Singueo HBO

Republic of the Philippines
City of Olongapo
GORDON COLLEGE
Olongapo City Sports Complex, East Tapinac, Olongapo City
Tel. No. (047) 224-2089 loc. 314
College of Business Education
Program: Bachelor of Science in Business Administration

Course Code: MGT 104
Course Title: HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION
Course Description:
For so long, man-made serious attempts to be productive, economic or otherwise. He did it
either individually or in group. In his quest for fulfilling his dreams, he is always confronted
with the risk of failure, and the risk is more often associated with the human factor, i.e., him or
the others. Even if was a machine that disrupted the production process, the person who decided
to buy or use the machine faces the risk of placing his character under suspicion. It has become
clear that the quality and quantity of the output of the individual, the group, or organization
depend heavily on the actions of a person. It follows that those who have knowledge of haman
behavior are better equipped to interact with individuals, group, or organizations.
Course Learning Outcomes:

1. Define what is human behavior and organizational behavior
2. Analyze the benefits of studying organizational behavior
3. Familiarize the history of organizational behavior
4. Understand the ethics and organizational behavior
5. Define what is demographic diversity
6. Analyze individual differences, mental ability and personality
7. Familiarize the components of the various theories of intelligence
8. Assess the physical abilities.
Grading Rubric:
Midterm grade Final grade
Major Exam 30% Major Exam 30%

Quizzes/ Activities 50% Quizzes/Activities 50%
Recitation/ Seatwork 20% Recitation/Seatwork 20%
Midterm Grade 100% Final Grade 100%
Final Grade 50% (Midterm Grade)

50% (Tentative Final Grade)
FINMGT 411- This module is exclusive for Gordon College Use Only.
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Learning Module (template)
Module Learning Topics and Key Teaching and Learning

Number and Objectives Concepts Learning Materials Tasks
Title (most essential and Resources
learning
competencies)
Module 1: 1. Define What is human Human Behavior in Self-
AN what is Behavior’ Organization by; assessment
OVERVIEW human Roberto Medina, questions
OF HUMAN behavior What is Ph.D.
BEHAVIOR and organizational Activities:
IN organiza behavior’
ORGANIZAT tional Descriptive/
ION behavior the benefits of situational
2. Analyze studying questions
the organizational
benefits bahavior (ob) Essays
of
studying History of Article
organiza organizational Evaluation
tional behavior (ob)
behavior
3. Familiar Ethics and
ize the organizational
history behavior
of
organiza
tional
behavior
4. Underst
and the
ethics
and
organiza
tional
behavior
Module 2: 1. Define Individual Human Behavior in Self-

INDIVUDUA what is differences Organization by; assessment
L demogra questions
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DIFFERENC phic What makes Roberto Medina,

ES, MENTAL diversity people different Ph.D. Activities:
ABILITY 2. Analyze from each other
AND individu Descriptive/
PERSONALI al Dimensions of situational
TY differen intellectual questions
ces, ability
mental Essays
ability The triarchic
and theory of Article
personal intelligence Evaluation
ity
3. Familiar Emotional
ize the intelligence
compon
ents of
the
various
theories
of
intellige
nce
4. Assess
the
physical
abilities.
Module 3: Define what are Values Organization by; Self-

VALUES , the different Roberto Medina, assessment
ATTITUDES values and Attitudes Ph.D. questions
AND JOB attitudes
SATISFACTI Job satisfaction Activities:
ON Familiarize the
effects of value Organizational Descriptive/
congruence and commitment situational
incongruence questions
Assess the job Essays

satisfaction of
individuals. Article
Evaluation
Understand
what
organizational
commitment is.
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Week 8 Examination Week

Module 4: Define what is What is Organization by; Self-
Motivation motivation motivation’ Roberto Medina, assessment
Ph.D. questions
Analyze the key Key elements
elements of of motivation Activities:
motivation
Theories of Descriptive/
Familiarize the motivation situational
theories of questions
motivation Motivational
methods and Essays
Assess programs
motivational Article
methods and Evaluation
programs.
Module 5: Define what What is Organization by; Self-

COMMUNIC communication communication’ Roberto Medina, assessment
ATION is’ Ph.D. questions
The importance of
Analyze the communication Activities:
importance of
communication The Descriptive/
communication situational
Familiarize with process questions
the different
communication Basic methods of Essays
processes interpersonal
communication Article
Assess the basic Evaluation
methods of Functions of
interpersonal communication
communication
Barriers to
Understand the effective
functions of communication
communication
Kinds of
Familiarize with communication
the barriers to flow
communication
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Module 6: Define nature of The nature of Organization by; Self-

CONFLICT conflict conflict Roberto Medina, assessment
AND Ph.D. questions
NEGOTIATIO Analyze the Levels of conflict
N levels of conflict Activities:
How to manage
Familiarize with each level of Descriptive/
the different conflict situational
sources of questions
conflict Tips for managing
conflict in the Essay
Familiarize with workplace
the stages of Simple search
conflicts Sources of and listing
conflicts down
Define what is
negotiation Stages of conflict
Negotiation
Familiarize with
different
negotiation
processes
Identify
organizational
sources of
conflict
Week 17
Final Examination
Title: AN OVERVIEW OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION

Module No.1
I. Introduction
For so long, man-made serious attempts to be productive, economic or otherwise. He did it
either individually or in group. In his quest for fulfilling his dreams, he is always confronted
with the risk of failure, and the risk is more often associated with the human factor, i.e., him or
the others. Even if was a machine that disrupted the production process, the person who decided
to buy or use the machine faces the risk of placing his character under suspicion. It has become
clear that the quality and quantity of the output of the individual, the group, or organization
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depend heavily on the actions of a person. It follows that those who have knowledge of haman
behavior are better equipped to interact with individuals, group, or organizations.
II. Learning Objectives

After studying this module, you should be able to:
 Define what is human behavior and organizational behavior
 Analyze the benefits of studying organizational behavior
 Familiarize the history of organizational behavior
 Understand the ethics and organizational behavior
III. Topics and Key Concepts

What is human behavior’
Human behavior refers to the physical actions of a person that can be seen or heard such
as smiling or whistling. With his thoughts, feelings, emotions, and sentiments, the person
exhibits behaviors similar or different when he is in or out of the organizations.
What is organizational behavior’
Organizational behavior or OB may be defined as the study of human behavior in
organization, of the interaction between individuals and the organization, and of the
organizations itself.
The goals of OB
The three goals of OB are as follows;
1. To explain behavior
2. To predict behavior
3. To control behavior
OB must be used to predict behavior so support can be provided to productive and dedicated
employees, and measures could be instituted to control the disruptive and less productive ones.
OB can offer some means for management to control the behavior of employees. As control is
an important component of effective performance, the usefulness of OB must not be
overlooked.
The elements of OB
four elements of OB;
1. People
2. Structure
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3. Technology
4. Environment
The internal social system of the organization is composed of people consisting of
individual persons and groups. The individual person is inducted as a member of a formal
group, but soon, he or she become a member of an informal group.
The structure defines the formal relationship of people in the organization. It describes
how job tasks are formally divided, grouped are coordinated.
Technology refers to the combination of sources, knowledge and techniques with which
people work and affect the task that they perform.
Environment refers to institutions or forces outside the organization that potentially affect
the organizations performance. It includes suppliers, customers, competitors, government
regulatory agencies, public pressure groups, and the like.
THE BENEFITS OF STUDYING ORGANIZATIONAL BAHAVIOR (OB)
OB certain benefits are as follows;
1. Development of people skills;
2. Personal growth;
3. Enhancement of organizational and individual effectiveness;
4. Sharpening and refinement of common sense.
Development of people skills
There are two types of skills that a person will need to succeed in his chosen career:
1. The skills in doing his work; and
2. The skill in relating with people.
A person who is much adept in the performance of his work may be successful up to a
certain extent, but he will require another skill to make other people believe that he should be
more successful than his current achievement.
Personal Growth
Personal growth makes a person highly competitive in the workplace. The chance to
achieve personal growth is enhance by knowledge of OB. For instance, knowledge of the
behavior of others through the study of OB will help the person understand his own behavior.
A person who strives to know himself better is entering the realm of intrapersonal intelligence,
which is very useful type of intelligence for one who wants to achieve his personal goals.
Enhancement of organizational and individual effectiveness
Effectiveness is a major attribute of successful organizations, as well as individuals. When
the right decisions are made, effectiveness follows. In decision making, knowledge of OB can
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be very useful. For instance, there are persons who perform better when they work in the
afternoons. It would be a mistake to make them work in the morning and expect that they will
perform better. Such errors could be avoided if the one authorized to decide on work
assignments have knowledge of OB.
Sharpening and refinement of common sense
People differ in the degree of common sense they possess. Improvement in this type of
ability, however, can still be made and great benefits can be derived if this is done.
For instance, common sense dictates that person working in hot and humid places cannot
perform well. Common sense, however, cannot easily provide information on the exact
temperature that will make them work at optimum levels. In those types of concerns,
knowledge of OB may be very useful.
HISTORY OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR (OB)

The origin of OB can be traced to the following;
1. The human relations approach
a. The scientific management approach by Frederick W. Taylor
b. The human relation approach by Elton Mayo and others
2. The personality theories
a. Freud’s model
b. The behaviorist approach by Watson and Skinner
c. The humanist approach by Carl Rogers, Fritz Perls, and Abraham Maslow
Frederick W. Taylor was the well-known disciple of the scientific management movement.
The primary purpose of scientific management was the application of scientific methods to
increase the individual workers productivity. Taylor used scientific analysis and experiment to
increase worker output. He did it by regarding individuals as equivalents of machine parts and
assigned them specific repetitive tasks.
Elton Mayo and his research team conducted the Hawthorne’ studies in 1920 to determine
what effect hours of work, periods of rest and lighting might have on worker fatigue and
productivity. It was discovered that the social environment have an equivalent if not greater
effect on productivity than the physical environment. Mayo concluded that physical interaction
is a factor for increased productivity.
Personality theories
Sigmund Freud brought the idea that people are motivated by far more than conscious logical
reasoning. Freud believed that irrational makes up the hidden subconscious mind, which
determines the major part of people’s behavior.
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J.B. Watson formulated the theory about learned behavior. This theory indicate that a person
can be trained to behave according to the wish of the trainer.
B.F. Skinner extended Watson’s theory with his own theory of behavior modification. Skinner
concluded that when people received a positive stimulus like money or praise for what they
have done, they will tend to repeat that behavior. When they are ignored and received no
response to the action, they will not be inclined to repeat it.
Humanistic movement
Carl Rogers focused on the person as an individual instead of adhering to a rigid methodology.
He believes that people should acquire their own values and attitudes rather than be committed
to a fix set of prescribed goals. The more self-directed and aware people are, the better they are
able to develop their own individual values and adapt to a changing environment.
Fritz Perls contribution to the Gestalt psychology wherein the person is seen as being plagued
by numerous split, or conflicting desires and needs, which dissipate energy and interfere with
that person’s ability to achieve his potential. The object of Gestalt psychology is to integrate
conflicting needs into organized whole, in which all parts of a person work together towards
growth and development.
Abraham Maslow forwarded his model which espouses the idea of developing the personality
toward the ultimate achievement of human potential. This process is referred to as self-
actualization. To achieve this objective, the person must work his way up the succeeding steps
of the hierarchy of needs.
ETHICS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
Philosophers maintain the view that a society that has low regard for moral will disintegrate
after a period of time. To avoid chaos and destruction, and to make life in society possible,
adherence to the practice of moral principles regulating human relations become necessary.
What is Ethics’
Ethics refers to the set of moral choices a person makes based on what he or she ought to do.
Organizational ethics. These are moral princiles that define right or wrong behavior in
organizations.
Ethical behavior. This refers to behavior that is accepted as morally “good” and “right” as
opposed to “bad” and “wrong”.
What constitute right and wrong behavior in organization is determined by:
1. The public
2. Interest groups
3. Organizations
4. The individuals personal morals and values
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Ethical issues
1. Conflict of interest
2. Fairness and honesty
3. Communication
A conflict of interest exists when a person in the position of having to decide whether to
advance the interest of organization or to operate in his or her personal interests.
People in organizations are expected to be fair and honest. Ethical behavior demand that,
beyond obeying the law, they should not knowingly harm customers, clients and competitors
through deception, coercion or misrepresentation.
People become victims of organizations that provide false and misleading information about
their products and services.
Within the organization, people may still be performing unethical acts.
If the organization is expected to survive, its actions must be in consonance with ethical
behavior.
IV. Teaching and Learning Materials and Resources

- Human Behavior in Organization by; Roberto Medina, Ph.D.
V. Learning Task
ACTIVITY
Instructions. Answer the ff. questions.

