CHAPTER 4

EARTHQUAKES

Introduction:

Earthquakes constitute one of the worst natural hazards which often turn into disaster
causing widespread destruction and loss to human life. The effects of earthquake vary
upon the magnitude and intensity. Earthquakes occur every now and then all round the
world, except in some places where earthquakes occur rarely. The devastation of cities
and towns is one of the effects of earthquake.

Objectives:

At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to:

1. Identify various potential earthquake hazards;
2. Recognize the natural signs of an impending tsunami;
3. Discuss the effects of different earthquake hazards.
4. Interpret different earthquake hazard maps;
5. Develop a family emergency preparedness plan to guide them on what to do
before, during, and after an earthquake.

Definition of Terms
1. Earthquake
● An earthquake also known as quake, tremor or temblor is the phenomenon
where there is a sudden release of extreme energy from the earth crust resulting
in shaking and displacement of the ground along with the creation of seismic
waves.
● An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the earth’s crust
that creates seismic waves. The seismic activity of an area refers to the
frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time.
2. Tsunami
● Tsunami is a Japanese word Tsu means ‘harbor’ and nami means ‘wave’. They
are called tidal waves but they have actually nothing to do with the tides.
However, their appearance from shore is similar to rapidly rising or falling tides.
Tsunami is a series of wave created when water is moved very quickly.
3. Focus or hypocenter
● the point within Earth where the earthquake starts.
4. Epicenter
● the location on the surface directly above the focus
5. Fault
● a break in the Earth’s crust along which significant movement has taken place.
6. Intensity
 ● Perceived strength of an earthquake based on relative effect to people and
structures
● Generally higher near the epicenter

● The severity of earthquake shaking is assessed using a descriptive scale –

the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale.
7. Magnitude
● Based on instrumentally derived information and correlates strength with the
amount of total energy released at the earthquake’s point of origin.
● The Richter Magnitude Scale measures the amount of seismic energy released
by an earthquake.

Types of Earthquakes
1. tectonic earthquake
● One that occurs when the earth's crust breaks due to geological forces on
rocks and adjoining plates that cause physical and chemical changes

2. Volcanic earthquake
● Any earthquake that results from tectonic forces which occur in conjunction
with volcanic activity
 3. Collapse Earthquakes
● Small earthquakes in the underground and in mines that are caused by
seismic waves produced from the explosion of rock on the surface. The
immediate cause of ground shaking is the collapse of the roof of the mine or
cavern. An often- observed variation of this extraordinary event is called
"mine burst".

4. Explosion earthquake
● An earthquake that is the result of the detonation of a nuclear and/or chemical
device

Earthquake Hazards
1. Ground Shaking or Ground Motion
o It refers to the disruptive up and down and sideways motion experienced
during an earthquake. Ground shaking can be quite frightening. The Earth
we walk on, and build on, becomes unstable. When it starts moving
violently it can feel as if there is no haven for us.
o Effects: damage or collapse of structure; may consequently cause
hazards such as liquefaction and landslide
 Strong Ground Shaking Caused the Collapse of the Hyatt Terraces in the Wake of the Baguio
Earthquake of July, 1990.

2. Ground or Surface Rupture

o Surface rupture is an offset of the ground surface when fault rupture
extends to the earth’s surface. Any structure built across the fault is at risk
of being torn apart as the two sides of the fault slip past each other.
o Normal-and reverse- (collectively called dip-slip) faulting surface ruptures
features vertical offsets while strike-slip faulting produces lateral offsets.
Many earthquake surface ruptures are combinations of both. Structures
that span a surface fault are likely to suffer great damage surface
ruptures.
o Effects: fissuring, displacement of the ground due to movement of the
fault

Ground Rupture Brought by the 7.3 Earthquake that hit Bohol on Oct. 15, 2013

3. Liquefaction
o Soil liquefaction is a phenomenon in which the strength and stiffness of a
soil is reduced by earthquake shaking or other rapid loading. It normally
occurs in saturated soils, that is, soils in which the space between
individual particles is completely filled with water.
 o Liquefied soil will force open ground cracks in order to escape to the
surface. The ejected material often results in flooding and may leave
cavities in the soil.
o Effects: sinking and/ or tilting of structure above it; sand boil; fissuring

4. Earthquake-Induced Landslides
o Landslides are frequently triggered by strong ground motions. They are important
secondary earthquake hazard.
o It includes a wide range of ground movement, such as rock falls, deep failure of
slopes, and shallow debris flows. The primary reason for all landslides is gravity
acting on a steep slope.
o Strong earthquake-induced ground shaking greatly increases the likelihood of
landslides where landscape is susceptible to these types of ground failure.
o Effects: erosion; burial and blockage of roads and rivers

Landslides Along Kennon Road After the July 16, 1990 Earthquake

5. Tsunami
o Tsunamis are series of waves in a body of water caused by the
displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or large
lake. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions
(including detonation of underwater nuclear devices), landslides, glacier
 cavings, meteorite impacts and other disturbances above or below water
all have the potential to generate a tsunami.
o Effects: flooding; coastal erosion; drowning of people and damage to
properties.

