1.

2 Emotional Intelligence & Decision Making

Emotional intelligence and the ability to make good decisions are

paramount to professional success. Emotional intelligence is the ability
to understand, assess, and regulate your own emotions, correctly
interpret the verbal and nonverbal behaviors of others, and adjust your
behavior in relation to others. Emotional intelligence is a key strength in
building rapport. Decision making requires one to determine the need
and importance of making a decision, identify choices, gather
information about choices, and take action on the appropriate choice.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

1.2.1 Knowledge of Theories of Emotional Intelligence

I. Emotional Intelligence Models and Theories

TD professionals should understand and implement emotional
intelligence as a starting point for most of their professional and personal
interactions.

1.2.1.1 History

In the beginning of the 20th century, a formal means of measuring

intelligence was developed—the IQ (intelligence quotient) test. IQ is
measured using a standardized score based on a ratio of age and
performance. In recent years, other theories have been proposed using
IQ as a springboard to focus on people’s emotional intelligence.
Although many people have the misconception that EQ and IQ are
opposed, they are actually just different. Whereas IQ measures how
people learn, understand, and apply information, EQ measures how
individuals learn, understand, and apply emotional knowledge. For
example, an EQ (emotional quotient) score reflects how well individuals
understand their own and other’s emotions, distinguish between them,
and use that knowledge to guide their actions and behaviours. 
The term emotional intelligence (EI) has been around for more than a
half century and it has been presented in various publications over the
years. In 1964 Michael Beldoch used the term in a paper. In

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1983 Howard Gardner introduced his multiple intelligence theory, which
included interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence to show that IQ
failed to explain the complete cognitive ability. Peter Salovey and John
Mayer published the first EI model in 1990. Marc Brackett, founding
director of the Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence and lead developer
of RULER, has produced more than 125 articles related to EI. RULER
(recognizing, understanding, labeling, expressing, and regulating
emotions) is an evidence-based approach to emotional learning
(Brackett 2019). [See 2.2.1 and 2.3.5]
Even with many people researching and writing about EI, it wasn’t until
Daniel Goleman’s book Emotional Intelligence was published in 1995
that the term became widely known. In his book, Goleman presented the
argument that non-cognitive skills can matter as much as IQ for
workplace success and leadership effectiveness. 

1.2.1.2 Definitions

Emotional intelligence is the potential to monitor and accurately identify,

express, and understand one's own and others' emotions and reactions.
It also includes the potential to control personal emotions, use them to
make good decisions, and act effectively (Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso
1998). Individuals are born with the potential to develop their EI
capabilities and are influenced through their life experiences—most
notably what they learned emotionally from their parents, teachers, and
acquaintances during their formative years. 
Emotional quotient (EQ) implies a measure, but EI instruments don’t
measure emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence, by definition,
emphasizes an individual’s ability to apply knowledge of emotions to
manage their own behavior or to influence others. Even the best EQ test
only measures knowledge of emotions and how they work—it can’t
evaluate the ability to put that knowledge into action. EI assessments
are valuable because they provide insight into the knowledge, a place to
start. While it is acceptable to use EQ as shorthand to refer to an
individual’s knowledge of emotions, recognize that the two terms are not
interchangeable. By definition, emotional intelligence is a practical ability.
And while a person may comprehend the principles of how emotions
work, it is the application of that knowledge that truly defines EI.

1.2.1.3 Research on EI

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A number of studies demonstrate the value of EI and nearly every facet
of work is influenced positively or negatively by emotional awareness
and regulation. An individual’s emotional state can positively affect
memory and learning; boost confidence to make better decisions;
improve connections and effective working relationships with others;
cause physiological reactions that affect health and well-being; and
enhance creativity (Brackett 2019). It even affects something as practical
as earnings, which have been shown to be an average of $29,000 more
per year for those who have a high EI (Bradberry and Greaves 2009).

1.2.1.3.1 Benefits of EI

A study by J. Mayer (2008) found that higher emotional intelligence is

positively correlated with several worthy results, including:
 better self-perception of social ability, more successful
interpersonal relationships, and less interpersonal aggression and
problems
 being perceived by others as more pleasant, socially skilled, and
empathic to be around
 better relationships with family and colleagues
 increased social dynamics at work as well as better negotiating
ability
 higher life satisfaction and self-esteem and lower levels of
insecurity or depression; the study also found a
negative correlation with poor health choices and behaviour.