1. What benefits may be derived from studying OB?
2. What may expected of society with low regard for morals?
3. Why is the prediction of behavior an important goal of OB?
4. When does “conflict of interest” exist?
VI. Reference
Medina R. (2011). Human Behavior in Organization. Rex Book store first Edition
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Title: INDIVUDUAL DIFFERENCES, MENTAL ABILITY AND PERSONALITY

Module No.2
I. Introduction
Workers in most factories produce standardize materials that will make the final product easier
to manufacture. If this process of handling materials can be applied to the management of
people, achieving the objectives of the organization will be a much easier tasks. Kthis cannot
happen because of the big difference between materials and people.
This module is an attempt to provide some important clues on individual differences, mental
ability and personality.
\
 Define what is demographic diversity
 Analyze individual differences, mental ability and personality
 Familiarize the components of the various theories of intelligence
 Assess the physical abilities

INDIVUDUAL DIFFERENCES
Individual differences refer to the variation in how people respond to the same situation
based on personal characteristics. The idea is that each person is different from all others
and that these differences are usually substantial rather than meaningless.
Consequences of Individual Differences
Individual differences become serious concerns when people are situated in the workplace.
Those concerned with managing people or simple those that want to relate well with people
must be aware that there are consequences arising out of differences between people. These
pertain to the following;
1. People differ in productivity;
2. People differ in the quality of their work;
3. People react differently to empowerment;
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4. People react differently to any style of leadership;

5. People differ in terms of needs for contact with other people;
6. People differ in terms of commitment to the organization; and
7. People differ in terms of level of self-esteem.
Productivity refers to the rate of output per worker. It differs from person to person. If the rate
of output in a sales office is measured in terms of number of units sold by each salesman, it
cannot be expected that everyone will sell the same number of units for a given period. This
may be attributed to individual differences among the salesmen like experience, age, education,
and the like.
Because people are different from each other, it is not surprising that the quality of their work
will also be different. Some individuals will not be contented in making products of mediocre
quality, while others will just strive to produce outputs that barely passed standard
requirements.
Empowerment means giving someone the power to do something. Some person may feel
happy if he is provided with responsibility; others will feel uncomfortable and prefer to just
follow orders.
If all subordinates in a given unit will respond well to a single style of leadership, managing
them or simply relating with them would be much easier task. But this is not so, sa some people
will prefer a leader with a democratic style, while some will need close supervision from their
superiors. These differences make it necessary for a leader to use different leadership styles
even in a small unit.
Regarding the need for social contact, people are also different from one another. Same will
need more contact, while others can work alone the whole day. Other people cannot be
productive unless they meet people as they work.
Commitment to the organization varies among individuals. Some are so committed and loyal
to the organization that they work the whole day without noticing that they are putting in more
than the required working hours. Those people are highly committed to the organization tend
to produce high quality outputs, while those who are less committed are less concern about
output and attendance.
People also differ in terms of self-esteem. Those with low self-esteem tend to be less
productive. They also avoid accepting more responsibilities. They do so for various reasons,
one of which is that they may think that their abilities do not match the requirements of the job.
The apposite happens when people have high regard of themselves. Many great inventions,
literary work, and discoveries were made by people with high self-esteem.
WHAT MAKES PEOPLE DIFFERENT FROM EACH OTHER
People are different in terms of the following;
1. Demographics;
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2. Aptitude and ability; and

3. Personality
Demographic diversity
1. Gender
2. Generational differences and age; and
3. Culture
Gender differences is the perception of male and female roles are referred to as gender
differences. Research findings indicate that there are very few differences between men and
women that affects job performances. Specifically, men and women are not different along the
following concerns;
1. Problem solving abilities
2. Analytical skills
3. Competitive drive
4. Motivation
5. Learning ability and
6. Sociability
Generational and Age-based differences- a worker that belongs to certain generation may
behave differently from a worker who belong to another. The differences is called generational
differences. Differences in the ages of workers also bring about expectations of differences of
the behavior of the workers. Most often, age is associated with experiences, so we take it as a
matter of course when a 61 year old person says that he has 40 years of experience in teaching
or when a 26 year old employee has a 5 year teaching experience.
Culture- refers to the learned and shared ways of thinking and acting among a group of people
or society. This definition implies that culture has two dimensions. They are the following;
1. Social culture- which refers to the social environment of human-created beliefs,
customs, knowledge, and practices that define conventional behavior in the society.
2. Organizational culture- is the set of values, beliefs, and norms that is shared among
members of and organization.
Aptitude and ability

Aptitude may be defined as the capacity of a person to learn or acquire new skills. Ability
refers to an individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job.
Aptitude and ability are very important considerations when people are considered for
employment in an organization. The managers of a business firm will be much concern
with the cost of training new employees before they become productive. Low aptitude and
ability would mean higher training costs.
A persons overall abilities are made up of two factors:
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- Physical ability
- Mental ability
Physical ability- refers to the capacity of individual to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity,
strength and similar characters.
1. Dynamic strength- this is the ability to exert muscular force repeatedly or continuously
over time.
2. Trunk strength- this is the ability to exert muscular strength using the trunk (particularly
the abdominal muscles). Muscles.
3. Static strength- this is the ability to exert force against external objects.
4. Explosive strength- this is the ability to expend a maximum of energy in one or a series
of explosive acts.
5. Extent flexibility- this is the ability to move the trunk and back muscles as far as
possible.
6. Dynamic flexibility- this is the ability to make rapid, repeated flexing movements.
7. Body coordination- this is the ability to coordinate the simultaneous actions of different
parts of the body.
8. Balance- this is the ability to maintain equilibrium despite force pulling of balance.
9. Stamina- this is the ability to continue maximum effort requiring prolong effort
overtime
Advantages
 It can identify individuals who are physically unable to perform the essential functions
of a job without risking injury to themselves or others.
 It can result in decreased costs related to disability/medical claims, insurance, and
 Workers compensation.
 Decreased absenteeism
Disadvantages
 Costly to administer
 Requirements must be shown to be job-related through a thorough job analysis.
 May have an age-based disparate impact against older applicants,
The intellectual or mental ability of a person (also referred to as intelligence) is one of the
major sources of individual differences. Intellectual abilities refer to the capacity to do mental
activities such as thinking, reasoning, and problem solving.
Dimensions of intellectual ability

Four subparts of intelligence;
1. Cognitive
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2.Social
3.Emotional
4.Cultural
 Cognitive intelligence refers to the capacity of a person to acquire and apply knowledge
including solving problems.
 Social intelligence refers to a person’s ability to relate effective with others
 Emotional intelligence refers to a person’s qualities such as understanding one’s own
feelings, empathy for others, and the regulations of emotion to enhance living.
 Cultural intelligence refers to an outsider’s ability to interpret someone’s unfamiliar
and ambiguous behavior to the same way that person’s compatriot world.
The Triarchic Theory of intelligence
People can be good at any or all of the three intelligence parts;
1. Componential intelligence, also referred to as analytical intelligence, it involves
components (or mental processes) used in thinking. This is the traditional type of
intelligence needed for solving difficult problems with abstract reasoning. People who
score high in componential intelligence perform well in most school subjects.
2. Experiential intelligence, also referred to as creative intelligence, is that type of
intelligence that focuses on how people perform on tasks with which they have either
little or no previous experience or else great experience. It is this type of intelligence
that is required for imagination and combining things is novel ways.
3. Contextual intelligence, also known as practical intelligence, is a type of everyday or
street smarts. It is requires adapting to, selecting, and shaping our real-world
environment. Contextual intelligence incorporates the ideas of common sense, wisdom,
and street smart.
Multiple intelligence
Howard Gardner- developed a very useful means of understanding intelligence. It is
referred to as the theory of multiple intelligence.
Eight components of intelligence that individual possesses in varying degrees;
1. Linguistic- people who possesses this component of intelligence is sensitive to
language, meanings, and the relations among words. Linguistic intelligence makes
people able to communicate through language including reading, writing, and speaking.
This is the distinct characteristics of novelist, poets, copy writer, scriptwriter, editors,
magazine writers, public relations directors, and speech writers.
2. Logical-mathematical- this intelligence component covers abstract thought, precision,
counting, organization, and logical structure, enabling the individual to see relationship
between objects and solve problems such as those in algebra and actuarial concerns.
This is a characteristics of mathematicians, scientist, engineers, animal trackers, police
investigators, and lawyers.
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3. Musical- this intelligence component gives people the capacity to create and understand
meanings made out of sounds and enjoy different types of music. The person endowed
with such intelligence component is sensitive to pitch, rhythm, timbre, and the
emotional power and complex organization of music. This characteristics found in
performers, composers, conductors, musical audience, recording engineers and makers
of musical instruments.
4. Spatial- this intelligence component enables people to perceive and manipulate images
in the brain and to re-create them from memory, such as in making graphic designs.
The person with spatial intelligence is blessed with abilities concerning keen
observations, visual thinking, mental images, metaphor, essence of the whole, and
gestalt.
5. Bodily- kinesthetic- this intelligence enables people to use their body and perceptual
and motor system in skilled ways, such as dancing, playing sports, and expressing
emotion through facial expressions.
This is found in athletes, dancers, actors, inventors, mimes, surgeons, karate teachers,
and mechanically gifted.
6. Intrapersonal- the person with this kind of intelligence has highly accurate
understanding of himself or herself. He or she s sensitive to his or her values, purpose,
feelings, and has a develop sense of self. This is found in novelist, counselors, wise
elders, philosophers, gurus and persons with deep sense of self.
7. Interpersonal- this intelligence components makes it possible for persons to recognize
and make distinctions of others, as in managing people and parenting children. This is
found in politicians, teachers, religious leaders, counselors, salesmen, and managers.
8. Naturalist- a person with this intelligence possesses the ability to seek patterns in the
external physical environment. As a result, the opportunity to enrich all the other seven
intelligences is provided.
Personality
Personality refers to the sum pf total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with
each other. The “ways” are the patterns of behavior that are consistent and enduring.
Determinants of personality
The personality of an individual is a result of both hereditary and environmental factors.
Hereditary factors are those factors that are determined at conception. This are the following;
1. Physical stature
2. Facial attractiveness
3. Gender
4. Temperature
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5. Muscle composition and reflexes

