Lesson 1: Introduction to Different Types of Disasters

● Hazard- A dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may

cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods
and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.
● Disaster- A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society
involving widespread human, material, economic, or environmental losses and
impacts which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using
its own resources.
“Disasters are often described as a result of the combination of:
I. The exposure to a hazard;
II. The conditions of vulnerability that are present, and;
III. Insufficient capacity or measures to reduce or cope with the potential negative
consequences.”

Different Kinds of Hazards:

A. Ground shaking
B. Tornado
C. Landslide (cause: deforestation)
D. Flood
E. Indoor fire
F. Lava flow
G. Industrial pollution
H. Typhoon
I. Forest fire (fuel-oxygen-)
J. Liquefaction
K. Storm surge
L. Tsunami
M. Extreme rainfall (extreme heat)

NATURAL HAZARDS- Naturally occurring physical phenomena caused either by rapid or

slow onset events.

Types of Natural hazards:

1. BIOLOGICAL HAZARD- Process or phenomenon of organic origin or conveyed by
biological vectors/agents, including exposure to pathogenic microorganisms, toxins and
bioactive substances. Ex. Ebola Virus, flu virus, rabies.
2. GEOLOGICAL HAZARD- Geological process or phenomenon. Ex: Ballistic projectiles,
earthquake, volcanic eruption, etc.
3. HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARD- Process or phenomenon of atmospheric,
hydrological or oceanographic nature. Ex. tsunami

MAN-MADE AND TECHNOLOGICAL HAZARDS- A hazard originating from technological

or industrial conditions, including accidents, dangerous procedures, infrastructure failures, or
specific human activities. Ex: forest fire, oil spill, accidents, etc.
 Country Vanuatu Tonga Philippines

GEOGRAPHY 80+ island nation in 160+ island nation 7,100+ island nation
the south Pacific in the south Pacific in the western
Ocean Ocean Pacific Ocean

POPULATION 272,264 urban 106,501 urban 100,998,376 urban

population: 26.1% population: 23.7% population: 44.4%
Top 3 countries in terms of Disaster Risk, from the World Risk Report 2015 published by
BündnisEntwicklungHilft (Alliance Development Works) (http://www.worldriskreport.org/)

Lesson 2: Potential Earthquake Hazards and its Effects

Earthquake - is a feeble shaking to violent trembling of the ground produced by the sudden
displacement of rocks or rock materials below the earth’s surface.
3 MAIN FACTORS CONTROL INTENSITY
A. Magnitude- How BIG was it?
B. Distance from Hypocenter- how FAR AWAY was it?
C. Bedrock and Soil- How SOLID is the ground?

Two types of earthquakes:

1. Tectonic earthquakes- those generated by the sudden displacement along faults in the
solid and rigid layer of the earth.

Three types of CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES

1. Continent‐continent convergence
2. Ocean‐continent convergence
3. Ocean‐ocean convergence
2. Volcanic earthquakes - induced by rising lava or magma beneath active volcanoes.

Fault- refers to a fracture, fissure, or a zone of weakness where movement or displacement

has occurred or may occur again.

TWO TYPES OF FAULT:

1. Active fault- if it has historical and contemporary seismicity, has evidence of fault slip
based on displaced rocks or soil units of known age and displaced landforms, and has
moved within the last 10,000 years.
2. Inactive fault- there is no movement observed or evidence of seismic activity during the
last 10,000 years.

Most common earthquake-related hazards:

I. Ground shaking- disruptive up-down and sideways movement or motion experienced
during
II. Ground rupture-displacement on the ground due to movement of fault. This will be
experienced by areas where fault passes through.
III. Tsunami- This is a series of giant sea waves commonly generated by under-the-sea
earthquakes and whose heights could be greater than 5 meters.
IV. Liquefaction- is a process that transforms the behavior of a body of sediments from that
of a solid to that of a liquid when subjected to extremely intense shaking.
V. Earthquake-induced landslide- failures in steep or hilly slopes triggered by an earthquake.