1.2.1.3.2 Criticism of the Models and Theory

There has been some confusion and controversy concerning EI. To be

fully informed, TD professionals should know that there are concerns
that the model confuses skills with morals and that EI does not have
predictive outcomes academically or in business (Landy
2005). Measurement of the model is also a concern because it is based
on self-assessment (Salazar 2017). However, even with these concerns,
EI is a critical skill for success in both one’s personal and professional
endeavours.

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1.2.1.3.3 The Future of EI
Bradberry is positive about the future of EI, stating that although some
research has shown a drop in the average EI measures around the
globe, practice is the key to bringing scores up.

1.2.1.4 Three Models

Three main models of emotional intelligence exist—the ability model, the

mixed model, and the trait model—and each requires different
instruments to measure emotional intelligence. Although some of the
measures overlap, most researchers agree that they tap different
constructs.

1.2.1.4.1 Ability Model

Salovey and Mayer (1990), the creators of the ability model, define
emotional intelligence as “the capacity to reason about emotions, and of
emotions, to enhance thinking.” The model requires that people be
evaluated in four related abilities to determine their EI:
 perceiving emotions involves understanding verbal and nonverbal
signals
 reasoning with emotions means using emotions to solve problems
or review situations
 using and understanding emotions means to use the two previous
abilities to analyze emotions and chose an action
 managing emotions involves regulating emotions to respond
appropriately and correctly to other’s emotions (Salazar 2017).

1.2.1.4.2 Mixed Model

The mixed model, which is built on five competencies, is called a mixed

model because it mixes emotional intelligence qualities with other
personality traits unrelated to either emotion or intelligence. The five
categories are self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and
social skills. The competencies are learned capabilities that must be
worked on and can be developed. [See 1.2.2]

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1.2.1.4.3 Trait Model

The trait model is the most recent model, developed by Petrides and his
colleagues (2007). The model is different in that it is not an ability-based
construct. Instead, it establishes that people have “emotional traits or
emotional self-perceptions” as a part of their personality. EI is viewed as
individuals’ “self-perceptions of their emotional abilities including
behavioural abilities” (Salazar 2017). Measures are based on self-
reporting.

1.2.2 Skill in Assessing and Managing One’s Own Emotional State

I. Managing Personal Emotions

TD professionals should be skilled in monitoring, identifying, and
controlling their emotions and reactions.

1.2.2.1 Goleman’s Five Competencies

Goleman’s Mixed Model presents five main areas that define emotional
intelligence. The five components can be divided into two groups:
personal and social. Personal includes self-awareness, self-regulation,
and motivation. Social includes empathy and social skills. In addition, the
five competencies encompass 25 emotional intelligence characteristics.
Personal Competencies
 Self-awareness. Self-awareness entails knowing one’s own
internal states, preferences, resources, and intuitions. Those who
are strong in self-awareness can monitor their emotional state and
realize what they are feeling and why.
 Self-regulation. The capacity to self-regulate means being able to
manage one’s internal states, impulses, and resources. People
who are strong in self-regulation, also called self-
management, can control or redirect their impulses and moods in
the moment. This involves the ability to suspend judgment and
think before responding, even in difficult situations.
 Motivation. Motivation involves the ability to understand emotional
tendencies that facilitate reaching goals. A person who is strong in
motivation demonstrates an internal passion to achieve and
pursues goals with energy and commitment (Sallie-Dosunmu
2016).
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Social Competencies
 Empathy. Recognizing emotional needs in others and effectively
supporting them in the way that they require is a key to
interpersonal relationships. It is the ability to view and understand
other’s feelings, needs, and concerns.
 Social skills. Social skills involve managing relationships and
building networks in a way that results in being looked on favorably
by others. A person who excels at social skills can find common
ground with others in a way that builds rapport and connection.

1.2.2.2 Brackett’s RULER Model

Marc Brackett (2019) of The Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence is the
lead designer of the RULER model. This evidence-based approach
model focuses on understanding the importance of emotions and
enhancing the skills of EI to build and maintain a positive culture. There
are five skills in the RULER model approach:
 Recognizing emotions in the self and in others is the first step to
being able to understand anyone’s emotional state.
 Understanding emotions, what causes them, and the
consequences that they cause; Brackett believes this is the most
challenging to learn.
 Labeling emotions by using precise words increases the ability to
meet other’s needs, thus ensuring true empathy.
 Expressing emotions is the point where individuals take action and
do something about the emotions they are feeling.
 Regulating emotions is the final level, where individuals implement
helpful strategies to choose what emotions they will have and
when.