6. Energy
7. Biological rhythms
Environmental factors are those that exert pressures on the formation of an individual’s
personality. It includes the following;
1. Cultural factor- which refer to the established norms, attitudes, and values that are
passed along from one generation to the next and creates consistency over time.
2. Social factor- which refer to those that reflect family life, religion and the many kinds
of formal and informal groups in which the individual participates throughout his life.
3. Situational factor- which indicate that the individual will behave differently in different
situation.
Personality factors and traits
A persons personality traits could either be on the positive or negative side of the factors, and
they will be in various degrees of development. It is not hard to think that two or more persons
will have the same traits that are developed in different degrees. This alone provides sufficient
indication that individuals are really different from one another. The traits are partially
inherited and they will develop depending on the environment where the person is situated.
Personality factors and traits
Factors Factors
1. Emotional stability
a. Emotionally stable person Calm, Self-confident, secure
b. Emotionally unstable person Nervous, depressed, insecure
2. Extraversion
a. Extravert Sociable, gregarious, assertive
b. Introvert Reserved, timid, quit
3. Openness to experience
a. Open minded person Intelligent, artistically sensitive, curious,
imaginative original, broad minded, cultured
b. Closed minded person Conventional. Finds comfort in the familiar
4. Agreeableness
a. Agreeable person Cooperative, warm, trusting
b. Disagreeable person Cooled, disagreeable, antagonistic
5. Conscientiousness
a. Highly conscientious person Responsible, organized, dependable,
persistent
b. Person with low score on Easily distracted, dis-organized,
conscientiousness unreliable
6. Self-monitoring behavior
a. High self-monitor Pragmatic, chameleon-like actor in social
group, often say what others want to hear.
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b. Low self-monitor Avoid situations that require him/her to adapt

to different outer images, is often inflexible
7. Risk taking and thrill seeking
a. Risk taker Willingness to take risk and pursue thrills
b. Play safe person Not willing to take risk and pursue thrills
8. Optimism
a. Optimist Tendency to experience positive emotional
states and to believe that positive outcome
will be forthcoming from most activities
b. Pessimist Tendencyto experience negative emotional
states and to typicaly believe that negative
outcomes will be forthcoming from most
activities
EMOTIONAL INTELLLIGENCE
Positive personality factors in combination with practical intelligence can work wonders for
the person and for the most part will be limited only by how far his or her emotions will allow.
According to Daniel Goleman, emotional intelligence or emotional quotient (EQ) is the ability
of a person to accurately perceive, evaluate, and regulate emotions and feelings.
The five components of EQ are the following;
1. Self-regulation- this refers to the ability to calm down anxiety, control impulsiveness,
and react appropriately to anger.
2. Motivation- this refers to the passion to work for reasons that go beyond money or
status.
3. Empathy- this refers to the ability to respond to the unspoken feeling of others.
4. Self-awareness- this refers to the awareness of one’s own personality or individuality.
5. Social skills- this refers to the proficiency to manage relationship and building
networks.
MORE ON PHYSICAL ABILITY
The following factors are important in determining the reasons for differences in individual
behavior;
1. Sense of sight
2. Sense of hearing
3. Sense of taste
4. Sense of smell
5. Sense of touch
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V. Learning Task
ACTIVITY

1. What are the consequences of having people with individual differences working
together in an organization?
2. Why is the study of individual differences, mental ability, and personality an
important activity?
3. What are the determinant’s of personality?
4. what comprises the overall ability of a person?
VI. Reference
https://www.iedunote.com/ability#:~:text=Intellectual%20Ability,-
Intellectual%20ability%20is&text=The%20seven%20most%20frequently%20cited,abiliti
es%20have%20got%20seven%20dimensions.
Title: VALUES, ATTITUDES, AND JOB SATISFACTION

Module No.3
I. Introduction
Job satisfaction is an important concern for both employer and employee. This is because of
the benefits it brings to both.
This module attempt to explain job satisfaction and the various concerns tht make it happen,
such as values and attitudes.
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 Define what are the different values and attitudes

 Familiarize the effects of value congruence and incongruence
 Assess the job satisfaction of individuals.
 Understand what organizational commitment is.

VALUES
Values refer to the importance a person attaches to things or ideas that serves as guide to
action. Values are enduring beliefs that one’s mode of conduct is better than the opposite
mode of conduct.
The definition implies that values are made of a set of beliefs. Values may be attached to
things or ideas like loyalty (to the company or friends), teamwork, honor, obedience,
honesty, and the like.
How People Learn Values
Values are not inborn, they are learned. As they grow, people klearn values through any or
all of the following;
1. Modeling
2. Communication of attitudes
3. Unstated but implied attitudes
4. Religion
Modeling
Parents, teachers, friends, and other people oftentimes become models to person who would
later exhibit good behavior in the workplace.
Communication of Attitudes
One of the ways in which values are learned is trough communication of attitudes. When a
person hears form of acquaintances the risk of buying products imported from a certain country,
the person may develop negative values about that country.
Unstated but Implied attitudes.
Values may also be affected by attitudes that are not stated but are implied by way of action.
Religion
Values are also learned through religion. For example, the just and fairness treatment of people
is a value that is thought by priest and ministers of various religious sects. Person who exposed
to the teachings develop values that support such beliefs.
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Types of values
1. Achievement- this is the values that pertains to getting things done and working hard
to accomplished goals.
2. Help and concern for others- this value refers to the persons concern with other people
and providing assistance to those who need help.
3. Honesty- this is the value that indicates the persons concern for telling the truth and
doing what he thinks is right; and
4. Fairness- this is the value that indicates the person concern for impartiality and fairness
for all concerned.
Individual versus organizational values
Organizations have values that may or may not be compatible with the values of individual
workers. There is a value incongruence if the individual’s value is not in agreement with the
organization’s value. As a result of such incongruence, conflicts may arise over such things as
goals or the manner in which the goals will be achieved.
Espoused vs. enacted values
What the company promotes as its own values may be different from what is practiced by the
organizations individual members. As such, values may be classified as either (1) Espoused, or
(2) enacted values.
Instrumental and terminal values
Terminal values- represents the goals that a person would like to achieve in his or her lifetime
like happiness, love, pleasure, self-respect, and freedom.
Instrumental values- refer to preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving the terminal
values. Examples of instrumental values are ambition, honesty, self-sufficiency, and
courageousness.
ATTITUDES
Attitudes are important in the study of human behavior. This is so because they are link with
perception, learning, emotions and motivations. Attitudes also form the basis for job
satisfaction in the workplace. Attitudes are feelings and beliefs that largely determine how
employees will perceive their environment, commit themselves to intended actions, and
ultimately behave.
The main component of attitudes
1. Cognitive
2. Affective
3. Behavioral
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 Cognitive component of an attitude refers to the opinion or belief segment of an

attitude. Example; is the opinion indicated in the statement “my boss is fickle-minded;
he cannot stick to his decision.
 Affective component of an attitude refers to the emotional or feeling segment. Sample;
the bad feeling insinuated in the statement “I hate my boss”.
 Behavioral component of an attitude refers to the intention to behave in a certain way
toward someone or something. Example is the action indicated in the statement “I have
requested a transfer to another department from my superiors.”
Differences in Personal Disposition
Positive affectivity refers to personal characteristic of employees that inclines them to be
predisposed to be satisfied at work. People who have positive affectivity are optimistic, upbeat,
cheerful, and courteous.
Negative affectivity is a personal characteristic of employees that inclines them to be
predisposed to be dissatisfied at work. People who have negative affectivity are generally
pessimistic, downbeat, irritable, and sometimes, abrasive.
Managers and supervisors will benefit from knowing the personal disposition of their
subordinates. Their decisions regarding training, hiring, and promotion could be made better.
How attitudes are formed
Attitudes are formed through learning. The two methods that mostly influence attitude
formation are direct experience and indirect means of social learning. Among the information
stored in the human mind, those that were gathered through direct experience are the most
accessible.
Attitudes that are formed in an indirect way are the result of social interactions with the family,
peer groups, religious organizations, and culture.
Most important attitudes in the workplace.
1. Job satisfaction
2. Job involvement;
3. Organizational commitment
Effects of employee attitudes
Attitude provide clues to the behavioral intentions or inclinations of an employee. The manner
in which a person will act can be gleaned from his attitudes.
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Positive attitudes indicate job satisfaction and are useful in predicting constructive behaviors
like serving customers beyond official working hours, and performing excellently in all aspects
of their jobs.
Negative job attitudes are also useful in predicting undesirable behavior. Negative job attitudes
include those concerning job dissatisfaction, lack of job involvement, low commitment to the
organization.
When employees are dissatisfied with their job, they will have a strong tendency to engage in
any or all the following;
1. Psychological withdrawal like daydreaming on the job
2. Physical withdrawal like unauthorized absences, early departures, extended breaks, or
work slowdowns
3. Aggression, like verbal abuse or dangerous actions against another employee.
JOB SATISFACTION
When people are satisfied with their jobs, the following benefits become possible;
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1. High productivity
2. A strong tendency to achieve customer loyalty
3. Loyalty to the company
4. Low absenteeism and turnover
5. Less job stress and burnout
6. Better safety performance
7. Better life satisfaction
Factors associated with job satisfaction
1. Salary- adequacy of salary and perceived equity compared with others;
2. Work itself- the extent to which the job tasks are considered interesting and provide
opportunities for learning and accepting responsibilities
3. Promotion opportunity- chances for further advancement
4. Quality of supervision- the technical competence and the interpersonal skills of one’s
immediate superior;
5. Relationship with co-workers- the extent to which co-workers are friendly, competent,
and supportive.
6. Working condition- the extent to which the physical work environment is comfortable
and supportive of productivity;
7. Job security- the beliefs that one position is relatively secure and continued employment
with the organization is a reasonable expectation.
Ways of measuring job satisfaction
1. Single global rating method;
2. Summation score method.
Single global rating method refers to that approach where individuals are asked to respond to
a single question, such as, “how satisfied are you with your job?”. The respondents indicate
there answers by putting a check before any of the numbers from 1 to 5;
____1. Highly satisfied
____2. Moderately satisfied
____3. Indifferent
____4. Moderately dissatisfied
____5. Highly dissatisfied
The summation score method is an approach where individuals indicate their feelings regarding
each key factors of their job. The factors would normally consist of the work, supervision,
current salary, promotion opportunities, and relations with co-workers.
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JOB INVOLVEMENT
Job involvement is another positive employee attitude. It refers to the degree to which a person
identifies with the job, actively participates in it, and considers performance important to self-
worth.
People with a high degree of involvement will seldom be late or absent. They are willing to
work long hours if necessary, and they will strive to be high performers.
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT
Organizational commitment is the third positive employee attitude. It refers to the degree to
which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to
maintain membership in the organization. Organizational commitment may be categorized into
three dimensions;
1. Affective commitment
2. Continuance commitment
3. Normative commitment.
 Affective commitment refers to the employee’s emotional attachment to the organization

and believe in its values.
 Continuance commitment refers to the employee’s tendency to remain in the
organization because he cannot afford to leave. In fact, many employees continue to be
committed to the firm because they feel they could not get better employment
elsewhere.
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 Normative commitment refers to an obligation to remain with the company for moral or
ethical reason.

