content breaches (such as
poorly curated, incorrect, or expired data).

2.5.5.2 Identify the Quality, Authenticity, Impartiality, and Relevance of Information

Curation of both internal and external knowledge sources is important. A KM
program will fail quickly if members doubt the veracity, quality, or timeliness of the
knowledge being shared. TD professionals need to account for the quality of the
content and embody a process to address the essential content attributes. They
need to determine if the content is:
 accurate and is the right content
 authentic
 in the correct context for use
 from a credible creator
 complete and comprehensive
 just enough, so it’s not overwhelming
 bias free
 high priority
 easy to find, learn, and use

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  reinforcing, not contradicting, other content
 copyright protected or owned elsewhere
 recent and removed when expired.
[See 3.7.1.1]

2.5.6 Skill in Organizing and Synthesizing Information From Multiple Sources

I. Map Information From Knowledge Sources to Application

TD professionals should understand the methods for mapping knowledge sources to
the appropriate application of that knowledge for organizational outcomes.

2.5.6.1 Use the Performance Chain as an Organizing Framework

Once mapped, knowledge content, much like information, can seem overwhelming in
quantity and total volume to the person accessing it. This is particularly true if similar
or complementary knowledge sources are involved in serving the same need. TD
professionals should be able to organize this content in a way that is accessible and
actionable.
Since their primary focus is in the service of accomplishing measurable business or
organizational results, TD professionals’ focus should be performance. By using an
HPI approach, they can align the knowledge sources along the performance chain to
the appropriate point and level of need. For example, a knowledge element is
required to make a decision in the sequence of tasks in a work process, or a
knowledge element is necessary to recognize key facilitators or barriers in the
production of an individual performance outcome. Using an HPI approach allows TD
professionals to map back from the desired job outcomes to the work processes and
assign or align the knowledge sources to the specific point of need. Decisions can
then be made on whether those needs are met through internalization or external
reference.
Synthesis is another important element in the organization process. Simply arranging
many similar versions of the same information creates confusion rather than
minimizing it. Synthesis in KM has the effect of separating the signal from the noise
—it is a means of sense-making, where several sources are brought together to
present the knowledge concept in a condensed and actionable form. This process is
increasingly important to the successful adoption and effectiveness of KM systems,
because the quantity of available knowledge content is growing exponentially. [See
2.5.5]
The process of synthesis involves five steps:
1. Framing the knowledge element. What need is being served by this
knowledge content?
2. Gathering material from varied sources. What are the sources of this
content?

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 3. Fitting the parts together. Where do the sources overlap, conflict, converge,
or diverge?
4. Achieving a synthesis. Which source (based on curation governance
criteria) takes precedence in a conflict, and how will similar information be
merged? [See 2.5.5.1]
5. Unifying. How will the knowledge elements come together into a unified and
consumable knowledge content source?

2.5.7 Skill in Curating Instructional Content, Tools, and Resources

I. Curating Content, Tools, and Resources for Knowledge Management

TD professionals should be knowledgeable of the methods, tools, and resources that
support KM curation efforts.

2.5.7.1 Curate All Organizational Content

TD professionals should evaluate the appropriate instructional and learning elements

from various sources to support knowledge requirements in the broader knowledge
system. They should assess learning content, both internal and external to the
organization, against the knowledge map to determine where there is appropriate
application. This is an ongoing activity that falls into the cadence established under
the KM program governance. [See 2.5.5.1]
 Evaluation and curation apply to all organizational learning content, including:
 instructional content—review cycles, shelf life, and applicability, as well as
reviewing against current knowledge needs
 user generated content—SME or expert review, timing, approvals, retiring of
content, and notification processes
 SME generated content—secondary review, approval process, notifications,
retiring of content, archiving, and access
 public domain content—inclusion decisions, access, and disclaimers
 third-party content—review and acquisition cycles, applicability to
performance review, and legal and usage review.

Applying KM in Talent Development

2.5.8 Skill in Identifying the Type and Amount of Information Needed to

Support TD Activities

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I. Identifying Information for Talent Development
TD professionals recognize that knowledge, performance, and development are
linked and must continuously identify and clarify the relationship between elements.