1.2.2.3 Developing Skills to Improve EI

EI is flexible and can be improved through concerted and conscious

efforts at self-improvement (Bradberry and Greaves 2009). TD
professionals who want to develop their emotional intelligence need to
put an improvement plan together. The plan should include these steps:
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 1. Understand the concepts.
2. Identify a current baseline.
 Complete a self-assessment.
 Gather feedback from others (such as from a multi-rater).
 Examine personal reactions to stressful situations.
 Review how current actions affect others.
 Take responsibility for the actions.        
3. Create a development plan.
 Assess motives for change.
 Identify goals.
 Determine how to manage negative emotions.
 Be mindful of vocabulary.
 Identify stressors.
4. Practice the skills and behaviors.
5. Learn resiliency skills.
6. Acquire insight from a mentor or coach.

1.2.3 Skill in Identifying Personal Biases That Influence One’s Own

Cognition and Behavior

I. Understanding the Relationship of Bias to EI

TD professionals who understand EI and the roots of bias are better
equipped to change their behaviour and increase their EI.

1.2.3.1 Roots of Bias, Prejudice, and Discrimination

Bias, prejudice, and discrimination are kinds of emotional learning that

begin in childhood. According to Goleman (2006), it’s almost impossible
to eliminate the emotions of prejudice because they are formed early in
life. They are then strengthened later in life because the stereotype has
been formed and it is easier to support the stereotype then to deny it.
[See 1.4.2.1 and 1.4.5.3]

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Many people’s experiences generally involve being with people similar to
them, which means that their viewpoints often go unchallenged, thus
reinforcing for them that their view is correct, even if it is not. Eventually,
people’s brains consistently see patterns and look for what is similar
(Rabotin 2011). As a result, the stereotype becomes stronger.

1.2.3.2 Methods for Uncovering Personal Biases

Uncovering bias is the first step in removing it from the workplace. Bias
can be identified by:
 admitting to having biases
 reviewing internal conversations
 attending professional affinity groups to better understand bias,
prejudice, and discrimination
 seeking out regular feedback about personal behaviors and
actions
 evaluating personal actions daily
 being proactive about recognizing people’s different capabilities
 taking steps to actively support anyone who might feel like an
outsider (Wilkie 2014).

1.2.3.3 Effects of Bias

TD professionals should recognize how destructive bias and prejudice

can be. Biases can not only cost companies financially in legal suits,
they also affect a company’s reputation—preventing it from hiring the
best employees, affecting performance and engagement, resulting in
pay discrimination, and negatively affecting recruitment and retention.

1.2.3.4 Personal Bias and Prejudice

Research of hidden bias shows that the human brain is wired to make
quick decisions. These decisions are based on assumptions and
experiences and sometimes even injudicious generalizations causing
people to make incorrect judgements and decisions that may be totally
unconscious (Wilkie 2014).

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Most people have biases of some sort, and this is not a sign of an
inadequate or bad person. EI can help when speaking up against these
biases, which is why TD professionals need to have it.
TD professionals can address personal bias in the workplace. The
following strategies help TD professionals know what they should do:
 Encourage the discussion of biases. Self-awareness is the first
step, with everyone owning up to having biases before they can be
addressed.
 Be aware of the impact that biases may have on decision making
within the organization and discuss how biases can potentially
impede progress toward organizational goals.
 Survey employees about their experiences with unconscious
biases, as well as hidden barriers that may exist within the
organization. Tailor TD solutions according to the results.
 Implement policies and practices that ensure unconscious biases
are not impeding efforts toward developing an inclusive and
diverse workplace. For example, review all hiring and interviewing
policies. [See 1.4]

1.2.3.5 Personal Empathy for TD Professionals

According to Goleman (HBR Press 2019), when people exhibit empathy

(one of the five EI competencies) they exhibit three distinct kinds. Each
one is important for effectiveness:
 Cognitive empathy is the ability to understand another’s
perspective. It enables TD professionals to explain themselves in
meaningful ways.
 Emotional empathy is the ability to feel what someone else feels.
TD professionals require emotional empathy to develop and coach
others, to interact with stakeholders, and for reading group
dynamics.
 Empathic concern is the ability to sense what one person needs
from another. Empathic concern enables a TD professional to
sense not just how people feel, but what they need. This is
important for TD professionals who are in a support function
intended to provide the organization and its employees what is
needed.