V. Learning Task
ACTIVITY

1. What are the most important attitude in the workplace?
2. What happens when employees are dissatisfied with their job?
3. What is meant by “value incongruence”?
4. How are attitudes formed?
VI. Reference
Title: MOTIVATION
Module No.4
I. Introduction
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 Define what is motivation
 Analyze the key elements of motivation
 Familiarize the theories of motivation
 Assess motivational methods and programs.

MOTIVATION
Job performance is a given requirement in any organization. It is possible, however, if
the following conditions are met;
1. The capacity to perform relates to the degree to which the employee possesses skills,
abilities, knowledge, and experiences relevant to his job. If high performance is
expected, the employee must be fully trained and physically capable of doing his job.
2. The opportunity to perform well depend on the work environment provided to the
employee. One who works in the office that is hot, humid, and noisy cannot be expected
to perform well.
3. The willingness to perform relates to the degree in which an employee desires and is
willing to exert effort to achieve the goals assigned to him. The willingness to perform
is also called MOTIVATION.
WHAT IS MOTIVATION’
- Motivation may be defined as the process of activating behavior, sustaining it, and
directing it toward a particular goal. Motivation move people to act and accomplish.
- In the work place, motivation maybe more specifically defined as the set of internal and
external forces that cause a worker or employee to choose a course of action and engage
in a certain behavior.
KEY ELEMENTS OF MOTIVATION
1. Intensity- refers to the level of effort provided by the employee in the attempt to achieve
the goal assigned to him. In simple terms, intensity refers to how hard a person tries to
do work.
2. Direction- relates to what an individual chooses to do when he is confronted with a
number of possible choices.
3. Persistence- is a dimension of motivation which measures how long a person can
maintain effort to achieve the organization’s goals.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
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Content theories are those that focus on analyzing the wants and needs of an individual.
1. Hierarchy of needs theory of Abraham Maslow
2. ERG theory of Clayton Alderfer
3. Acquired needs theory of David L. McClelland
4. Two-factors theory of Frederick Herzberg
Process theories explain how people act in response to the wants and needs that they have.
1. Expectancy theory of Victor Vroom
2. Equity theory of J. Stacy Adams
3. Goal setting theory of Edwin A. Locke
The Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Abraham Maslow forwarded the idea that human beings possess a hierarchy of five needs that
as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
1. Physiological needs- which includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs.
2. Safety needs- which includes security and protection from physical and emotional
harm.
3. Social needs- which includes affections, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.
4. Esteem needs- which includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy,
and achievement, and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention.
5. Self-actualization- refers to the drive to become what one is capable of becoming,
which includes growth, achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfillment.
The ERG Theory
The ERG theory is a need hierarchy theory of motivation that was developed by Clayton
Alderfer. He believed that in motivating people, we are confronted by three sets of needs;
1. Existence- this refers to the needs satisfied by such factors as food, air, water, pay, an
working conditions.
2. Relatedness- this refer to the needs satisfied by meaningful social and interpersonal
relationships.
3. Growth- this refers to the needs satisfied by an individual making creative or productive
contributions.
Alderfer thought that, unlike Maslow, more than one need may be activated at the same
time.
Acquired Needs Theory
Acquired needs theory was developed as a result of a research made by David McClelland
and his associates. They found out that managers are motivated by three fundamental needs
which may be briefly described as follows;
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1. Need for achievement- this refers to the desire to do something better or more
efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks;
2. Need for affiliation- refers to the desire to stablish and maintain friendly and warm
relations with others;
3. Need for power- which refers to the desire to control others, to influence their behavior,
or to be responsible for others.
His research findings consist of the following;
1. People who have high achievement needs have the drive to advance and to overcome
challenging situations such as those faced by entrepreneurs in introducing innovative
new business.
2. An affiliation motivated person prefers to work with friends.
3. The need power drives successful managers.
The Two-factor theory
Hygiene factor;
1. Organizational policies
2. Quality of supervision
3. Working conditions
4. Base wage and salary
5. Relationship with peers
6. Relationship with subordinates
7. Status
8. Security
According to the two-factor theory, improving any of the hygiene factors will not make
people satisfied with their work; it will only prevent them from being dissatisfied.
Motivator factor
1. Achievement
2. Recognition
3. Work itself
4. Responsibility
5. Advancement
6. Growth
According to two-factor theory, when the foregoing factors are not present, there is low job
satisfaction among workers and there is lack of motivation to perform.
Expectancy theory
This theory sees people as choosing a course of action according to what they anticipate will
give them the greatest rewards. Following factors are;
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1. Valence- how much one want a reward;

2. Expectancy- ones estimate of the probability that effort will result in successful
performance;
3. Instrumentality- one’s estimate that performance will result in receiving the reward.
The three factors are useful in deriving motivation. Expectancy theory predicts that
motivation will be high if all the three factors are rated high. Conversely, the lower the rate for
any or all of the factors, the lower the motivation becomes.
Equity Theory
Equity theory assumes that employees are motivated by desire to be equitably treated
at work. Equity exists when employees perceive that the ratios of their inputs (or efforts) to
their outputs (or rewards) are equivalent to the ratios of other employees. Inequity exists when
these ratios are not equivalent.
Inequity leads to the experience of tension, and tension motivates a person to act in a manner
to resolve the inequity. The person however, will be confronted with any of the two types of
inequity;
1. Over rewarded
2. Under rewarded
Employees who feel over rewarded will think there is an imbalance in their relationship with
their employer. They will seek to restore the imbalance through any of the following;
1. They might work harder
2. They might discount the value of the rewards
3. They could try to convince other employees to ask for more rewards
4. They might choose someone else for comparison purposes.
When employees feel under rewarded, they will seek to reduce their feelings of inequity
through any of the following;
1. They might lower the quality or quantity of their productivity
2. They could inflate the perceived value of the rewards received
3. They could find someone else to compare themselves
4. They could bargain for more rewards
5. They might quit.
Goal Setting Theory
Goal setting theory is based on the premise that behavior is regulated by values and
goals. A goal is the specific target that an individual is trying to achieve.
It was Edwin A. Locke and his associates who developed a comprehensive framework linking
goals to performance. Their findings about goals include the following;
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1. Specific goals lead to a higher performance than generalized goals.

2. Performance generally increases in direct proportion to goal difficulty. Goals that are
difficult to achieve is regarded as a challenge to the ability of a person. This pushes him
or her to perform. Exceptions, of course, are goals that are too difficult, and the person
gets frustrated rather than inspired.
3. For goals to improve performance, they must be accepted by the workers. It is logical
that when goals are accepted, workers feel that they should achieve them. Acceptance
and commitment to goals happen when workers participate in the setting of goals. The
workers will feel that they are “part owner” of the goals, and they will have a sense of
achieving them.
4. Goals are more effective when they are used to evaluate performance. This is true
especially if performance is used to determine rewards.
5. Goals should be linked to feedback.
MOTIVATIONAL METHODS AND PROGRAMS
Motivation through job design
One way of motivating employees is to make their jab challenging so that the worker
who is responsible for it enjoys doing it. This management activity called job design, when it
is undertaken.
Three concepts are important in designing jobs;
1. Job enrichment
2. Job characteristics model
3. Job crafting
Job enrichment characteristics;
1. Direct feedback- which means employees receive immediate evaluation of their work.
2. Client relationships- which means an employee is given a chance to serve external and
internal client.
3. New Learning- which means that the employee acquires new knowledge while doing
his work.
4. Control over method- which means that employee has some control over which method
to choose to accomplish a task.
5. Control over scheduling- which means the employee has the ability to schedule his
work.
6. Unique experience- which means the job has unique qualities or features, like
opportunity to communicate directly with people who use their output.
7. Direct communication authority- which means job provides the employee the
opportunity to communicate directly with people who use their output.
8. Control over resources- which means the employee has some control over resources
such as money, material, or people.
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9. Personal accountability- which means the employee is responsible for his or her result.
He accepts credits for doing a good job, and blame for a poor job.
Job characteristics Model
The five core job characteristics are defined as follows;
1. Skill variety- the degrees to which there are many skills to perform.
2. Tasks identity- the degree to which one worker is able to do a complete job, from
beginning to end, with the tangible and possible outcome.
3. Tasks significance- the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or
work of other people.
4. Autonomy- the degree to which the job gives the employee substantial freedom,
independence, and discretion in scheduling the work and determining the procedures
used in carrying it out.
5. Feedback- the degree to which the job provides direct information about performance.
Job Crafting
This refers to the physical and mental changes workers make in the task or relationship aspect
of their jobs.
The common types of job crafting are;
1. Changing the number and types of job tasks
2. Changing the interaction with others on the job
3. Changing one’s view of the job.
Organizational Behavior Modification
The second method of motivation is called organizational behavior modification (OB Mod). It
is the application of reinforcement theory in motivating people at work.
The typical OB Mod program consist of five-step problem solving model;
1. Identifying critical behaviors that make a significant impact on the employees job
performance
2. Developing baseline data which is obtained by determining the number of times the
identified behavior is occurring under present conditions.
3. Identifying behavior consequences of performances
4. Developing and implementing an intervention strategy to strengthen desirable
performance behaviors and weaken undesirable behaviors
5. Evaluating performance improvement.
Benefits of OB Mod are;
1. Improvement of employee productivity
2. Reduction of errors, absenteeism, tardiness, and accident rates
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3. Improvement of friendliness toward customers

