Anitos

Anito refers generally to ancestor spirits, nature spirits, and deities in the indigenous Philippine
folk religions from the pre-colonial age to the present. The belief attributed to anitos is referred to as
animism. This belief stems from the ancient Filipinos who were animistic (i.e., they believed that
everything has a spirit). Carved humanoids made of wood are used to embody these entities. These
figures were used in sacred rituals or referred to as pag-anito, in which a shaman acts as a medium to
communicate directly with the spirits.

Ancestor spirits are the spirits of ancestors, cultural heroes, or guardian spirits of a family.
Ancient Filipinos believed that upon death, the “free” soul of a person travels to a spirit world – where
they end up may depend on how they died, the age at death, or their character when they were alive.
Ancestor spirits that become intercessors with deities are known as pintakasi or pitulon, whereas vengeful
spirits that can manifest themselves as apparitions or ghosts are known as mantiw.

Spirits that have never been human are called diwata. There are three types of non-human spirits.
Environmental or nature spirits are bound to a particular location such as agricultural fields, forests, cliffs,
seas, winds, lightning, or realms in the spirit world. Unbound spirits appear as an animal or human-like
form known as enkanto. The last type is a class of malevolent spirits or supernatural beings collectively
known as aswang which have specific abilities, behavior, or appearance.

Although animism dates back to the pre-Hispanic time, this belief can still be observed in some of
the present indigenous communities in the Philippines like the Ifugao. Ifugao is a group of people who
occupy the mountainous region of northern Luzon. According to the 2020 data released by the Philippine
Statistics Authority (PSA), the total population count of Ifugao is 207,498. They are world-famous for the
rice terraces where entire mountainsides are sculpted like giant steps. As an agriculturalist group,
embedded in their culture are the beliefs in cosmology and deities which helped them in every aspect of
life, particularly in agriculture.

Ifugao resources are often devoted to religious ceremonies that are invoked for agriculture,
abundance, hunting success, augury, and good omens. They have bul-uls which are carved wooden
figures used to guard their rice crops. These figures are placed together with the rice in the house or
granaries to bring a plentiful harvest. Bul-uls are important to Ifugao because they believe that the spirits
that the figures embody can protect them and help in making the harvest abundant.

After a bountiful rice harvest, Ifugao performs a postharvest ritual called “punnuk.” A day before
this, a native priest called the “mumbaki” performs a thanksgiving rite called “houwah,” along with the
reading of the bile of a chicken for good omen, and the offering of rice wine called “ bayah” to the gods
and deities. The punnuk is then declared by a “dumupag” who is a female agricultural leader who holds
the social position and respect in their village. The ritual signifies the freedom of the people to do the
things that were prohibited during the harvest ritual like no eating of fish or shells from the river, no
eating of leafy vegetables from the terraces, planting in the gardens, and other heavy manual tasks. A
deity called “Binongbong” is believed to be the one that would declare the lifting of these prohibitions. A
highlight of this ritual is a game called “guyyudan” or tug-of-war on the river wherein the winners of the
game are believed to be the ones who would have a bountiful supply of rice, while the losers would
experience scarcity throughout the year.
Kesiyahan and Mo’Nimumis

Rite of passage is a universal aspect in culture, albeit the differences in how it is expressed in
every group or community. These rites are rituals and ceremonies that are performed to celebrate the
transition of a person from one stage of life to another. According to Arnold van Gennep, the person who
first explicated the concept in 1909, there are 3 phases in rites of passage which are separation, liminal,
and incorporation.

Separation is characterized as the withdrawal and detachment of a person from their current
status. Liminal is the period between separation and incorporation wherein a person has already detached,
but has not yet joined the new phase. Incorporation, on the other hand, is characterized by the
consummation of the person of the new stage of their life and their admission to their new identity and
status. Every person undergoes these stages from birth to the later part of life, but how these are
celebrated depends on their culture.

In the Philippines, one common rite of passage is marriage. A ceremony to celebrate this
transition is usually through a church wedding – the reason being most of the Philippine population are
Christian. Based on the Family Code of the Philippines, the legal age of a person to marry is at least 18
years old, provided that there is consent from the parents for those at age 18-21 years old. Although
church weddings, or sometimes civil weddings, are the common ceremonies held to celebrate marriage,
this is not the same to the other parts of the population, particularly to some of the indigenous
communities in the country like the T’boli.