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1.2.4 Skill in Observing and Interpreting the Verbal and Non-Verbal
Behavior of Individuals or Groups

I. Interpreting Verbal and Non-Verbal Behaviour

TD professionals should excel at interpreting verbal and non-verbal
behavior of individuals and groups.

1.2.4.1 Practical Skills to Improve Effectiveness

Whether TD professionals are aware or not, they are constantly

communicating—giving and receiving messages. TD professionals can
improve and strengthen their messages and how they send them by
following these guidelines:
 Send consistent messages—with matching verbal and non-verbal
messages (for example, it would be difficult to understand a
message if individuals are saying “yes” while shaking their heads
“no”).
 Strengthen a message by repeating it.
 Ensure that facial expression conveys what is intended (for
example, a frown may indicate either concentration or
disapproval). Some facial expressions are universal and can
indicate happy, sad, fear, anger, uncertainty, surprise, disgust, and
others.
 Ensure eye contact sends the right message; use direct eye
contact to show interest but not so direct that it is intimidating.
 Confirm that posture and movement sends a message of interest
and focus.
 Communicate through positive touch, such as a handshake, a pat
on the back, or controlling grip.
 Attend to how others speak, including timing and pace, volume,
inflection and tone, and avoiding fillers, such as “um” or “like.”
It’s also important for the TD professional to read others’ non-verbal
behavior so they comprehend the entire message. TD professionals
need to focus on nonverbal behavior in several ways: [See 1.1.2.3]
 Read the combined nonverbal signals and avoid reading too much
into a single gesture.

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  Attend to inconsistencies.
 Listen to and trust instincts if things don’t seem right or if there are
mixed messages.
 Look for eye contact, facial expression, posture, tone of voice,
intensity, physical contact, or non-word sounds that indicate
concern or interest.
 Check for confused looks when speaking to others, ask if they
understand a reference, and assure others that it is acceptable to
ask questions if they do not. 

1.2.4.2 Observing Behavior in Groups

The challenge in a group is simply that the TD professional must read 10

or 20 to 40 people in one setting. A skilled TD professional can
overcome the challenges by connecting with everyone—scanning the
entire group while at the same time making eye contact with individuals.
They will ensure that they balance their focus on every part of the room,
recognizing the location that they focus on the least (usually the side of
the room on their non-dominant side). They will communicate by learning
to silently signal to people when they want them to hold a question. They
will watch for those in the group who have tuned out, who talk
excessively, and who are disagreeable, and they have techniques to
address each. They will use break time to touch base with those who
may need encouragement, advice, support, or feedback.

1.2.4.3 Observing and Interpreting Behavior in Virtual Groups

When forming a virtual group, TD professionals must be sure to

establish rules of engagement before beginning the work, project, or
course. When a follow-on meeting is held, TD professionals recognize
that the first step is to ensure that all members of the virtual group have
received and digested the same communications and have completed
any between-session tasks.
They need to communicate between official meetings to prevent
problems, show respect, and be supportive. They should observe
behaviors between sessions, such as limited written communication,
slowness to respond, or late or incomplete tasks. They should also start
each group meeting with a check in. TD professionals should ensure that
everyone is contributing and ask direct questions if anyone isn’t. These

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observations could signal that there is a problem—or not. Astute TD
professionals will hold off on interpreting the behavior until they have all
the facts. 

1.2.4.4 Connecting EI to Talent Development

TD professionals should find ways to practice and model EI skills. They

could, for example, create an EI development plan that includes some of
these items:
 Self-Awareness Tactics
o Keep a journal about their emotions.
o Seek feedback.
o Observe the ripple effect from their emotions.
 Self-Management Tactics
o Learn to sleep on it or to count to 10.
o Interview a skilled self-manager.
o Control their self-talk.
 Social Awareness Tactics
o Plan ahead for social gatherings.
o Greet people by name.
o Practice observing and addressing body language.
 Relationship Management Tactics
o Tackle a difficult conversation.
o Acknowledge others’ feelings.
o Build trust (Bradberry and Greaves 2009; Nadler 2011).
TD professionals should also be prepared to develop and coach others
to enhance their EI skills. They may want to suggest that the individual
begins with an assessment. They can then coach them to design a
developmental plan that could include some of the same tactics. [See
2.7]

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1.2.5 Skill in Adjusting Own Behavior in Response to or
Anticipation of Changes in Others’ Behavior, Attitudes, or
Thoughts

I. Developing Emotional Intelligence

TD professionals should be able to monitor and identify others’
behaviors and attitudes, and appropriately adjust their own behaviour.