What to expect during an earthquake

Small or moderate earthquakes
•These can last only a few seconds and represent no emergency risk.
•Ceiling lights may move and some minor rattling of objects may occur in your home.
•You may feel a slight quiver under your feet if you are outside.
•If you are close to its source, you may hear a loud bang followed by shaking.
Large earthquakes
•These can last up to several minutes and constitute a natural disaster if its epicenter is near
a densely populated area, or its magnitude sufficiently large for the region.
•The ground or floor will move, perhaps violently.
•Whether far away or close to the source, you will probably feel shaking followed by a rolling
motion, much like being at sea.
•If you are far away from the source, you might see swaying buildings or hear a roaring
sound.
•You may feel dizzy and be unable to walk during the earthquake.
•If you live in a high rise or a multi-storey building, you may experience more sway and less
shaking than in a smaller, single-storey building. Lower floors will shake rapidly, much like
residential homes. On upper floors, movement will be slower but the building will move
farther from side to side.
•Furnishings and unsecured objects could fall over or slide across the floor or be thrown with
damaging force across the room.
•Unsecured light fixtures and ceiling panels may fall.
•Windows may break.
•Fire alarms and sprinkler systems may be activated.
•Lights and power may go off.
What Should I Do?
During an earthquake you should:
•If you are indoors: “DROP, COVER AND HOLD ON”
•Stay inside.
•If you are in a shopping mall, go into the nearest store. Stay away from windows, and
shelves with heavy objects.
•If you are at school, get under a desk or table and hold on. Face away from windows.
•If you are in a wheelchair, lock the wheels and protect the back of your head and neck.
•If you are outdoors
•Stay outside.
•Go to an open area away from buildings. The most dangerous place is near exterior walls.
•If you are in a crowded public place, take cover where you won't be trampled.
•If you are in a vehicle
•Pull over to a safe place where you are not blocking the road. Keep roads clear for rescue
and emergency vehicles.
•Avoid bridges, overpasses, underpasses, buildings or anything that could collapse.
•Stop the car and stay inside.
•Listen to your car radio for instructions from emergency officials.
•Do not attempt to get out of your car if downed power lines are across it. Wait to be
rescued.
•Place a HELP sign in your window if you need assistance.
•If you are on a bus, stay in your seat until the bus stops. Take cover in a protected place. If
you can't take cover, sit in a crouched position and protect your head from falling debris.
After an Earthquake
•Stay calm. Help others if you are able.
•Be prepared for aftershocks.
•Listen to the radio or television for information from authorities. Follow their instructions.
•Place corded telephone receivers back in their cradles; only make calls if requiring
emergency services.
•Put on sturdy shoes and protective clothing to help prevent injury from debris, especially
broken glass.
•Check your home for structural damage and other hazards. If you suspect your home is
unsafe, do not re-enter.
•Unplug appliances and broken lights to prevent fire starts when the power is restored.
•Stay away from brick walls and chimneys as they may be damaged or weakened and could
collapse during aftershocks.
•If you have to leave your home, take your emergency kit and other essential items with
you. Post a message in clear view, indicating where you can be found. Do not waste food or
water as supplies may be interrupted.
•Do not light matches or turn on light switches until you are sure there are no gas leaks or
flammable liquids spilled. Use a flashlight to check utilities and do not shut them off unless
damaged. Leaking gas will smell like rotten eggs.
•If your home is equipped with natural gas: Call your gas provider immediately to report any
concerns or if you smell gas (rotten egg smell). Shut off gas valve if you know how. Once the
gas is turned off, don't turn it back on. Only a licensed gas technician can turn the gas on
safely.
•If tap water is still available immediately after the earthquake, fill a bathtub and other
containers in case the supply gets cut off.
•Use extreme caution with hazardous materials or spills. When in doubt, leave your home.
•Check on your neighbors after looking after members of your own household. Organize
rescue measures if people are trapped or call for emergency assistance if you cannot safely
help them.
•If you have pets, try to find and comfort them. If you have to evacuate, take them to a pre-
identified pet-friendly shelter.
•Place a HELP sign in your window if you need assistance.
After an earthquake you should:
•Evacuate if you are in a tsunami hazard zone. Walk inland or to higher ground as soon as it
is safe to do so. Do not wait for official notification. Stay away from the coast until officials
permit you to return.
•Check for injuries. Do not move seriously-injured persons unless they are in immediate
danger.
•Check for hazards such as fires, gas leaks, downed utility lines and fallen objects.
•Clean up any potentially harmful materials spills.
•Expect aftershocks. Aftershocks following large earthquakes can be large and damaging.
Step 2: Make a plan
Step 3: Get an emergency kit
Basic emergency kit
•Water (1-2 gallons)
•Food
•Manual can opener
•Wind-up or battery-powered flashlight (and extra batteries)
•Wind-up or battery-powered radio (and extra batteries)
•First aid kit
•Special items such as prescription medications, infant formula and equipment for people
with disabilities
•Extra keys to your car and house
•Cash in smaller bills
•A copy of your emergency plan and contact information