Motivation through Recognition and Pride
To be an effective motivator, the following steps are necessary;
1. Identify a meritorious behavior.
2. Recognize the behavior with an oral, written, or material reward.
For better understanding and implementation of reward and recognition programs. The
following point must be considered;
1. Feedback is essential part of recognition.
2. Praise is one of the most powerful form of recognition.
3. Reward and recognition programs should be limited to organizational goals.
4. Identification of the type of rewards that the workers will value
5. It is important to evaluate the effectiveness of the reward and recognition programs
Pride is also a motivator, but one that is intrinsic. Workers who achieve outstanding
performance experience the emotion of pride. The feeling satisfies the need of self-esteem and
self-fulfillment.
Motivation through Financial Incentives
Financial incentives is a powerful tools of motivation. Monetary rewards paid to employees
because of the output they produce, skills, knowledge, and competencies or a combination of
the factors.
Financial incentives take the form of any or combination of the following;
1. Time rates.
2. Payment by result
3. Performance and profit related pay
4. Skills/competency based pay
5. Cafeteria or flexible benefits system
Time Rates
Advantages;
1. It is open for inspection and equitable because employee’s doing the same job will be
on the same grade level.
2. It encourages the retention of human resources by stability and this is because of the
gradual increases in rewards within given grades.
3. It is relatively easy to administer and allows labor cost to be predicted.
4. It does not emphasize quantity of output to detriment of quality
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The main disadvantage of time rates is it does not motivate employees to become more
productive.
Payment by Result
Advantages;
1. The employee is motivated to put in extra effort because by doing so, he or she will
receive additional income.
2. There is fairness because the level of reward is related to the level of output.
3. There are likely to be cost advantages since wages are directly linked to production and
less supervision is required.
Disadvantages;
1. Output in certain jobs cannot be easily measured
2. Safety standards may be compromised.
3. Worker may view payment by results as a device to obtain greater effort from them
without commensurate rewards.
Performance Related Pay
Advantages;
1. It increases employee beliefs (instrumentality) that reward will follow high
performance
2. Those that perform better are rewarded more
3. It is comparatively objective and verifiable
Disadvantages;
1. Cost rises along with the rewards
2. The system is complex
3. Employees with declining energy may experience a decrease in total pay
4. The union may resist the incentive idea
5. There is delay in the payments of incentives
6. The system is rigid
7. It is difficult to motivate higher performance across a broad range of employees.
Profit Related Pay
Advantages;
1. Employees identify more closely with success of the organization.
2. There is a breaking down or removal of the communication barrier between
management and employees.
3. Cooperation and working together for mutual benefit is encouraged.
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4. Awareness of the link between performance and organizational profitability leads to a

greater awareness of costs and their impact on performance.
5. When profit fall, the decline in pay is a preferable alternative to laying off employees.
6. Group pressure could raise the performance levels of poor performers
Disadvantages;
1. Profit are not directly related to an employee’s effort on the job, and this is negative
factor on motivation.
2. Employees must wait for their reward, and the delay diminishes its impact.
3. Since profit are unpredictable, total worker income may vary from year to year. As a
result, some workers may prefer the stability of a fixed wages or salary.
Skill Based Pay
Advantages;
1. It provides strong motivation for employees to develop their work related skills
2. It reinforces an employee’s sense of self-esteem.
3. It provides the organization with a highly flexible workforce that can fill in when
someone is absent.
Disadvantages;
1. Since most employees will voluntarily learn higher-level jobs, the average hourly pay
rate will be greater than normal.
2. A substantial investment in employee training must be made especially in the time spent
coaching by supervisors and peers.
3. Not all employees like skill based pay because it places pressure on them to move up
the skill ladder.
4. Some employees will qualify themselves for skill areas that they will unlikely use,
causing the organization to pay them higher rates than they deserve.
Cafeteria or Flexible benefit deserve
Advantages;
1. It enables employees to choose options that best fit their own needs.
2. Deciding among the various options makes employees more aware of benefits, giving
them a real sense of the value of the benefits their employers provide.
3. Flexible benefit plan can lower compensation costs because employers no longer have
to pay for unwanted benefits
4. Employers and employees can save on taxes.
Disadvantages;
1. It creates an administrative burden
2. It can lead to the increased insurance premiums
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V. Learning Task
ACTIVITY

1. What motivates people to behave differently?
2. In what way does job design motivate people?
3. What is the nature of profit related Pay?
4. What does OB Med program consist of?
VI. Reference
Title: COMMUNICATION
Module No.5
I. Introduction
Communication is a requirement for survival and growth not only of people but also
organizations. History is replete with stories of individuals who became successful because of
their effective management of communication. When ancient Rome became the target of
hostile forces, its communication system was effective enough to warn its leaders about the
forth coming danger.
 Define what communication is’
 Analyze the importance of communication
 Familiarize with the different communication processes
 Assess the basic methods of interpersonal communication
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 Understand the functions of communication

 Familiarize with the barriers to communication

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION’
Communication is defined as the transfer of information including feelings, and ideas,
from one person to another. The goal of communication is to have the receiver understand
the message as it was intended. The transfer process, however, is affected by a number of
factors that either help or hinder the message.
THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION
Without communication, organizations cannot exist. It is through communication that the
individual members of the organization will know important concerns such as:
1. What their organization is
2. What objectives their organization wants to achieve
3. What their roles are in achieving the organizations objectives
4. How they will achieve those objectives
5. Who the individual members of the organization are
The foregoing list is only a partial enumeration what needs to be communicated to the various
personalities involved in operating the organization.
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The communication process refers to a series of actions or steps taken in order to successfully
communicate. It involves several components such as the sender of the communication, the
actual message being sent, the encoding of the message, the receiver and the decoding of the
message. There are also various channels of communication to consider within the
communication process. This refers to the way a message is sent. This can be through various
mediums such as voice, audio, video, writing email, fax or body language. The overall goal of
the communication process is to present an individual or party with information and have them
understand it. The sender must choose the most appropriate medium in order for the
communication process to have worked successfully.
Parts of the communication process

The communication process has several components that enable the transmission of a message.
Here are the various parts:
1. Sender: This is the person that is delivering a message to a recipient.
2. Message: This refers to the information that the sender is relaying to the receiver.
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3. Channel of communication: This is the transmission or method of delivering the

message.
4. Decoding: This is the interpretation of the message. Decoding is performed by the
receiver.
5. Receiver: The receiver is the person who is getting or receiving the message.
6. Feedback: In some instances, the receiver might have feedback or a response for the
sender. This starts an interaction.
How does the communication process work?

In order to successfully communicate, it's important to understand how the process works. Here
are the seven steps in the communication process:
1. The sender develops an idea to be sent
The beginning of the communication process involves the sender creating an idea that they
plan to send to another person or group of people. Essentially, they're planning the overall
subject matter or information they want to transmit.
2. The sender encodes the message
Once the sender develops an idea, they translate it into a form that can be transmitted to
someone else. This means they transform the thoughts of the information they want to send
into a certain format. For example, if you are writing a letter, you'll translate your idea into
words. The message can also be nonverbal, oral or symbolic.
3. The sender selects the channel of communication that will be used
Next, the sender decides how the message will be sent. This involves selecting the most suitable
medium for the message they're relaying. Some communication mediums include speaking,
writing, electronic transmission or nonverbal communication. If you're communicating at
work, make sure to select the proper and most professional channel of communication.
4. The message travels over the channel of communication
After the medium is chosen, the message then begins the process of transmission. The exact
process of this will depend on the selected medium. In order for the message to be properly
sent, the sender should have selected the appropriate medium.
5. The message is received by the receiver
Next, the message is received by the recipient. This step in the communication process is done
by hearing the message, seeing it, feeling it or another form of reception.
6. The receiver decodes the message
The receiver then decodes the sender's message. In other words, they interpret it and convert it
into a thought. After they've done this, they analyze the message and attempt to understand it.
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The communication process is performed effectively when the sender and receiver have the
same meaning for the transmitted message.
7. The receiver provides feedback, if applicable
Lastly, unless it's a one-way communication, the receiver will provide feedback in the form of
a reply to the original sender of the message. Feedback provides the recipient with the ability
to ensure the sender that their message was properly received and interpreted. Between two
people, this is two-way communication.
Tips for improving the communication process