1.2.5.1 Situations When Changing One’s Behavior Is Required

Many situations exist when TD professionals need to adjust their

behavior or understand the situation from another’s point of view. They
will then decide what skills are needed and practice so that they’re
prepared for things such as: 
 anticipating individual behavior, attitudes, or thoughts
 observing verbal and non-verbal messages in groups
 making a difficult decision
 addressing challenging situations.

1.2.5.2 Using Goleman’s Five Competencies [See 1.2.2]

TD professionals should understand that knowledge of EI is a start, but

ultimately they need to implement EI skills, such as:
 Self-Awareness
o Create a list of strengths and talents that build confidence.
o Seek development in areas that are not strengths.
 Self-Regulation
o Demonstrate a willingness to try new things.
o Read a book or attend a class on resiliency.
 Motivation
o Establish a set of personal goals that align with the
department and the organization.
o Volunteer for the next cross-functional team.

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  Empathy
o Seek an individual who may not always appear to fit in and
build a relationship with that person.
o Anticipate a customer’s needs and create a plan to address
them.
 Social Skills
o Practice active listening and obtain feedback from a
colleague.
o Collaborate with others to help them meet their needs.

1.2.5.3 Develop and Adjust Behavior to Improve EI

TD professionals should be aware of situations and be able to adjust

their behavior to improve the outcome. The ability to stay calm in difficult
situations is highly valued—especially in professional situations. TD
professionals can develop this ability by reflecting on their own emotions.
They can also ask others for their perspectives of past situations and
explore why they may have reacted as they did, what triggered the
reaction, and what they could do differently.

1.2.5.4 EI in the Workplace

Current workplaces require everyone to have EI. Leaders who

demonstrate high levels of EI set an example and encourage employee
engagement, lower levels of turnover, and increased levels of
productivity. It is also important that individual contributors demonstrate
EI for improved communication and collaboration. Workplace
characteristics that hasten the need for EI include:
 need to improve engagement
 requirements for diversity and inclusion
 increased globalization
 increased use of technology
 increased need for acquiring and retaining employees
 collaboration and managing priorities
 need for assuring a competitive advantage.

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 

1.2.6 Knowledge of Techniques and Approaches to Learn or

Demonstrate Resilience

I. Developing Resilience
Setbacks are a part of life and TD professionals need to examine how
they respond to adversity and then practice resiliency.

1.2.6.1 Definition and Characteristics of Resilience

Resilience (or resiliency) is the capacity to adapt and recover quickly

when something does not go as planned. There are four characteristics
that everyone can develop to build resilience (Hanson 2018):
 Recognizing that a challenge is not a paralyzing event. Failures
and mistakes are lessons to be learned and opportunities for
growth.
 Resourcing to find the confidence and commitment to continue to
work toward personal and professional goals, no matter the
setback.
 Regulating thoughts, feelings, and actions to remain positive and
learn from daily events. It also means treating others with
compassion and empathy.
 Relating skillfully to others and the wider world.

1.2.6.2 Value of Resilience

Resilient employees are physically and mentally healthier, which saves

organizations money. In addition, a resilient workforce exhibits higher
productivity and tends to be more willing to learn new skills or take on
new roles. Resilient employees perform better under pressure,
maintaining their composure when things around them are uncertain—
which is certainly good in these ongoing times of constant change. 
Resilience has become a growing focus for many employers and
resilience training programs are becoming increasingly prevalent in
organizations (Kohill 2017). 

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1.2.6.3 Techniques to Learn and Practice Resilience

TD professionals develop and maintain resilience in several ways,

starting with the basics of exercising regularly, getting enough sleep, and
maintaining a healthy diet. Resilience also requires thinking positively
and learning from mistakes. There are a variety of skills that can develop
this ability, including:
 building strong relationships with colleagues and friends
 practicing a technique such as meditation or mindfulness
 practicing thought awareness and preventing negative thoughts
from derailing efforts
 practicing cognitive restructuring to change the perception of
negative situations
 setting measurable personal goals that align with personal values
 finding the power in learning from mistakes and failures
 choosing positive responses in words and actions
 maintaining perspective of events to life
 finding purpose in life.