QUIZ NO. 3.1: Lesson 1 & 2

1. Disaster is frequently described as a result of various conditions except for
Having enough physical, social and attitudinal capabilities.
2. Hazard is a situation or occurrence with capacity to bring damages to lives,
properties and the environment.
3. Natural hazards can’t be prevented but can be anticipated generally.
4. Ebolavirus, flu virus and rabies are examples of a Biological hazard
5. Magnitude is the amount of energy released by an earthquake.
6. Distance from fault is not the factor in controlling intensity rate.
7. Tornado is not an earthquake related hazard
8. Volcanic eruption is the possible cause of the earthquake
9. Earthquakes are the shaking of the Earth’s crust caused by a release of
energy
 10. Lightning strikes is not the cause of earthquakes
11. Hypocenter is a point at which the first movement occurs during an
earthquake
12. Epicenter is the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus of an
earthquake?
13. Liquefaction is when The soil behaves like liquid.
14. A strong earthquake occurs on the ocean floor could result in the formation of
Tsunami.
15. The majority of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur around the Pacific
Ocean is called the Ring of Fire.
16. Magma is the volcanic erupted material when inside.
17. Drought is not a man made-hazard.
18. Terrorism, Major fire, Pollution are man-made hazard?
19. Seismograph is the instrument which records earthquake waves?
20. Hurricanes or Tornadoes are common in the USA.
21. Tsunami is not a geological hazard.
22. Tsunami, Thunderstorms, coastal surges, tropical cyclones and hurricanes
are Hydrometeorological hazards.
23. One gallon of water per person per day is the amount of water should you
have in your emergency kit
24. Information about how your family get in touch with each other during an
emergency, Where your family would meet, How your family would remain in
contact should a family communication plan.

Topic: Tsunami Signs

Several terms are used to describe the different characteristics of tsunami in
terms of their height:
A.Amplitude, Wave Height, or Tsunami Height: refers to its height relative to the
normal sea level. It is usually measured at sea level, and it is different from the crest-
to-trough height which is commonly used to measure other types of wave height.
B.Run-up Height, or Inundation Height: The height reached by a tsunami on the
ground above sea level, Maximum run-up height refers to the maximum height
reached by water above sea level, which is sometimes reported as the maximum
height reached by a tsunami.
C.Flow Depth: Refers to the height of tsunami above ground, regardless of the
height of the location or sea level.
D.(Maximum) Water Level: Maximum height above sea level as seen from trace or
water mark. Different from maximum run-up height in the sense that they are not
necessarily water marks at inundation line/limit.
What causes a tsunami?

1. Earthquakes
Most tsunamis are caused by large earthquakes on the sea floor when slabs of rock
move past each other suddenly, causing the overlying water to move.
 2. Landslides
•Landslides can happen on the seafloor, just like on land. Areas of the seafloor that
are steep and loaded with sediment, such as the edge of the continental slope, are
more prone to undersea landslides.
•When an undersea landslide occurs (perhaps after a nearby earthquake) a large
mass of sand, mud and gravel can move down the slope. This movement will draw
the water down and may cause a tsunami that will travel across the ocean.
 3. Volcanic eruptions
Tsunami initiated by volcanic eruptions are less common. They occur in several
ways:
A.destructive collapse of coastal, island and underwater volcanoes which result in
massive landslides
B.pyroclastic flows, which are dense mixtures of hot blocks, pumice, ash and gas,
plunging down volcanic slopes into the ocean and pushing water outwards
C.a caldera volcano collapsing after an eruption causing overlying water to drop
suddenly.
Tsunami Warnings:
The following are the natural signs of an impending tsunami:
I. Feel an earthquake. If the ground shakes under your feet in a coastal region, a
tsunami may have been caused by a strong undersea earthquake. However, you
may not feel an earthquake if the event is far away.
II. See ocean water disappear from the beach, bay or river Before a tsunami
arrives, water may recede from the shoreline before returning as a fast-moving wall
of water. If you notice the water is disappearing, tell your family and friends and
prepare to move inland or to higher ground.
III. Hear an unusual roaring sound. If you hear a loud roar approaching (a bit like a
passenger jet or a train), tell your family and friends. It could be a tsunami
approaching.