2.5.8.1 What Knowledge and Information Is Necessary at Discrete Levels of

Development

By undertaking the KM process through the lens of performance—establishing the

knowledge requirements by role that are necessary for organizational success—TD
professionals can create a clear hierarchy to manage the talent development
process.
This allows for the direct application of the knowledge needs to the various levels
and solutions deployed in talent development, such as:
 Courses. TD professionals can instruct learners in knowledge requirements,
how to acquire subsequent knowledge from the expert sources, and where to
find it.
 Curricula. TD professionals can group and balance subjects and courses to
develop talent according to knowledge progressions.
 Career progression. Knowledge needs, sources, and contributions vary by
level and are mapped accordingly. TD professionals can determine and
measure how well the performer is able to leverage knowledge to the
production of outcomes and how much knowledge is created and contributed.
 Succession planning. Knowledge forms the basis for decisions around
succession because needs and capabilities can be examined by role and
level and measured by performer. This provides further leverage in
determining the appropriate developmental paths for succession.

2.5.8.2 Connect Sources to Requirements for Effective Talent Development

In the past, the notion of knowledge in an organization was that of the gatekeeper:
the individual who held the secrets necessary to achieve the results. These secrets
could be internal, like best practices and process innovations, or external, like key
suppliers or information sources. Often, talent management efforts were targeted at
identifying these individuals and focusing on developing successors.
For TD professionals, the fusion of talent management and knowledge management
holds important competitive implications. The successful generation, capture,
transfer, and dissemination of knowledge is heavily dependent upon and intimately
entangled with the effective management of talent. Specifically, it takes the support
of a consistent set of management practices to capture, codify, and share knowledge
and know-how and to ensure whether it is fully used to achieve organizational
objectives. The goal is to identify the knowledge requirements at each level in the TD
process and embed that information in the TD approach.

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2.5.8.3 Need to Integrate Knowledge Solutions Directly in the Workflow

One of the best applications of knowledge is to embed it directly in the workflow. In

this way, the knowledge need not be referenced or called upon through recollection
of learning by the performer, but rather is embedded in the structural knowledge of
the “way things are done.”

2.5.9 Skill in Developing, Managing, Facilitating, and Supporting Knowledge

Networks and Communities of Practice

I. Develop and Manage KM Networks and Communities of Practice

TD professionals should understand how to form, develop, and manage communities
of practice in service of KM initiatives.

2.5.9.1 Identify and Leverage Formal and Informal KM Systems in the Organization

Both formal and informal KM systems exist in most organizations. Typical examples
include knowledge networks and communities of practice. Knowledge networks are
informal, such as a group of geographically dispersed people with proper
communications and technology that connect them to create, share, and disseminate
knowledge; communities of practice are more formal—a group of people with a
shared interest or concern who interact regularly in a structured format. Knowledge
networks and communities of practice are important factors in the long-term viability
of and engagement in a KM system. As such, TD professionals should ensure the
appropriate steps are taken to sustain these structures.
 There are important distinctions between communities of practice and knowledge
networks. Etienne Wenger (1999), a global leader in community of practice
development, described three important dimensions:
 Domain. People organize around a domain of knowledge, which gives
members a sense of joint enterprise and brings them together. Members
identify with the domain and joint undertaking that emerges from shared
understanding of their situation.
 Community. People function as a community through relationships of mutual
engagement, which bind members together into a social entity. They interact
regularly and engage in joint activities that build relationship and trust.
 Practice. People build capability in practice by developing a shared repertoire
and resources, such as tools, documents, routines, vocabulary, symbols, and
artifacts that embody the community’s accumulated knowledge. This shared
repertoire serves as a foundation for future learning.
Knowledge networks are based on need, and relationships are always shifting and
changing as people connect around specific knowledge requirements. These
networks develop and exist primarily in informal structures with the sole purpose of
collecting and passing along information and knowledge. They tend to be more
informal because no joint enterprise holds them together, as opposed to a

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community of practice, which requires a sense of mission or shared accomplishment
or understanding.

2.5.9.2 Considerations for Establishing KM Systems

TD professionals should be involved if their organizations establish a KM system,