1.2.6.4 Helping Others Improve Resilience

Teaching resilience is one thing that TD professionals can do to help

others improve resilience, but they should also ensure measures are in
place to foster resilience in the workplace, such as:
 coaching leaders to lead by example and build resilience at the
leadership level
 fostering a sense of purpose by encouraging employees to find
meaning in the work they do
 ensuring the organization has a culture and plan that supports
change
 encouraging employee teaming and connections on the job and
socially
 encouraging healthy habits
 creating a positive, flexible, and pleasant atmosphere.

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DECISION MAKING

1.2.7 Knowledge of Decision-Making Models

I. Making Decisions
TD professionals should use a methodical decision-making process that
enables everyone who needs to be involved to contribute ideas and play
an appropriate role in making the decision.

1.2.7.1 Problem-Solving Processes

Problems may be solved more effectively when an organized procedure

is followed. Using a process for making decisions helps people
remember each step required to reach the best decision. Many
processes exist but most follow these six steps:
1. Define the problem.
2. Research and analyze the problem.
3. Establish a checklist of criteria for use in evaluating possible
solutions.
4. List all possible alternatives.
5. Select the best alternative and discuss how to implement it.
6. Monitor implementation and modify it if required.
Most people begin at the fourth step, skipping three important steps—
effective decision making depends on defining the problem. A problem is
a discrepancy between what is and what should be. It should be stated
in the form of a question; for example, "How can we reduce the number
of errors on the production line?" is better than "Develop a plan to
improve quality."
TD professionals can use these guidelines for developing questions that
lead to better decisions (Quinlivan-Hall and Renner 1990):
 How questions suggest a process.
 Where questions indicate locations.
 Who questions identify the people involved.

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  When questions point to time.
 What questions sort process and content.
The more specific the question, the more successful the decision making
will be.

1.2.7.2 Decision-Making Models

TD professionals should be aware of several well-known decision-

making models.
 The Kepner-Tregoe Decision-Making Methodology is one of the
oldest formal methods used in organizations. This structured
process for gathering, prioritizing, and evaluating information was
developed by Charles H. Kepner and Benjamin B. Tregoe in the
1960s, and is respected in business management circles. An
important aspect of Kepner-Tregoe decision making is the
assessment and prioritizing of risk. The idea is not to find a perfect
solution, but rather the best possible choice. The process—which
involves listing “must haves,” “want to haves,” and restraints—
attempts to limit conscious and unconscious biases that draw
attention away from the outcome. The alternatives are rated
against these three items and weighted. The step-by-step
approach makes it easy to use, especially when there are many
potential options (Kepner and Tregoe 1997).
 The Vroom-Yetton-Jago Decision Model is based on the fact
that not all decisions are worthy of the same amount of time
investment. The TD professional begins by examining three factors
to analyze the decision: the importance of the decision quality, the
need for subordinate commitment or buy-in, and time constraints.
Depending upon the results of this examination, one of three
leadership styles is assigned to make the decision: autocratic,
consultative, or collaborative (MindTools ND).
 The OODA Loop includes four stages: observe, orient, decide,
and act. Although three of the four stages are self-explanatory,
“orient” usually needs further clarification. Orient means that
the problem solvers need to orient themselves to the new
information and not be swayed by past experiences (Ullman 2007).
 Paired Comparison Analysis uses a comparison matrix to pair
each option with all other options to decide which is the preferred

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 one. It is most useful when many competing options are involved
(Free Management Books ND).
 The Delphi Technique uses a carefully designed list of questions
that is developed and refined in several rounds. Participants’ ideas
are confronted as the group of experts work toward a consensus
through step-by-step feedback on one another’s answers. It is
often compared to brainstorming, but there is no direct group
interaction when using the Delphi Technique (Mulder 2017).

1.2.7.3 Decision-Making Approaches

Decision making can be done by individuals or groups and teams.