Here are some tips to consider to improve your communication skills and the communication
process overall:
Simplify your message: In order to ensure your message is properly understood, you should
keep your language simple and to the point.
Know your audience: It's also important to consider the audience that will receive your
message as well as their needs and interests.
Be a good listener: As a communicator, it's important to actively listen to what those around
you are saying. This will ensure that you're sending the right message.
Ask questions: It's also important to ask good questions to keep the communication flowing.
Make sure your questions are insightful and engaging.
Take the time to respond: When communicating, it's important to consider how you might
reply to a person to ensure you know what you want to say.
Consider your body language: If you're communicating through a different medium, it's
important to be mindful of your body language. In addition, be aware of the body language of
the person you're communicating with, as well.
Maintain eye contact: It's also important to make contact with the person or group you're
communicating with. This will show that you're actively listening to who you're
communicating with.
Clarify your message if needed: If the recipient of your message is unclear about what you're
trying to say, it's important to clarify your message. This will help them to better understand
you.
BASIC METHODS OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
When it comes to basic elements of interpersonal communication, the various types of possible
communication will cluster under four basic categories: verbal, listening, written, and non-
verbal communication.
1. Verbal
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Whenever you talk or even make an audible sound (like “hmm” of “Ahh!” for example),
you’re creating verbal communication. Beyond the content of what you’re saying and the
context in which it’s being said, verbal communication also includes additional auditory
factors like intonation. This refers to how your voice rises and falls in tone as you speak
and can shade how the words are meant to be interpreted.
For example, the phrase “Have a nice day” can take on a number of different meanings when
you imagine it said in a friendly way, sarcastically, or even ominously.
2. Listening
Chances are that some point in your life you’ve been accused of “hearing but not listening”
to what someone was saying to you. The distinction between the two concepts might have
seemed nuanced at first until the message became clear: hearing is involuntary and
effortless whereas listening is focused and intentional.
Hearing is an automatic response that is the result of having working ears. Listening takes more
effort. It’s purposeful and requires concentration to understand what the speaker is sharing.
3. Written Communication
When you convey a message via written symbols, you’re practicing written
communication. From emails and text messages to more formal memoranda and reports,
written communication is the cornerstone of most information sharing in business.
When information that is complex or lengthy needs to be shared, it’s usually conveyed through
written communication. To that end, written communication is often considered more legally
valid than spoken words are. That’s why it often serves as an “official” mode of
communication. Written communication can also include emoji, which can help convey more
emotional information and context that can be hard to deduce from the words themselves.
4. Non-Verbal Communication
Getting meaning across without using words either written or spoken is the essence of non-
verbal communication. This can be achieved through everything from facial expressions,
to specific gestures (“jazz hands,” anyone?) to body language and certain postures.
To get a sense of how much can be communicated through non+verbal communication,
consider that mimes are able to tell entire stories without uttering a word. Moreover, non-verbal
communication often complements spoken communication. Gestures like ‘air quotes” or
shoulder shrugging add additional if not entirely different meanings to what’s being said.
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FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
1. Control
Organizations have rules and processes that employees must follow, communicated to workers
to keep order and equity operating within the system. For instance, if an individual has a
grievance about her job task, the organization might dictate that the grievance first has to be
addressed with a supervisor. If it goes unresolved, the next step in the process might be to file
a complaint that is reviewed by a committee. This is an example of an organization leveraging
their communication processes to keep order and ensure grievances are heard fairly.
There’s an informal version of control within an organization, too. A department member might
be too eager to please the boss, staying late and producing more than the others on his team.
The other team members might pick on that eager individual, make fun of him, and very
informally control that person’s behavior.
2. Motivation
Goals, feedback and reinforcement are among those items communicated to employees to
improve performance and stimulate motivation. Organizations are likely to exhibit a bit of the
“control” aspect in communicating goals to individual contributors, transferring information
via a chain like the management by objective process we discussed in an earlier module.
Feedback and reinforcement can also be a formal controlled process (via a mid- or end-of-year
performance review, for example) but it can also occur in informal ways. When a manager
passes an individual, she might stop and say, “Hey, I heard from Fred today about how well
you did presenting to his group. Great job! We’ll try to find other opportunities for you to get
in front of a crowd.” That would be an informal version of feedback and reinforcement that
acts as a motivator.
3. Information
Organizations need to keep their employees informed of their goals, industry information,
preferred processes, new developments and technology, etc., in order that they can do their jobs
correctly and efficiently. This information might come to employees in formal ways, via
meetings with managers, news and messaging via a centralized system (like an intranet site),
or it could be informal, as when a team member on the assembly line suggests a quicker way
to approach a task and gets his coworkers to adopt the method.
4. Emotional Expression
Communication is the means by which employees express themselves, air their grievances, and
interact socially. For a lot of employees, their employment is a primary source of social
interaction. The communication that goes on between them is an important part of an
organization and often sets the culture of the organization.
There is not one function of organizational communication that’s more important than
another—an organization needs to have all four of the functions operating well.
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Communication is happening between individuals when all parties are engaged in uncovering
and understanding the meaning behind the words. It’s not something that one person does
alone. When business professionals makes their contribution to the uncovering and
understanding process, they should strive to be:
 Clear. Their messages should be easily understood
 Concise. Their messages should feature only necessary information
 Objective. Their messages should be impartial
 Consistent. Their messages, when communicated more than once, should always be the
same
 Complete. Their messages should feature all the necessary information
 Relevant. Their messages should have meaning to its receiver
 Understanding of Audience Knowledge. Their messages should consider what the
receiver already knows about the situation, and not assume too much or too little
These are the seven pillars, or principals, of business communication. If an individual opens
his mouth, puts pen to paper, or picks up a camera to make a video, he should be striving to
create a message that meets this criteria.
Why? Well, the point of communication is not to talk. It’s to be understood. When your team
understands you, they deliver results. When your customers understand you, they buy. When
your manager understands you, she advocates for you and supports you in your career. When
organizations communicate well and employees understand their roles and how they fit into
the organization’s mission, they succeed.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
1. Physical Conditions
Sometimes “noise” is just exactly that—loud or distracting sounds that make it impossible to
hear or concentrate. Or the general level of background noise can be so intense that it is hard
to focus for long on one particular voice. A room may be so hot or so cold that people can’t get
comfortable and cannot pay attention. Outside activities may be a distraction to those with a
view out windows. Finally, it may be lunchtime or too close to quitting time to keep people
focused. Fortunately, with some awareness and advance planning, physical barriers to effective
communication are some of the easiest to overcome.
2. Filtering
Personal and particular experiences color how people view the world and how they
communicate. A message sender sees the world through one set of filters (experiences and
values) and the receiver sees it through a different set of filters. Each message has to pass,
therefore, through at least two sets of filters. The more similar people are in lifestyle,
experience, culture, and language, the more similar their mental filters are likely to be and the
less distortion should occur. This is why people who come from very different social and
economic situations than their audience must work extra hard to say exactly what they mean to
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avoid confusion. Also, the fewer people involved in the transmission of a message, the greater
the chance that it will be received as the sender intended. In business, however, messages may
be summarized by a manager and relayed through an administrative assistant who has clarified
or edited the message. Messages exposed to many filters should be repeated in various ways to
make sure they were understood as the sender intended.
3. Selective Perception
Selective perception is the tendency to either “under notice” or “over focus on” stimuli that
cause emotional discomfort or contradict prior beliefs. For instance, some people live
purposefully healthy lifestyles by frequently exercising and eating only nutritious food but still
smoke cigarettes. Psychologists believe that they are selectively ignoring the evidence that
smoking is dangerous to their health. They have chosen to disregard the information that would
make them feel guilty or fearful about this habit. This is called perceptual defense. Selective
perception can also be vigilant, meaning people are extra sensitive to things that are significant
to them. If a manager doesn’t like a particular employee, for example, she may be super critical
of that person’s behavior and notice every time he is a minute late to a meeting. On the other
hand, a favorite employee coming late to work one morning might elicit concern that she had
car trouble. Selective perception introduces bias into the communication process.
4. Information Overload
We have all been in situations when we felt that too much information was coming at us. When
this happens, we feel overwhelmed and fear that we will not be able to retain any information
at all. Sometimes it is not just the quantity of communication but the level that causes overload.
If the message contains information that is new to the receiver, including processes or concepts
that are not familiar, then the chances of overload increase greatly. The sender should break up
the message into more palatable or digestible bits and reduce the amount of information that
has to be absorbed at any one time. One technique is to make a high-level announcement and
then follow it up later with more details. The sender has the primary responsibility to check
that the receiver has understood the message. This means that a manager may have to adjust a
message to reflect the various experiences of the employees. A new employee may need
repeated explanations before beginning an operation, whereas an experienced employee may
start rolling his eyes at the same old instructions.
5. Semantics
Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and phrases. You might hear one person say to
another “Let’s not argue semantics,” meaning he doesn’t want to get caught up in trivial and
unimportant details or playing with words. But semantics is extremely important in effective
communication. There are some semantic rules in English that may trip up non-native English
speakers, such as the concept of subject-verb agreement and gender pronouns. These can cause
confusion, as seen in the following examples:
Six man is coming to the meeting on Tuesday. (How many men are coming?)
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Rachel is going to introduce the speaker at the conference. He may be asking you for
information about her to make the job easier. (Who is asking for information, Rachel or the
speaker?)
When your audience involves people whose native language is not English or individuals of
different educational backgrounds, messages need to be direct and clearly stated to help ensure
they are understood.
6. Denotation and Connotation
Confusion can also arise from the use of language by people from different educational levels,
culture, and dialect. For instance, the terms lift and braces denote two entirely different
meanings in the United States and in England. A Londoner might reasonably ask her partner if
he was planning on wearing braces with his pants.
Some words have a connotation for one group of people that is not shared by another. “That’s
sick!” could be a compliment or an insult, depending upon the listener. (You probably already
know that slang does not belong in written business communications.) Fortunately for all of
us, paying attention to the context of the message often reduces confusion. The meaning of
homophones (buy, by, bye; meet, meat, mete; pair, pare, pear) and homographs (read, read;
lead, lead) are often easily understood by their context or pronunciation.
7. Emotional Disconnects
Almost the first thing parents learns is never to try to have a rational discussion with a
screaming toddler or an angry teenager. If they wait until the young person is more receptive
to what they have to say, the odds of a successful conversation improve dramatically. Adults
also experience emotional disconnects that affect the chance of successful communication. For
example, when a person is feeling stressed or anxious, an expressed concern is more likely to
be interpreted as criticism. Constructive criticism made while an employee is emotionally
fragile may be perceived as a personal attack. If possible, it is better to postpone a
communication if there is a strong likelihood that the intended receiver will misinterpret it
because of his emotional state.
8. Credibility
A businesswoman holding a sign that reads “I am your boss!”
There are better ways to communicate your credibility than reminding everyone of your
position.
In communication, the validity of the message is tied to the reputation of the sender. If the
receiver doesn’t trust the sender, he will view the message itself with skepticism or suspicion.
If the sender is trustworthy, the receiver will likely believe the message despite her personal
opinions about that subject. In other words, the trustworthiness of a communication, regardless
of format, is heavily influenced by the perceived credibility of the source of that
communication.
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Source credibility describes the sender’s positive characteristics that affect the receiver’s
acceptance of a message. A manager’s source credibility is based on experience, knowledge,
and interpersonal skills. Managers who deal openly and candidly with employees will find it
easier to solicit the kind of feedback that tells them whether their message has been understood.
KINDS OF COMMUNICATION FLOW
There are four main types of communication flow within a business: downward
communication, upward communication, horizontal communication and multi-directional
communication. Historically, companies communicated unilaterally, with one boss at the top
giving the orders to all below. However, today most successful businesses use multi-directional
communication, which incorporates all the different styles. Using a multi-directional approach
removes communications barriers and improves outcomes.
1. Downward Communication
Downward communication simply means that the orders come from the top and make their
way down through the workforce. This form of communication is hierarchical in nature.
However, downward communication is helpful and necessary in many instances. One example
of downward communication is a superior setting a deadline and creating targets for
subordinates. Another example is employee reviews. Ultimately, downward communication
lays out work objectives and helps clarify the details of necessary tasks.
2. Upward Communication
Upward communication flows from a lower level of an organization's hierarchy to a higher
level. In practice, workers use upward communication to make suggestions, offer input and file
complaints. Allowing lower-level workers to have a say in operations is imperative to business
success. One reason for this is that even the lowest-level employees have unique perspectives
on their work and what is needed to get the job done. For example, say a CEO sets a target that
each member of the company’s sales team must sell $10,000 of product each month. The sales
team knows that this target isn’t achievable within the current work expectations if even the
most successful sellers are barely hitting $10,000 each month. The sales team can use upward
communication to inform the CEO that the target is out of reach.
3. Horizontal Communication
Horizontal communication (also known as lateral communication) takes place when employees
at the same level interact. Peer communication is time-saving and allows workers to coordinate
tasks with one another. Horizontal communication also allows for greater cooperation and
problem-solving. When workers share information and brainstorm solutions to problems,
things run more smoothly and outcomes improve. Think of horizontal communication as the
embodiment of the popular saying, “two heads are better than one."
4. Diagonal or Multi-Directional Communication
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Diagonal or multi-directional communication is the use of various methods of communication

including upward, downward and horizontal. It is healthy for an organization to use different
approaches to communication. When communication flows from just one direction, an
organization is utilizing just a fraction of its potential. Diagonal communications allow all
employees to contribute their full knowledge and expertise to a company. However, using this
style of communication doesn’t mean that all employees should communicate chaotically.
Multi-directional communication works best when the systems and expectations of
communication are clear to all members of an organization.

V. Learning Task
ACTIVITY

1. What is nonverbal communication?
2. What is negotiation?
3. Why is face-to-face communication the most effective?’
4. What are the basic goals of communication?
VI. Reference
https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/communication-process
https://www.beekeeper.io/blog/interpersonal-
communication/#:~:text=When%20it%20comes%20to%20basic,%2C%20and%20non%2Dv
erbal%20communication.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-organizationalbehavior/chapter/functions-of-
organizational-communication/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-principlesofmanagement/chapter/barriers-to-
effective-communication/
https://bizfluent.com/info-10052725-topdown-communication.html
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Title: CONFLICT AND NEGOTIATION

Module No.6
I. Introduction
Conflict in the workplace is inevitable, and when it happens, there is always that great tendency
for it to disrupt the flow of productive activities in the organization.
As conflicts cannot be disregarded, efforts should be exerted to manage them. This module is
a presentation of conflict and its alternate activity that is negotiation.
 Define nature of conflict
 Analyze the levels of conflict
 Familiarize with the different sources of conflict
 Familiarize with the stages of conflicts
 Define what is negotiation
 Familiarize with different negotiation processes
 Identify organizational sources of conflict