Causes of Tsunamis
Signs of Impending Tsunamis
1. Animal Behavior
o Some zoologists hypothesize that some animal species like elephants
have the ability to sense subsonic Rayleigh waves (a seismic surface
wave causing the ground to shake in an elliptical motion, with no
transverse, or perpendicular, motion) from an earthquake or a tsunami. If
correct and substantiated with more evidence, monitoring their behavior
could provide advance warning of earthquakes and tsunamis.
 o As observed in Sri Lanka during the Indian Ocean Tsunami, the elephants’
reaction was to move away from the approaching noise.
2. Strong ground shaking from an earthquake
o if you are on the coast and there is an earthquake, it may have caused a
tsunami, so escape immediately to higher ground or inland, avoiding river
valleys.
3. Unusual sea-level fluctuations
o a noticeable rapid rise or fall in coastal waters is a sign that there may be
a tsunami approaching. If you see the water recede quickly and
unexpectedly from a beach exposing the ocean floor (the so-
called drawback) or a sudden rise of the sea level, escape immediately to
higher ground or inland, avoiding river valleys.
4. Abnormally huge wave
o the first wave in a tsunami wave train is usually not the largest, so if you
see an abnormally huge wave, even bigger waves could be coming soon.
Run immediately to higher ground or inland, avoiding river valleys.

5. Loud ocean roar

o if you hear a roaring sound offshore, similar to that of a train or jet aircraft,
a tsunami may be approaching, so escape immediately to higher ground
or inland, avoiding river valleys.

Family Emergency Preparedness Plan Before, During, and After an Earthquake

Before During After

Make sure you have a fire Stay calm! If you are Check yourself and others
extinguisher, first aid kit, a indoors, stay inside. If you for injuries. Provide first aid
battery-powered radio, a are outside, stay outside. for anyone who needs it.
flashlight, and extra
batteries at home.
Learn first aid. If you are indoors, standCheck water, gas and
against a wall near the electric lines for damage. If
center of the building, any are damaged, shut off
stand in a doorway, or the valves. Check for the
crawl under heavy furniture
smell of gas. If you smell it,
(a desk or table). open all the windows and
doors. Leave immediately
and report it to the
authorities (use someone
else’s phone).
Learn how to turn off the Stay away from windows Turn on the radio. Don’t
gas, water, and electricity. and outside doors. use the phone unless it’s
an emergency.
Make up a plan of where to If you are outdoors, stay in Stay out of damaged
meet your family after an the open away from power buildings.
earthquake. lines or anything that might
 fall.
Don’t leave heavy objects Stay away from buildings Be careful around broken
on shelves (they will fall (stuff might fall off the glass and debris. Wear
during a quake). building or the building boots or sturdy shoes to
could fall on you). keep from cutting your
feet.
Anchor heavy furniture, Do not use matches, Be careful of chimneys
cupboards, and appliances candles, or any flame. (they may fall on you).
to the walls or floor. Broken gas lines and fire
don’t mix.
Learn the earthquake plan If you’re in a car, stop the Stay away from beaches,
at your school or car and stay inside the car tsunamis and seiches
workplace. until the earthquake stops. sometimes hit after the
ground has stopped
shaking.
Don’t use elevators, (they’ll Stay away from damaged
probably get stuck areas.
anyway).
If you’re at school or work,
follow the emergency plan
or the instructions of the
person in charge.
Expect aftershocks.

Earthquake Hazard Maps

What is a Hazard Map?
o It is a map that highlights areas that are affected by or are vulnerable to a
particular hazard. They are typically created for natural hazards, such as
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, flooding and tsunamis.
Hazard maps help prevent serious damage and deaths.
o Hazard maps are created and used in conjunction with several natural
disasters. Different hazard maps have different uses. Hazard maps can
also be useful in determining the risk of living in a certain area. They can
help people become aware of the dangers they might face from natural
disasters in a specific area.
Since 1968, PHIVOLCS has recorded twelve destructive earthquakes in the
Philippines. This record includes the infamous July 16,1990 Luzon
earthquake which caused innumerable injuries and at least 1,100 deaths.
Seismicity (geographic and historical distribution of earthquake events) is all
over the country except in the Palawan region.