Several approaches are available to both.
Individual decision-making methods include:
 A decisional balance sheet listing the advantages and
disadvantages (pros and cons) of each option. This process was
suggested by Benjamin Franklin and Plato.
 A weighted matrix that lists possible solutions on one axis and
weighted criteria on the other to determine which solution has the
highest score.
 Satisficing is reviewing alternatives until an acceptability threshold
is met.
Group decision-making methods include:
 Consensus, which tries to avoid “winners” and “losers” and
requires that the minority agree to support the decision in words
and deeds. The minority can require the decision be modified to
remove objectionable features.
 A democratic or majority vote requires support from more than 50
percent of the members of the group.
 In authority rule, one person makes the decision, generally with
some group input.
 Expert decision is used when there is a clear-cut expert who is
technically qualified to make the decision.
 Minority control enables a minority within the group to make the
decision and requires everyone to agree to support the decision.

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1.2.7.4 Using EI Knowledge for Improved Decision Making

EI can be helpful when making decisions because it helps people

recognize emotional decisions and remove emotions that are not a part
of the decision. Emotionally intelligent leaders are less likely to make a
mistake because they recognize the source of their emotions. Leaders
can also help others reduce the impact of anxiety by defining the true
source of their emotions based on a decision.
EI can also help people better understand triggers or causes and
manage automatic reactions to a decision-making situation. A TD
professional who is EI proficient will be more likely to stop and consider
the decision or respond to a new situation, rather than react. Making
better decisions occurs by acting on information from feelings, instincts,
and intuition, as well as on information coming from a rational intellect.
TD professionals have access to memory (short term, long term, and
working memory) that assigns a weight or preference to the choices. It is
EI that provides guidance to control or access emotions for adapting to
change, getting along with others, or dealing with stressful decisions.
Finally, EI will help TD professionals remain optimistic about decisions
when they are made. [See 2.1.2.2]

1.2.8 Skill in Using Logic and Reasoning to Identify the Strengths

and Weaknesses of Alternative Solutions, Conclusions, or
Approaches to Problems

I. Exploring Critical Thinking

It is vital for TD professionals to hone their critical thinking skills to be
able to attain the most effective decision-making results.

1.2.8.1 Critical Thinking Skills

TD professionals should practice critical thinking, or the analysis of a

situation and the related facts, data, and evidence to make better
decisions. Ideally, critical thinking focuses solely on factual information
and is done objectively, without influence from personal opinions or
biases.
The critical thinking process includes:

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  Identifying and organizing. The ability to identify the situation
and the factors that influence it, organizing them in some
categories such as strengths and weaknesses or opinions and
facts.
 Researching. The ability to find the source of the information and
conduct an independent verification.
 Identifying biases. The ability to identify one’s own and others’
biases and not let them cloud judgement; analysis is critical.
 Inferring to draw conclusions. The ability to summarize and
assess information and use it to extrapolate potential outcomes
without jumping to conclusions; interpretation skills.
 Solving problems. The ability to organize one’s thoughts and
apply all the problem-solving steps.
 Determining relevance. The ability to recognize what information
is the most important.
 Asking questions and being curious. The ability to ask open-
ended questions.

1.2.8.2 Steps Required for Critical Thinking

An important skill for TD professionals, critical thinking can be presented

in six steps that coincide with the skills required:
1. Organize information. There is no shortage of information, but
the key is to select the most important information and group it into
categories that reveal connections, themes, or hierarchies.
2. Structure reasoning. Opinions will be a part of critical thinking,
but this step requires that the statements are supported as well as
to consider differing opinions. The goal is to find a way to display
reasoning so the relationship between statements or data can be
seen.
3. Consider evidence. Take a close review of the evidence to
determine where it originated and how reliable it is—for example,
is the evidence from a biased news source or a researcher?
4. Identify assumptions and biases. Reviewing the logical structure
of the argument to this point to determine if it is valid. This requires
identifying any assumptions and biases that exist.

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 5. Evaluate arguments. Reviewing the arguments to determine not
only the pros and cons, but the strength of the arguments on each
side.
6. Communicate conclusions. No matter how strong the argument
is, if it is not presented well in writing or orally, it may not be
successful.