THE NATURE OF CONFLICT
Conflict in organizations may be defined as any situation in which incompatible goals,
attitudes, emotions or behaviors lead to disagreement or opposition between two or more
parties.
Conflicts may be constructive or destructive.
Constructive Conflict
Constructive conflict is a healthy, constructive disagreement between two or more people.
It can benefit the organization by means of the following;
1. The production of new ideas, learning, and growth among individuals;
2. People engaged in constructive conflict develop a better awareness of themselves and
other.
3. Working relationship are improved when two parties work through their disagreement
4. Morale is improved when tensions are released and problems solved in working
together.
5. Increased productivity may be expected.
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Destructive conflict
Destructive conflict is an unhealthy, destructive disagreement between two or more people. An
example are two employees who are unable to work together because of interpersonal hostiles.
Destructive conflicts can decrease work productivity and job satisfaction and contribute to
absenteeism and job turnover.
LEVELS OF CONFLICT
What are the levels of conflict?
The “levels of conflict” are four types of disagreement that affect an individual or group of
individuals. Each level comes with its own unique challenges and solutions. The four levels of
conflict are:
1. Intrapersonal
This level refers to an internal dispute and involves only one individual. This conflict
arises out of your own thoughts, emotions, ideas, values and predispositions. It can occur when
you are struggling between what you “want to do” and what you “should do.”
Example: Reyna is hiring a new member for her sales team. She interviews several candidates
and feels strongly that three would make excellent sales representatives, but she can’t decide
which one to hire. She delays hiring for a month as she considers the hiring decision.
2. Interpersonal
This conflict occurs between two or more people in a larger organization. It can result
from different personalities or differing perspectives on how to accomplish goals. Interpersonal
conflict may even occur without one party realizing there was ever conflict.
Example: Tanya has been a digital marketer in her company for four years and always
anticipated that she would take the place of the director of marketing when he retired.
However, when it was time to fill the role, the company hired another employee who had only
been with the company for one year. Tanya was upset with both her former supervisor and her
new supervisor, although she never communicated her feelings with either of them.
3. Intragroup
This level of conflict occurs between members of a single group when there are multiple
people with varying opinions, backgrounds and experiences working toward a common goal.
Even though they may all want to achieve the same goal, they may disagree about how to reach
it. Intragroup conflict can also occur when team members have differences in communication
styles and personalities.
Example: A company is about to launch a new product, and Josh and Ashley believe that the
best marketing strategy is a direct mail campaign to a targeted audience. Beth and Tom believe
that social media ads are a better approach. Adam believes that an influencer campaign would
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have the strongest impact. Because of the disagreement, no campaign strategy is created and
the launch date is only two weeks away. Tension is high, and the delays impact other
departments.
4. Intergroup
This level of conflict occurs between different groups within a larger organization or
those who do not have the same overarching goals.
Example: The marketing team at an e-commerce company is promoting an all-new initiative
that should help increase the average order value of every order by 15%. They create a timeline
and notify customers of the launch date. However, the web developers in charge of creating
and implementing the new functionality on the website are behind on schedule, despite their
best efforts. The web developers are frustrated because of unrealistic deadlines and the
marketing department is frustrated about delaying the launch.
How to manage each level of conflict

Conflict can be constructive in the workplace because it opens employees to new ideas and
perspectives and creates opportunities to look for new and unique solutions to problems. Here
are some steps to resolving each level of conflict in the workplace.
1. Managing intrapersonal conflict
Intrapersonal conflicts can happen daily, but learning to work through them can hone your
critical thinking and decision-making skills. To manage intrapersonal conflict:
 Follow your values
Determine how the conflict affects your core values and what matters to your productivity in
the workplace. Consider solutions that align with your beliefs and motivations.
Check your company policy
If applicable, review the company policies that relate to the conflict. Follow any procedures
already in place, or reach out to a supervisor for guidance.
 Write the conflict down
Review the pros and cons related to your conflict and anticipate the outcomes of the optional
decisions. Consider selecting the resolution that has the most pros or better outcomes.
 Be conscious of time
Keep in mind how much time you have to reach a solution. Consider setting a deadline to
ensure the conflict is resolved promptly.
2. Managing interpersonal conflict
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Managing interpersonal conflict allows team members to work together in finding a resolution.
Colleagues can improve their relationships and even come up with all new strategies or
solutions to problems. Here are four steps you can use to resolve interpersonal conflict in the
workplace:
 Define the conflict

Start by identifying exactly what the conflict is about, including what event started it and how
each party reacted to the situation. Look at the situation from each person’s point of view to
determine what each party wants and needs from the resolution.
 Put the conflict into context

Discuss the conflict’s impacts on each party, the project and the workplace. This step can help
each party understand the importance of resolving the conflict and motivate them to collaborate
on finding a solution.
 Create options
Let each party come up with one idea to resolve the conflict, allowing each party to take turns.
This step allows each party to identify how the conflict can be resolved amicably. Parties can
also brainstorm as a group to create solutions that benefit each party.
 Agree on a solution
As a group, determine a solution that positively impacts each party. Consider including goal
setting as part of this stage to evaluate and measure a resolution’s progress.
3. Managing intragroup conflict
Managing intragroup conflict can help maintain employee productivity and ensure teams
accomplish group goals. Here are three steps you can take to resolve intragroup conflicts
efficiently:
 Discuss the conflict as a team

Openly discuss what caused the conflict and how each party feels about it. This step ensures
everyone is involved in coming up with a solution and can talk through the issue honestly.
Have each team member clarify why they hold their position and discuss what information is
the basis of these beliefs.
 Collaborate in small groups
Break the team into smaller groups consisting of different viewpoints. Analyze the conflict and
brainstorm the pros and cons of different solutions. Convene as a team and have groups share
ideas they had. Smaller groups can provide more thorough discussions, as fewer people are
trying to discuss their side at once.
 Reach a decision
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As a full team, decide what course of action to take or determine if further brainstorming needs
to happen. Make sure everyone is satisfied with the decision and committed to the proposed
strategy.
4. Managing intergroup conflict
You can use intergroup conflicts as opportunities for building relationships between teams,
brainstorming new and creative ideas and strengthening employees’ beliefs in their abilities to
overcome future conflicts. Here are three steps to help get you started:
 Discuss the issue with all relevant parties
You may engage in conversation with large groups, such as in an open forum. This situation
may work for issues that affect a large group of people and can be used to hear a variety of
perspectives, ideas and concerns with a smaller group of stakeholders.
 Have a closed meeting with necessary stakeholders
Sometimes, address and intergroup conflict with only a few necessary people, such as team
leaders or department heads. This step can come after holding an open forum or be the main
resolution tactic.
 Gather a variety of possible solutions
Encourage each side to hold meetings to discuss issues as they arise. If possible, you might
move team members from one team to another so they can better see an issue from the other
team’s perspective. Then, have groups brainstorm solutions that provide the most positive
impact. To come to a solution, consider holding a vote to gauge each side’s interest in the
proposed solutions.
Tips for managing conflict in the workplace

While you can use the previous steps to address certain levels of conflicts, consider the
following tips to help you manage workplace conflict in a variety of situations:
 Schedule an appropriate meeting time and place
Ask everyone involved to set aside time to resolve the conflict. Find a quiet, comfortable
location where you can talk openly without interruption.
 Stay calm and be specific

Remain calm throughout the meeting and try to focus on tangible impacts. Discuss specific
details of a conflict so they can be openly addressed.
 Use active listening
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Consider paraphrasing the other party’s perspective to show your understanding of their
concerns and needs. If you are mediating the conflict, this step can help you and the whole
group’s understanding of the conflict.
 Celebrate progress and successes
Acknowledge the efforts of team members to change behavior or strategy. When the team
achieves goals because of the resolution, acknowledge those wins and celebrate them.
SOURCES OF CONFLICTS
Sources of Conflict in an Organization
Personality conflicts make work rough. When you’re not in the office, you get to choose who
you hang out with, but during the work day, the cast of characters is chosen for you. If an
organization is looking to hire people that fit with the company culture, then chances are good
you’ll get along with most of them! However, it’s likely that there will be at least one coworker
that you don’t get along with 100 percent.
Organizational sources of conflict are those events or factors that cause goals to differ.
Personality conflicts, irritating as they may be, don’t actually qualify as an organizational
source of conflict. They may be the most aggravating part of your day and, certainly, they’re
something organizations need to watch for if it interferes with daily work, but these
organizational sources produce much bigger problems. Those sources are
 Goal incompatibility and differentiation
 Interdependence
 Uncertainty and resource scarcity
 Reward systems
 Goal Incompatibility and Differentiation

Organizational sources of conflict occur when departments are differentiated in their goals. For
instance, the research and development team at an electronics company might be instructed to
come up with the best new, pie-in-the-sky idea for individual-use electronics—that thing
consumers didn’t know they needed. The R&D team might come up with something fantastic,
featuring loads of bells and whistles that the consumer will put to excellent use.
Then, the manufacturing team gets together to look at this new design. They’ve been told that
management likes it, and that they need to build it by the most economical means possible.
They start make adjustments to the design, saving money by using less expensive materials
than what were recommended by the R&D team. Conflict arises.
Goal incompatibility and differentiation is a fairly common occurrence. The manufacturing
team disagrees with research and development. The sales department feels like the legal
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department is there to keep them from getting deals signed. Departments within the
organization feel like they are working at cross-purposes, even though they’re both operating
under the assumption that their choices are best for the company.
 Interdependence
Interdependence describes the extent to which employees rely on other employees to get their
work done. If people all had independent goals that didn’t affect one another, everything would
be fine. That’s not the case in many organizations.
For instance, a communication department is charged with putting together speaking points
that help their front-line employees deal with customer questions. Because the communications
department is equipped to provide clear instructions but are not necessarily the subject matter
experts, they must wait for engineering to provide product details that are important to the final
message. If those details are not provided, the communication department cannot reach their
goal of getting these speaking points out on time for their front-line staff to deal with questions.
The same holds true for a first-, second-, and third-shift assembly line. One shift picks up where
another leaves off. The same standards of work, production numbers, and clean-up should be
upheld by all three teams. If one team deviates from those standards, then it creates conflict
with the other two groups.
 Uncertainty and Resource Scarcity
Change. We talked about it as a source of stress, and we’re going to talk about it here as an
organizational source of conflict. Uncertainty makes it difficult for managers to set clear
directions, and lack of clear direction leads to conflict.
Resource scarcity also leads to conflict. If there aren’t enough material and supplies for every
worker, then those who do get resources and those who don’t are likely to experience conflict.
As resources dwindle and an organization has to make do with less, departments will compete
to get those resources. For instance, if budgets are slim, the marketing department may feel like
they can make the most of those dollars by earning new customers. The development team may
feel like they can benefit from the dollars by making more products to sell. Conflict results
over resource scarcity.
 Reward System
An organization’s reward system can be a source of conflict, particularly if the organization
sets up a win-lose environment for employee rewards.
For instance, an organization might set a standard where only a certain percent of the employees
can achieve the top ranking for raises and bonuses. This standard, not an uncommon practice,
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creates heavy competition within its employee ranks. Competition of this nature often creates
conflict.
Other forms of rewards that might incite conflict include employee of the month or other major
awards that are given on a competitive basis.
Conflict can occur between two employees, between a team of employees, or between
departments of an organization, brought about by the employees, teams, or organizations
themselves. Now that we understand conflict, we’re ready to take on negotiation. It’s different
from conflict, but it’s easy to see how some of the skills one uses to be a great negotiator are
snatched from conflict resolution.
STAGES OF CONFLICT
In 1967, professor and author Louis R. Pondy outlined the different phases of organizational
conflict. His article in Administrative Science Quarterly remains a standard for identifying
conflict stages in the workplace.
Pondy’s Model of Organizational Conflict
There are five phases of organizational conflict that Pondy identified for any given episode.
1. Latent Stage
The latent stage is characterized by the potential for conflict. When Pondy identified this stage,
he observed three basic types of latent conflict in the current literature.
1. Competition for Scarce Resources: Participants’ demand for resources exceeds
available resources.
2. Drives for Autonomy: A party’s desires control over an activity that another party
believes is his or her own domain.
3. Divergence of Subunit Goals: Two parties who must work together on a joint activity
can’t reach a consensus on what they should do.
Something was missing: role conflict. Pondy defined that concept by someone receiving
incompatible role demands or expectations from others. “This model has the drawback that it
treats the focal person as merely a passive receiver than as an active participant in the
relationship,” he added. Role conflict can be a factor in all three types of latent conflict.
None of the participants or outside parties may recognize latent conflict conditions. It’s also
possible for the latent conflict to last for a long time and never get to the next stage, especially
in environments where conflict is actively avoided.
2. Perceived Stage
In the perceived stage, one or more parties become aware of actual conflict. Note that there
may be no conditions of latent conflict present in the perceived stage. In that case, conflict may
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be resolved by simply improving communications between affected parties. A caveat is that if

