The human nervous system 34

UNIT 3 THE ORGANISM

Learning outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

1 Describe the structure and function of the human
nervous system.
2 Describe the structure of the neuron.

3 Name and give the role of the different types of neuron.

4 Describe how nerve impulses travel along and

between nerves.

5 Describe the parts of the central nervous system.

UNIT 3 THE ORGANISM

Learning outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

6 Locate the cerebrum, the cerebellum, the hypothalamus
and the medulla oblongata on a diagram of the brain
and give their functions.

7 Draw a labelled diagram of a cross-section of the spinal cord.

8 Describe the peripheral nervous system.

9 Describe the mechanism and function of reflex actions.

10 Give a cause, prevention and treatment for paralysis

or Parkinson’s disease.

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Animal response to stimuli

The two co-ordinating systems in humans are the nervous

system and the endocrine system.
These two systems work with the sensory system and the
musculoskeletal system.
A receptor is required to pick up a stimulus.
This receptor needs to send a message to an effector to get
a response.
The message may be either a nervous message or a
chemical message.
Effectors are structures that produce the response.
Muscles or glands are the most commonly used effectors.

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Comparison of the nervous and endocrine systems

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Nervous system

The human nervous system is made up of two parts:

Central nervous system (CNS)

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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Nervous system

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Central nervous system (CNS)

Includes the brain and the spinal cord

Acts as the central controlling region of the nervous

system

Processes information, makes decisions and issues

instructions to the effectors

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Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Includes the nerve fibres carrying messages to and from

the CNS.

Is made up of bundles of highly specialised cells called

neurons.

D A neuron is a nerve cell.

Neurons carry information as an electrochemical message.

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Nerve structure

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Neuron structure

Neurons have a nucleus.

This nucleus is contained in a cell body.

Many neurons have a myelin sheath.

Dendrites carry messages towards the cell body.

The axon carries messages away from the cell body.

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Structure of a typical neuron

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Types of neurons

There are three main types of neurons in the nervous system:

Motor neurons

Sensory neurons

Interneurons

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THEORGANISM
ORGANISM
Motor neurons

A motor neuron is a nerve cell that carries messages from

D the CNS to effectors.

These neurons have short dendrites and a long axon.

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Sensory neurons

A sensory neuron is a nerve cell that carries messages

D to the CNS from a sense organ.

These neurons have a cell body at the end of a short branch

to one side of the axon.

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Interneurons

D An interneuron carries messages between nerve cells.

Interneurons are found only within the CNS.

They have axons of differing lengths.

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Roles of parts of the neurons

Dendrites: Receive an impulse

Axons: Carry impulses away from cell body

Cell Body: Receives impulses

Myelin Sheath: Speeds up the transmission of a

nerve impulse.
Message transfer along a neuron

The message is an electrical impulse moving down the

neuron using ions.

A minimum stimulus is needed for a neuron to ‘fire’.

Once this threshold level is reached, a message is

transmitted.

The threshold is the minimum stimulation required to

D send a message along a neuron.

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Message transfer along a neuron

The synapse:

D A synapse is the region where two neurons meet.

When the impulse reaches the end of an axon, it arrives at

a synaptic knob.

The electrical impulse cannot be transmitted directly to the

next neuron.

The gap between two neurons is known as a synaptic cleft.

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Message transfer of a synapse

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Message transfer between neurons

A neurotransmitter is a chemical that carries a nerve

D message across a synapse.

Dopamine is an example of a neurotransmitter.

Neurotransmitters are released when the impulse arrives at the synapse.
They travel across the synaptic cleft and cause an impulse to start
in the second neuron.
Enzymes break down the neurotransmitters.
The breakdown products are then reabsorbed and used to
manufacture more neurotransmitters.
Only one impulse is sent each time a neurotransmitter is released.
The refractory period means there is a slight delay between
one message and the next.

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Central nervous system
The CNS developed from a tube in the embryo.
Its centre is hollow.
This hollow centre of the brain and the spinal cord is filled with
cerebrospinal fluid, which acts as a shock absorber
The CNS is protected by bone and a triple-layered membrane, the
meninges.

Grey matter is the part of the CNS that contains cell bodies
D and has a darker colour.