IF YOU ARE UNDER A TSUNAMI WARNING:

•First, protect yourself from an Earthquake. Drop, Cover, then Hold On.
•Get to high ground as far inland as possible.
•Be alert to signs of a tsunami
•Listen to emergency information and alerts.
•Evacuate: DO NOT wait! Leave as soon as you see any natural signs of a tsunami
or receive an official tsunami warning.
Make plans to shelter with friends and family, if possible.
•If you must evacuate to a public shelter, try to bring items that can help protect
yourself and your family from COVID-19, such as hand sanitizer that contains at
least 60 percent alcohol, cleaning materials, and two masks per person. Children
under 2 years old, people who have trouble breathing, and people who cannot
remove masks on their own should not wear them. Review the CDC’s guidelines for
“Going to a Public Disaster Shelter During the COVID-19 Pandemic.”
•Maintain a distance of at least six feet between yourself and those who are not part
of your household.
•If you are in a boat, go out to sea.
Prepare NOW:
•If you live near, or regularly visit a coastal area, learn about the risk of tsunami in
the area. Some at-risk communities have maps with evacuation zones and routes. If
you are a visitor, ask about community plans.
•Learn the signs of a potential tsunami, such as an earthquake, a loud roar from the
ocean, or unusual ocean behavior, such as a sudden rise or wall of water or sudden
draining of water showing the ocean floor.
•Know and practice community evacuation plans and map out your routes from
home, work, and play. Pick shelters 100 feet or more above sea level, or at least one
mile inland.
•Create a family emergency communication plan that has an out-of-state contact.
Plan where to meet if you get separated.
•Sign up for your community’s warning system. The Emergency Alert System (EAS)
and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Weather Radio also
provide emergency alerts. Sign up for email updates about COVID-19 from the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
•Consider earthquake insurance and a flood insurance policy through the National
Flood Insurance Program (NFIP).
•Stay away from damaged buildings, roads, and bridges.
•Document property damage with photographs. Conduct an inventory and contact
your insurance company for assistance.
•Save phone calls for emergencies. Phone systems are often down or busy after a
disaster. Use text messages or social media to communicate with family and friends.
•Engage virtually with your community through video and phone calls. Know that it’s
normal to feel anxious or stressed. Take care of your body and talk to someone if
you are feeling upset. Many people may already feel fear and anxiety about the
coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19).
 QUIZ NO. 3.2: DISASTER READINESS AND RISK REDUCTION