RISK TO EARTHQUAKES
The top ten provinces that are
at risk to earthquakes are:

1. Surigao Del Sur

2. La Union
3. Benguet
4. Pangasinan
5. Pampanga
6. Tarlac
7. Ifugao
8. Davao Oriental
9. Nueva Vizcaya
10. Nueva Ecija

La Union and Pangasinan are

prone to earthquakes,
especially the deep-focused
ones, due to the Manila Trench
while Surigao del Sur and
Davao Oriental have
earthquake hazards due to
Philippine Trench and nearby
active faults. Frequency of
shallow and left-lateral strike-
slip earthquakes in Nueva
Vizcaya, Nueva Ecija, Eastern
Pangasinan, Benguet and La
Union can be attributed to its
location along the Philippine
Fault Zone.

However, Ifugao, despite

having less earthquake
occurrences are at risk
because of its very high
vulnerability to disasters.
RISK TO EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED LANDSLIDES

Most of the provinces, except

Palawan, are susceptible to
landslide hazards. The top ten
provinces that are at risk to
earthquake-induced shallow
landslides are:

1. Ifugao
2. Lanao Del Sur
3. Sarangani
4. Benguet
5. Mountain Province
6. Bukidnon
7. Aurora
8. Davao del Sur
9. Davao Oriental
10. Rizal

Ifugao, Lanao del Sur and

Sarangani ranked high because
of their high vulnerability to
disasters while Rizal ranked the
lowest. Benguet, despite its low
vulnerability, ranked four
because of its high exposure
factor or population density.
Aurora ranked higher than
Davao del Sur and Davao
Oriental despite its low
vulnerability compared with the
other two provinces. This is
because the whole of Aurora is
more susceptible to landslide
than the other two provinces.
RISK TO TSUNAMIS
In November 14,1994, a 7.1 magnitude earthquake in Mindoro triggered a tsunami that left at least
41 persons dead, mostly children and old people.

Most of the coastal areas have

experienced a tsunami or have a
tsunami hazard potential. The top
ten provinces that are at risk to
tsunamis are:

1. Sulu
2. Tawi-tawi
3. Basilan
4. Batanes
5. Guimaras
6. Romblon
7. Siquijor
8. Surigao del Norte
9. Camiguin
10. Masbate.

Sulu and Tawi-tawi took the top

two seats because of their high
potential for tsunami owing to
their location between two nearby
trenches namely, Sulu Trench
and Cotabato Trench. Moreover,
both provinces are also densely
populated and have very high
vulnerability. Similarly, most
areas in Basilan and Romblon
are at high risk especially
because they have been
previously affected by a tsunami.
(PHIVOLCS)

Marikina Valley Fault System

The most significant, historic earthquake zone (geological fault) in the Philippines is located just
10km East of Manila City and is known as the "Marikina Valley Fault System" or, frequently,
"Marikina Fault". Archaeological evidence tells us that the Marikina Fault earthquake zone, that
runs almost North-South along the Marikina Valley, from Bulacan to Cavite and Laguna, and
almost exactly parallels the route of the C-5 circumferential road around Metro Manila, slips
every 200-400 years (average every 310 years) delivering a magnitude 6.0-7.0 earthquake
(maximum estimated 7.5).
There are actually a number of recognized earthquake fault lines within the Marikina Valley
Fault System. The most significant of which are the 10KM-long East Valley Fault, in Rizal, and
the 100KM-long West Valley Fault, from Bulacan, down through Cavite, to Laguna. Either or
both of these faults may slip with a jolt, to dramatic effect, at any time.
What causes a fault line to slip with a jolt? The tectonic plates (lithospheric plates) that form the
outer layer of our planet are variably under pressure from the Earth's molten core and the
gravitational forces exerted by the moon and the larger planets. The entirety of the Philippine
Islands was created by the collision of the Sunda Plate (a minor extension of the Eurasian
Plate) and Philippine Plate (central and southern Luzon lie on the Sunda Plate while the
Philippine plate extends along the Eastern seaboard), the latter being influenced by the much
larger Pacific Plate, farther to the East. Tectonic plates typically slip over or under or along each
other at a rate of 2-5cm per year.
Earthquake severity (as experienced by people on the surface of the Earth) depend largely on
how deep the earthquake is: an earthquake 100KM deep will not be felt as severely on the
Earth's surface compared to a shallower earthquake at 10KM deep. The Marikina Valley Fault
system is considered to be a shallow fault and so the severity of even a modest 6.0-Richter
earthquake will feel very strong to people within the National Capitol Region. Based on historic
evidence, it is estimated that the Marikina Valley Fault System produces earthquakes in the
range of magnitude 6.0-7.5 Richter.