1.2.8.3 Making Team Decisions

Like individuals, teams need to follow an organized decision-making

process. They should have an agreed-upon process for making
decisions. The problem-solving model for team decisions is the same
six-step process presented earlier in this section. [See 1.2.7]
There are advantages and disadvantages of group decision making.
Here are a few:
 Advantages
o cross-fertilization for more ideas
o generally increased buy-in and commitment
o more solutions
o increased risk-taking
o encourages creative ideas.
 Disadvantages
o time-consuming
o potential unequal participation
o conflicts caused by personality types
o increased competition
o groupthink (all members conform their thinking to the
perceived consensus of the group).
Of the disadvantages to team decision making, it’s important for TD
professionals to be particularly aware of groupthink. Psychologist Irving
Janis coined the term in 1972 to describe situations in which groups
make bad or irrational decisions. The main characteristic of groupthink is
when each member of the group alters their stated opinions to conform
to the perceived consensus of the group. Some conditions that can
cause groupthink include isolation of the group, high group cohesion,

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directive leadership, lack of norms related to methodical decision-making
procedures, homogeneity of members, and high stress from external
threats.

1.2.8.4 Decision-Making Models

Many decision-making tools exist. TD professionals can start by deciding

on the best approach or model, which will depend on how many people
need to be included, how much time is available, and the relative
importance of the decision. Tools that may also be helpful for making
decisions include multivoting, affinity diagrams, or a countermeasure
matrix. TD professionals can weigh the advantages and disadvantages
of each to help define the best choice (Table 1.2.8.4-1).

Table 1.2.8.4-1. Decision-Making Models

Technique Description Advantages Disadvantages

Multivoting A group
 good for a  requires
(Nominal decision-
team preparation
Group making
Technique) method to  minimizes te  is regimented
shorten a list am
 best for
of ideas to a dynamics iss
single, clearly
manageable ues
defined
number  results in a problems
through a rank-ordered
series of  minimizes
list
structured discussion
voting steps.  generates
 does not
more ideas
allow for full
than
development
discussion
of ideas.
 limits the
power of
those with
strong
opinions
 reduces
pressure to

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 Technique Description Advantages Disadvantages

conform
 allows a
democratic
prioritization
 usually
produces
sense
of  closure.

Affinity or A tool used

 encourages  requires
Interrelations to organize
balanced about two
hip Digraph a large
input and hours
number of
considers
ideas into  must
everyone's
logical eliminate
ideas
groups distractions
based on a  encourages for those
natural unconventio participating
relationship nal thinking
 must follow a
among the  simple, cost- regimented
ideas. effective, process
and thorough
 participants
 obtains may feel
consensus strange
on during the
categories silent portion
 displays all  does not
ideas show
systematic
 increases
causes of
understandin
effect
g of how
others think  does not
show causal
 good when
interdepende
facts seem
ncy.
to have no
structure

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 Technique Description Advantages Disadvantages

 good for
large or
complex
issues.

Countermeas A tool that

 encourages  needs to
ure Matrix documents
the use of have the right
causes,
critical people
solutions,
thinking involved
and
implementati  identifies  difficult to get
on priorities causes, balanced
of a problem solutions, participation
and provides and
 can appear to
input for implementati
be a complex
developing on priorities
process
an action  provides
plan. input to
develop an
action plan

Additional Approaches

Other tools that TD professionals may want to explore include:

 Strengths and weaknesses sort. Identifying the strengths and
weaknesses of alternative solutions.
 Decision matrix. A tool that lists values in columns and rows to
identify and analyze relationships.
 Weighted criteria. A decision-making matrix that compares
alternatives on one axis to weighted (prioritized by importance)
values on the other.
 T-chart. An organizing tool that compares two facets of a solution,
such as pros and cons.
 Decision tree. A branching model that sorts through decisions and
their consequences.

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  Cost-benefit analysis. Estimates the value of options by
evaluating the best approach to achieve the benefit at the best
cost.
 SWOT. A two by two visual that shows the strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities, and threats of an idea, problem, or solution.
 Force field analysis. A diagnostic tool developed by Kurt Lewin to
assess two types of forces (driving and restraining).
 Pareto chart. A vertical bar chart that shows values and a line
graph that plots the cumulative total.
Virtual teams may need unique tools for collaborative brainstorming and
group decision-making. TD professionals should review several different
tools before selecting the one that best meets their specific needs. It’s
important to ensure that everyone understands how the electronic tool
will process the group’s activities. Decision making will typically follow
the same process as a group would in person: defining the objective,
clarifying criteria, generating ideas, organizing possibilities, evaluating
solutions, and selecting the decision. Using virtual decision-making tools
has the advantage of utilizing electronic means to accomplish some of
these steps. For example, some of the tools organize possibilities by
merging like alternatives and reducing redundancies. Other tools help
participants negotiate solutions with others. The process results in a
collaborative agreement.

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