1. The word “tsunami” is derived from a Japanese word tsu and nami and
translated into English as Harbor Waves.
2. A Tsunami is a type of natural phenomena in which composes of series of
giant waves.
3. Local Tsunami is a kind of tsunami wherein it damages only a limited areas
and usually generated only in nearby.
4. The Distant Tsunami hits the country of Indonesia during the year of 2004
and gave a huge destruction and at least quarter of a people died.
5. Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) and Northwest Pacific Tsunami
Advisory Center (NPWTAC) is an agency that is/are responsible in
monitoring the tsunami event around the Pacific Ocean.
6. Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting to Tsunamis (DART) is a system
that enables an instant and accurate tsunami forecast by monitoring oceans’
floor.
7. Warning tsunami alert level, government advices the residence a full
evacuation.
8. Watch tsunami alert level, the residences are just stand-by and waiting for
alert information.
 9. Flow-Depth refers to the height of tsunami above ground regardless of the
height of the location or sea level.
10. Crest refers to the maximum height of a wave in the ocean’s surface.
11. Undersea Earthquakes natural phenomenon also happens on the sea floor
causing the formation of giant waves.
12. Landslide is an earthquake on the ocean floor that results in a sudden rise or
fall of the Earth’s crust.
13. Propagation is the term used when the tsunami waves travel quickly across
the ocean as fast as the jet plane.
14. Shoaling is when the waves already approach the water and the waves
motion slows down.
15. Inundation is when the waves already inundate the community area causing
huge destruction and casualties.
16. Drawback is the term used when the sea waves already pull over and returns
on the ocean’s surface.
II. TRUE OR FALSE:
False 17. If the ground shakes under your feet in the coastal region, a tsunami may
have caused by a mild undersea earthquake.
True 18. One sign of impending tsunami is when the water recedes or draws back
from the shoreline.
False 19. The National Tsunami Insurance Program gives an earthquake and flood
insurance to help the residence being affected by the calamity.
True 20. Acoustic Transmission Link is the one who responsible for the
announcement of possible tsunami in the community through an email or text
message.
Topic: Earthquake Hazard Maps and Precautionary Measures for Earthquakes
QUIZ NO.3.3
Intensity 1. It measures the observed effects of the earthquake.
Intensity 2. It is usually represented by Roman Numerals
Intensity 3. It is the perceived and felt by people in a certain locality
Richter Scale 4. It is represented by Arabic numbers.
Magnitude 5. This is measured by the amount of ground displacement
Mercalli Scale 6. This scale is considered less scientific.
Richter Scale 7. It measures the seismic waves or the energy released during
earthquake
Richter Scale 8. Is a scientific measurement based on the magnitude of the
earthquake?
Mercalli Scale 9. This scale is the most popular in the US in identifying the rate of
earthquake’s energy.
Richter Scale 10.Through this scale, experts have more accuracy rate in comparing
the strengths of quakes.
Guisseppe Mercalli 11.He discovered the scale used to measure the effects of an
earthquake.
Mercalli Scale 12.It is the scale used to measure the effect of an earthquake.
Hazard Map 13. Are maps that show different hazards that may affect a certain
area.
Map Title 14.It tells what the map is all about.
Legend 15. It shows the details of what each symbol mean
Scale 16. It refers to the scale as this helps determine distances and etc.
8.0 or greater 17.In this rate of Earthquake’s energy, there’s already a damage in
the totality of area/ communities near the epicenter.
5.5 to 6.0 18. In this rate of Earthquakes energy, there’s a minimal damage to
buildings and other infrastructures.
2.5 or less 19. In this rate the earthquake is not yet felt but can be recorder by
seismograph.
I 20. In this rate of Earthquake’s intensity only the sensitive instruments are being
detected.

QUIZ 4.1
1. What is a vent in a volcano?
- An opening in the surface through which volcanic materials escape
2. What is ash?
- The powdery residue left after the burning of a substance
3. What is the spread of lava as it pours out of a vent?
- Lava flow
4. Beneath a volcano, magma collects in a?
- Magma chamber
5. Hot melted rock that is located inside of the Earth is called?
- Magma
6. Exposure to acid gases can: damage eyes and mucous membranes with
respiratory system
- True
7. These are volcanic gases except:
- Helium
8. A fast-moving current of hot gas and volcanic matter
- Pyroclastic flow
9. The following are the effects of pyroclastic flow except:
- hair loss
10. The Philippines has more than one hundred volcanoes as of 2013, how many
of these are still active?
- 23
11. All of these are volcanic hazards except:
- Lava Intrusion
12. If the debris within a landslide mixes with enough water it can trigger which of
the following volcanic hazards?
- Lahar
13. What is the plate boundary being volcanoes most likely on?
- Divergent
14. What is molten rock called while it is still in the Earth?
- Magma
15. What is molten rock called after it erupts from a volcano?
- Lava
16. What is a lahar?
- Avalanche of water and volcanic debts
- One that flows freely
17. What should you NOT do during a volcanic eruption?
- Open doors and windows
18. Where does the biggest volcano in the solar system located?
- Mars
19. Which of the following is NOT an example of pyroclastic material?
- Lava bombs
20. What is the MOST effective way to protect a population during a volcanic
eruption?
- Evacuation