White matter is the part of the CNS that contains the axons
D and has a lighter colour.

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Central nervous system

The CNS (the brain and spinal cord) is protected by bone

and a triple-layered membrane, the meninges.

The middle layer is fibrous, filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

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 The Spinal Cord

Be able to describe how a reflex

action happens.
Spinal cord

The spinal cord runs down the middle of the vertebral

column.

It acts as a co-ordinating centre, sending messages from the

body to the brain.

The spinal cord also controls most of the body’s reflex

actions.

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Past Paper Question on this...
T.S. of the spinal cord

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Reflex actions and reflex arc

D A reflex action is an unthinking response to a nerve stimulus.

Some reflexes in the head, i.e. blinking, use the brain.

Other responses, such as the ‘knee jerk’, use the spinal cord
and by-pass the brain.

D A reflex arc is the nerve pathway of a reflex action.

Reflexes allow you to respond quickly to danger without any

delay in decision-making.

The brain is not involved, but it is possible for the brain to

override the reflex.
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Knee-jerk reflex

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Nervous system disorder: Parkinson’s disease

Cause:
A lack of dopamine.

Dopamine is used to regulate the nerves controlling muscle

activity.

Prevention:
There is no known preventative treatment.

Treatment:
There is currently no cure.

Many symptoms can be reduced by the drug Levodopa.

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Nervous system disorder: Paralysis

Cause:
Paralysis can occur due to physical damage to the spinal cord.

Damage to these neurons cannot be repaired in the normal way.

Prevention:
Reduce damage to the spine of accident victims.

Once the nerves are severed, the damage is irreversible.

Treatment:
At the moment, there is no cure for such damage.

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Brain

The brain consists of:

The cerebrum (cerebral cortex)

The thalamus and hypothalamus

The cerebellum and medulla oblongata

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Parts of the brain

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Cerebrum

The cerebrum is the largest part of the human brain.

FUNCTION: The cerebrum is responsible for controlling

voluntary movement, reason and intelligence, memory,
language, personality.

It is divided into two halves, called cerebral hemispheres.

The area for decision-making is heavily folded to increase the

surface area.

The outer part of the cerebrum, called the cerebral cortex is

grey.

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Functions of the different areas of the cerebrum

● The left hemisphere is dominant for hand use, language, math

analysis and logic
● The right specialises in art, music, shape recognition and
emotional response. UNIT 3 THE ORGANISM
Thalamus and hypothalamus

FUNCTION: The thalamus receives all the messages from the

senses. It also directs them to the correct place in the
cerebrum.

FUNCTION: The hypothalamus maintains a steady state in

the body (homeostasis).

The pituitary gland is attached to the underside of the

hypothalamus.

The pituitary is controlled by the hypothalamus but is not

part of the brain. It produces hormones!
It is the link between the nervous and hormonal systems.

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Cerebellum

The cerebellum (little brain) is found beneath and to the back

of the cerebrum.

It is a very dense tissue with a lot of nerve cells.

FUNCTION: It co-ordinates the voluntary muscles so that

they function in a smooth manner.

FUNCTION: The cerebellum is also involved in the

maintenance of balance.

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Medulla oblongata

The medulla oblongata connects the brain to the spinal cord.

It is also known as the brain stem.

FUNCTION: It controls the involuntary muscles, such as the

heart.

FUNCTION: It also controls the muscles involved in breathing

and swallowing.

UNIT 3 THE ORGANISM

Learning outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

1 Describe the structure and function of the human
nervous system.
2 Describe the structure of the neuron.

3 Name and give the role of the different types of neuron.

4 Describe how nerve impulses travel along and

between nerves.

5 Describe the parts of the central nervous system.

UNIT 3 THE ORGANISM

Learning outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

6 Locate the cerebrum, the cerebellum, the hypothalamus
and the medulla oblongata on a diagram of the brain
and give their functions.

7 Draw a labelled diagram of a cross-section of the spinal cord.

8 Describe the peripheral nervous system.

9 Describe the mechanism and function of reflex actions.

10 Give a cause, prevention and treatment for paralysis

or Parkinson’s disease.

UNIT 3 THE ORGANISM