and should help make decisions about various elements, including:
 Organization structure. KM systems can be formal or informal, and this
structure will affect how knowledge flows and is treated across the broader
organization. Formal structures, while easier to control and measure can
affect the free flow of knowledge. Informal structures, while harder to control,
can be managed through project or cross-functional teams, teamwork, or peer
networks.
 Staffing. In a formal KM system, staffing must be accounted for and
questions around staffing answered. A decision must be made about whether
the KM system will be a discrete function, or an add-on set of responsibilities.
 Roles and responsibilities. There are a number of roles within the KM
system that can be filled depending on the size of the organization, the
formality of the system, and the extent of the knowledge being managed.
Typical roles include chief knowledge officer (CKO), KM program manager,
KM project manager, KM director, operations KM director, KM author, KM
lead, KM liaison, KM specialist, KM system administrator, knowledge
engineer, knowledge architect, KM writer, knowledge manager, and KM
analyst.
 Incentives. The system is only effective if it is consistently and continuously
used. Rewards and incentives are required to encourage participants to use
the system by contributing, applying and using the information, reviewing and
updating content, and doing any other tasks associated with system’s health
and maintenance.
 Standards, processes, and metrics. To be effective, the system must have
effective processes and standards, which should be designed to ensure the
fidelity of knowledge assets and sources, veracity of current knowledge under
management, and routine and agreed upon disposition of both current and
retired knowledge elements. All systems and processes should be
continuously measured for access, availability, and use to ensure everything
is healthy and functioning according to standard.
 Advocacy. The program should establish communication channels and
designate champions across the organization to advocate for participation in
and use of the knowledge system.

2.5.9.3 Critical Success Factors for Communities of Practice

While having an organic quality about them, communities of practice require specific
effort targeted at a definite set of success factors and a deliberate approach to

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formation and governance. Some critical success factors for communities of practice
include:
 Peer identification. Allow and encourage members of the emerging
community to identify peers for membership. Help establish clear criteria to
ensure the selection process is fair and encourages development and
participation. Peers place a great deal of trust in the “best” among them—
leveraging this trust helps the community succeed.
 Value to user. Clarify the purpose. Members should be aware of and support
the community’s mission, activities, and purpose. Establishing clear value to
the user can drive adoption.
 Easy to use. Make it easy—if participants have to work to join or participate,
many will forgo the extra effort. Identify and procure tools to support the
community for communications, remote meetings, remote collaboration,
knowledge capture, polling, voting on ideas, and so on.
 Make it special. Create a system of nomination, approval, and rewards for
the community. Even small rewards can drive big changes in behavior.
 Community leadership. Rotating leadership through the community and
allowing members to contribute broadly creates a sense of shared ownership
and responsibility.
 Support from the top. Ensure that leadership is fully supportive and present
in the community. Schedule periodic leadership involvement in the form of
community updates or readouts.
 Minimal oversight. Allow the community to be self-administered and self-
sustaining to the extent possible.
 Trusting culture. Ensure continuous emphasis on an open and trusting
mutual exchange of ideas and knowledge.

2.5.9.4 Development Stages for Communities of Practice

With these factors in mind, TD professionals should consider five stages of

development when creating communities of practice (Wenger 1999). Each stage
requires a different set of activities and opportunities for support:
 Potential. At this stage there is a loose network of people with similar issues
and needs. People need to find each other, discover common ground, and
prepare for a community.
 Coalescing. At this stage people come together and launch a community.
They find value in engaging in learning activities and designing a community.
 Maturing. The community takes charge of its practice and grows. Members
set standards, define a learning agenda, and deal with growth. By now, they
are engaging in joint activities, creating artifacts, and developing commitment
and relationships.

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  Active. The community is established and goes through cycles of activities.
They need ways to sustain energy, renew interest, educate novices, find a
voice, and gain influence.
 Dispersing. The community has outlived its usefulness and people move on.
The challenges are about letting go, defining a legacy, and keeping in touch.

2.5.9.5 Looking to the Future of KM for Talent Development

There has been a recent trend in the TD world to talk about the “death of KM.”
People make broad pronouncements about knowledge management “fading from
the organizational landscape,” or being a “forgotten fad.” To deny that KM has had
and continues to face challenges would be disingenuous. There have certainly been
challenges, and there have been many abandoned initiatives. There’s less interest
and fewer internet searches on the topic. For example, Bain’s Management Tools
and Trends survey didn’t even list knowledge management in the top 25 tools for the
most recent surveys in 2013, 2015, or 2017 (Rigby and Bilodeau 2013, 2015, and
2018).
It is important that TD professionals help their organizations get beyond common KM
challenges and promote the continued need for a deliberate approach in identifying,
cataloging, and connecting knowledge to performance.
The need for KM to prevent redundant effort, avoid repetition of mistakes, and take
advantage of the expertise and experience of others in the organization will be
around for some time to come, even in the face of competing approaches and
evolving technologies. TD professionals should connect KM programs with the
needs of their target audience and the associated benefits. They should also
continue to focus on connecting the intangible assets embodied as organizational
knowledge to the organization’s talent.

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