QUIZ 4.2

1. Why are precautionary measures observed on volcanic eruptions?

- To protect and To pinpoint volcanic danger zone
 2. A bulletin was issued to warn people that a volcano may erupt within the
week. What should the people living in the danger areas do?
- Follow orders to evacuate
3. Ashes from an erupting volcano are all over the place. What should you do to
protect yourself?
- Cover the nose with a wet cloth or musk
4. Your family is going to evacuate. You are told to bring along only a few things.
Which of these will you bring?
- Food water and clothes
5. A volcano is a mountain that has an opening to allow hot vapor and gas to
escape from the pool of magma below.
6. When magma flows out of a volcano, it is called lava.
7. After the volcanic eruption, most houses have thick ash stacked on their roofs.
What is the main reason why it is necessary to immediately clean up the roofs
and get rid of the ash?
- The roof might tumble because of the thick ash it carries.
8. A _____ is an opening in Earth’s surface where lava, gases and bits of rocks
erupt.
- Volcano
9. What is inside a volcano?
- Magma
10. What causes volcanoes to erupt?
- Pressure
11. Warning sign of a volcanic eruption
- Ground deformation
- increases seismic activity
- Gas emission
12. Which of the following is not an indicator of a volcanic activity?
- Weather patterns
13. Volcanic eruption cause destruction, but they are also
- Beneficial because they provide usable minerals.
14. A scientist who studies volcanoes is called a
- Volcanologist
15. Which of the following gases is NOT ejected during volcanic eruption?
- hydrogen sulfide
16. It refers to surface changes on a volcano, such as sinking, tilting or bulge
formation due to movement of magma below the surface.
- Ground Deformation
17. This agency monitors the several volcanic and earthquake activity in the
Philippines.
- Philippine Institute Of Volcanology and Seismology
18-20. Give at least 3 impending signs of volcanic eruption.
● Ground deformation
● Gases
● Seismic Activity

21. In what volcanic alert level shows a slight increase in seismic activity, with no
imminent eruption.
- Level 1
22. In this level there’s already a pyroclastic flows of lava, hot ash and gases.
 - Level 5
8. Permanent Danger Zone means that up to ___km any access and approach to the
volcano is dangerous.
- 6
9. What thing you should do BEFORE volcanic eruption happens?
10. What thing you should do DURING the volcanic eruption?

QUIZ 4.3
1. Why do so many landslides occur near mountains, rather than in flat areas?
- Mountains are big hills which allow the dirt to slide down them quickly
2. What is the effect of being prepared for any disaster like landslides?
- You have a better chance of living
3. What are landslides made of?
- Rocks or soil that slide down a slope
4. What causes landslides?
- loose rocks on a slope when it rains
5. Which of the following is NOT a sign of a possible landslides?
- two moons two nights in a row
6. There are many ways to help prevent damage to your home and family from a
landslide. First, you must establish how much your home is at risk. Which of
these is a big sign of danger?
- extreme erosion
7. Another step in being prepared for a landslide is the same as with the danger
of fire; making an situation plan. What is it best to make this evacuation plan?
- as soon as possible, if not done already
8. Assuming you are not in immediate danger, which of these is a sensible thing
to do before leaving when an evacuating your home because of a landslide?
- turns off all electrical items andd. gets distracted by television or radio
9. After the danger has passed, make sure to check your local radio or weather
station for updates on the landslides. Which of the following do you NOT have
done after returning home?
- keep all electronics turned off for a month
10. Which type of sinkhole usually occur in wetlands?
- Dissolution Sinkhole
11. It is a type of natural hazard that is caused when the earth collapses
- Sinkhole
12. Which of the following is NOT another name for sinkholes?
- plinkies
13. When a lot of loose dirt and rocks move rapidly, we call it?
- a landslide
14. What always plays the main role in a landslide, regardless of the cause?
- gravity
15. If I want to know more about landslide prone areas, I should consult with
PAGASA.
- False

A. WHAT ARE THE 4 PROVINCES THAT ARE PRONE TO LANDSLIDE?

- cebu
B. What are the 6 Forms of LANDSLIDE?
- Flow
- Topple
- Slump
- Slide
- Creep
- Light to downflip
C. WHAT ARE THE 3 TYPES OF SINKHOLE?
- dissolution sinkhole
- cover-subsidence sinkhole
- cover-collapse
D. WHAT ARE THE 2 TYPES OF LANDSLIDES?
- rotational landslide
- translational landslide