parties’ positions are in opposition, open communication can make the conflict worse.
Similar to latent conflict, the perceived stage of conflict can exist for quite some time. If parties
don’t feel the need to bring up minor differences, they might just adapt, for better or worse.
3. Felt Stage
The felt stage of conflict concentrates on emotions coming into play for affected parties. In
other words, two people are aware that they’re having a conflict in the workplace. It contributes
to feelings of tension, stress, and anxiety.
Pondy called those feelings the “personalization of conflict.” Often, the result is a dysfunctional
form of conflict that worries researchers and practitioners. Why does that occur? One
explanation is that inconsistent demands of organizational and individual growth cause
anxieties. A second explanation is that the whole personality of the affected individual becomes
involved.
4. Manifest
In the manifest stage, conflict is out in the open. One way to define conflict in this stage is to
say it is behavior that frustrates the goals of another participant. In other words, one person
consciously blocks another person’s goal achievement.
What the conflict looks like can vary quite a bit. Pondy mentioned that the most obvious form
of open aggression, such as physical and verbal violence, is forbidden by organizational norms.
More common are covert attempts to sabotage or impede the other person’s plans. For instance,
lower-level participants may engage in apathy and rigid adherence to the rules to resist
mistreatment from those higher up in the organization.
Most conflict resolution efforts are concentrated on behavior that moves to the manifest stage.
The behavior can move straight from the perceived stage to the manifest stage or from the felt
stage to the manifest stage.
5. Aftermath
The aftermath of a conflict episode refers to its outcome, which can be positive or negative.
On the positive side, a genuine resolution can lead to satisfied parties who are better able to
work with each other. It’s also possible for the aftermath of an episode to cause participants to
focus on latent conflicts that they haven’t perceived and dealt with previously.
On the negative side, conflict may be suppressed and not resolved. That can cause latent
conditions of conflict to build and explode in more serious forms. Either the matter is rectified
or the relationship dissolves.
NEGOTIATION
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What is Negotiation?
Negotiation is a method by which people settle differences. It is a process by which
compromise or agreement is reached while avoiding argument and dispute.
In any disagreement, individuals understandably aim to achieve the best possible outcome for
their position (or perhaps an organisation they represent). However, the principles of fairness,
seeking mutual benefit and maintaining a relationship are the keys to a successful outcome.
Specific forms of negotiation are used in many situations: international affairs, the legal system,
government, industrial disputes or domestic relationships as examples. However, general
negotiation skills can be learned and applied in a wide range of activities. Negotiation skills
can be of great benefit in resolving any differences that arise between you and others.
Stages of Negotiation
In order to achieve a desirable outcome, it may be useful to follow a structured approach to
negotiation. For example, in a work situation a meeting may need to be arranged in which all
parties involved can come together.
The process of negotiation includes the following stages:
1. Preparation
2. Discussion
3. Clarification of goals
4. Negotiate towards a Win-Win outcome
5. Agreement
6. Implementation of a course of action
1. Preparation
Before any negotiation takes place, a decision needs to be taken as to when and where a meeting
will take place to discuss the problem and who will attend. Setting a limited time-scale can
also be helpful to prevent the disagreement continuing.
This stage involves ensuring all the pertinent facts of the situation are known in order to clarify
your own position. In the work example above, this would include knowing the ‘rules’ of your
organisation, to whom help is given, when help is not felt appropriate and the grounds for such
refusals. Your organisation may well have policies to which you can refer in preparation for
the negotiation.
Undertaking preparation before discussing the disagreement will help to avoid further conflict
and unnecessarily wasting time during the meeting.
2. Discussion
During this stage, individuals or members of each side put forward the case as they see it, i.e.
their understanding of the situation.
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Key skills during this stage include questioning, listening and clarifying.
Sometimes it is helpful to take notes during the discussion stage to record all points put forward
in case there is need for further clarification. It is extremely important to listen, as when
disagreement takes place it is easy to make the mistake of saying too much and listening too
little. Each side should have an equal opportunity to present their case.
3. Clarifying Goals
From the discussion, the goals, interests and viewpoints of both sides of the disagreement need
to be clarified.
It is helpful to list these factors in order of priority. Through this clarification it is often possible
to identify or establish some common ground. Clarification is an essential part of the
negotiation process, without it misunderstandings are likely to occur which may cause
problems and barriers to reaching a beneficial outcome.
4. Negotiate Towards a Win-Win Outcome
This stage focuses on what is termed a 'win-win' outcome where both sides feel they have
gained something positive through the process of negotiation and both sides feel their point of
view has been taken into consideration.
A win-win outcome is usually the best result. Although this may not always be possible,
through negotiation, it should be the ultimate goal.
Suggestions of alternative strategies and compromises need to be considered at this point.
Compromises are often positive alternatives which can often achieve greater benefit for all
concerned compared to holding to the original positions.
5. Agreement
Agreement can be achieved once understanding of both sides’ viewpoints and interests have
been considered.
It is essential to for everybody involved to keep an open mind in order to achieve an acceptable
solution. Any agreement needs to be made perfectly clear so that both sides know what has
been decided.
6. Implementing a Course of Action
From the agreement, a course of action has to be implemented to carry through the decision.
Failure to Agree
If the process of negotiation breaks down and agreement cannot be reached, then re-scheduling
a further meeting is called for. This avoids all parties becoming embroiled in heated discussion
or argument, which not only wastes time but can also damage future relationships.
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At the subsequent meeting, the stages of negotiation should be repeated. Any new ideas or
interests should be taken into account and the situation looked at afresh. At this stage it may
also be helpful to look at other alternative solutions and/or bring in another person to mediate.
Informal Negotiation
There are times when there is a need to negotiate more informally. At such times, when a
difference of opinion arises, it might not be possible or appropriate to go through the stages set
out above in a formal manner.
Nevertheless, remembering the key points in the stages of formal negotiation may be very
helpful in a variety of informal situations.
In any negotiation, the following three elements are important and likely to affect the ultimate
outcome of the negotiation:
1. Attitudes
2. Knowledge
3. Interpersonal Skills
1. Attitudes
All negotiation is strongly influenced by underlying attitudes to the process itself, for example
attitudes to the issues and personalities involved in the particular case or attitudes linked to
personal needs for recognition.
Always be aware that:
Negotiation is not an arena for the realization of individual achievements.
There can be resentment of the need to negotiate by those in authority.
Certain features of negotiation may influence a person’s behavior, for example some people
may become defensive.
2. Knowledge
The more knowledge you possess of the issues in question, the greater your participation in the
process of negotiation. In other words, good preparation is essential.
Do your homework and gather as much information about the issues as you can.
Furthermore, the way issues are negotiated must be understood as negotiating will require
different methods in different situations.
3. Interpersonal Skills
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Good interpersonal skills are essential for effective negotiations, both in formal situations and
in less formal or one-to-one negotiations.
These skills include:
1) Effective verbal communication.
2) Listening.
3) Reducing misunderstandings is a key part of effective negotiation.
4) Rapport Building.
5) Rapport and How to be Polite.
6) Problem Solving.
7) Decision Making.
8) Assertiveness.
9) Dealing with Difficult Situations.

- https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/levels-of-conflict
- https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-organizationalbehavior/chapter/sources-of-
conflict-in-an-organization/
V. Learning Task
ACTIVITY

1. What is the difference between perceived and felt conflict?
2. Emotional conflict is a type of interpersonal conflict. How may it be described?
3. Are all forms of conflict harmful to the organization? Why do you think so?
4. On what levels may conflict occur?
VI. Reference
https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/levels-of-conflict
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-organizationalbehavior/chapter/sources-of-conflict-in-
an-organization/
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https://online.csp.edu/resources/article/phases-of-organizational-conflict/
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/negotiation.html
Prepared by:
ROLAND F. SINGUEO, MBM©

INSTRUCTOR

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Republic of the Philippines

College of Business Education

Program: Bachelor of Science in Business Administration

Course Learning Outcomes:

Midterm grade Final grade

Major Exam 30% Major Exam 30%

Final Grade 50% (Midterm Grade)

Learning Module (template)

Module Learning Topics and Key Teaching and Learning

Module 2: 1. Define Individual Human Behavior in Self-

DIFFERENC phic What makes Roberto Medina,

Module 3: Define what are Values Organization by; Self-

Assess the job Essays

Week 8 Examination Week

Module 5: Define what What is Organization by; Self-

Module 6: Define nature of The nature of Organization by; Self-

Title: AN OVERVIEW OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION

II. Learning Objectives

III. Topics and Key Concepts

HISTORY OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR (OB)

IV. Teaching and Learning Materials and Resources

Instructions. Answer the ff. questions.

Title: INDIVUDUAL DIFFERENCES, MENTAL ABILITY AND PERSONALITY

III. Topics and Key Concepts

4. People react differently to any style of leadership;

2. Aptitude and ability; and

Aptitude and ability

Dimensions of intellectual ability

5. Muscle composition and reflexes

b. Low self-monitor Avoid situations that require him/her to adapt

IV. Teaching and Learning Materials and Resources

Instructions. Answer the ff. questions.

Title: VALUES, ATTITUDES, AND JOB SATISFACTION

 Define what are the different values and attitudes

III. Topics and Key Concepts

 Cognitive component of an attitude refers to the opinion or belief segment of an

 Affective commitment refers to the employee’s emotional attachment to the organization

IV. Teaching and Learning Materials and Resources

- Human Behavior in Organization by; Roberto Medina, Ph.D.

Instructions. Answer the ff. questions.

II. Learning Objectives

III. Topics and Key Concepts

1. Valence- how much one want a reward;

1. Specific goals lead to a higher performance than generalized goals.

3. Improvement of friendliness toward customers

4. Awareness of the link between performance and organizational profitability leads to a

IV. Teaching and Learning Materials and Resources

- Human Behavior in Organization by; Roberto Medina, Ph.D.

Instructions. Answer the ff. questions.

 Understand the functions of communication

III. Topics and Key Concepts

Parts of the communication process

3. Channel of communication: This is the transmission or method of delivering the

How does the communication process work?

Tips for improving the communication process

Diagonal or multi-directional communication is the use of various methods of communication

IV. Teaching and Learning Materials and Resources

- Human Behavior in Organization by; Roberto Medina, Ph.D.

Instructions. Answer the ff. questions.

Title: CONFLICT AND NEGOTIATION

III. Topics and Key Concepts

How to manage each level of conflict

 Define the conflict