T’boli is an ethnic group inhabiting the highland areas in southwestern Mindanao. Its population
in 2020 is 101,049. They are known for their colorful clothing and impressive weaving techniques. They
rely mostly on farming, fishing, and hunting for their livelihood. Just like everyone else, T’boli also has
their manner of celebration of one’s transition in life, particularly in marriage. Marriage or what they call
kesiyahan is the union between members of their community which usually happens in three major stages
– childhood, puberty, and adolescence.

In their culture, the parents usually arrange the marriage of their children which may be
contracted at any age, even as early as birth. For the “first stage” of marriage, the girl’s parents go to the
house of the boy to discuss with his parents the bride-price called sunggod and kimo which will be
provided by the families of the couple that consists of the bride’s belongings. The contract is sealed upon
the delivery of the sunggod which usually consists of horses, carabaos, agongs, land, or other valuable
properties of the boy’s parents.

The “second stage” of marriage happens years later when the children have reached puberty. A
solemnization is performed usually on the full moon when no rain is expected and is celebrated in the
bride’s house. During this event, the house must be cleaned, and swords and kumu megel or hand-woven
baskets are displayed on the walls and rafters. Mats and cushions called igam and tilam, respectively, are
laid on the floor. The couple dress up in their respective houses and their elders sprinkle their feet, hands,
and face with water. Musical instruments like agong, hagalong, kulintang, and t’nonggong are
continuously played. The wedding proper starts as soon as the bride is ready. The bride waits for her
groom while seated on a cushion in the central part of her house called lowo. The bride is covered by a
blanket called t’nalak which will be removed by any female relative of the groom upon their entry.
Towards the end of the ceremony, any female relative of the bride does the traditional ceremony called
hemwos ulew which is the unveiling of the groom’s ulew or turban.

The wedding is followed by a feast which is initiated by the elders. After the feast, a debate in a
song called s’lingon is done between the parties of the groom and bride. Negotiations of the final amount
of sunggod and kimo are discussed towards the end of the event. This is followed by the kalakat or the
chanting of the exploits of tudbulul, an epic T’boli hero which this usually lasts for 8-9 hours or until
daybreak. The following morning of the wedding when the man and woman are officially couple or
siyehen, the kimo is delivered and the groom goes to the woods to cut a tree branch and puts it in the
center of the bride’s house. The couple stays in the bride’s house where they are taught the ways of
married life until the branch dries up.

The “final stage” of marriage is referred to as the mo’nimumis which completes the traditional
marriage of T’boli. This event consists of six feasts in which the bride and the groom’s side take turns as
the mo’ken or host and mulu or guest. The party of the bride builds a special house for the guests, while
the groom’s side sets up a house-like structure called tabule for the hanging of gifts. This final stage,
however, is an optional celebration as this is usually done by wealthy T’bolis or whoever can afford such
an event.

Batok

In the mountainous part of Cordillera in northern Philippines lives an indigenous ethnic group
called Kalinga. They are mainly found in Kalinga province with a population of 163,167 according to the
2010 census. Their main sources of livelihood are farming and fishing. They have traditional agricultural
practices which involve the cultivation of wet rice called papayaw and swidden or uwa farming. They
also hunt for wild pigs, deer, and wildfowl in the forests, and fish, shells, and other marine life are caught
in the bodies of water in their area.

The Kalinga people have rich and diverse cultural traditions, especially in the aspects of music,
dance, and art. They are known for the banga or pot dance which illustrates the grace of a tribe otherwise
known as fierce warriors. This dance incorporates as many as seven or eight heavy pots at a time and is
balanced on the heads of maidens as they dance to the beat of the gangsa or wind chimes.

Among their traditions, they are exceptionally famous for their ancient method of tattooing
called batok. Batok is the art of tattooing one’s body with tribal designs using bamboo sticks and thorns.
These tribal designs hold significant meaning to women and men. Women, in particular, get a tattoo to
enhance their beauty – the more tattoo in a woman’s body, the more beautiful she is. Men, on the other
hand, decorate their bodies with these designs as a symbol of their strength, power, and as a sign of
dominance and masculinity. That is why Kalinga warriors or headhunters are usually covered with
tattoos.

The people who are responsible for putting these marks on the bodies of men and women are
called mambabatoks. Mambabatok means someone who taps or hits. This is because the practice of Batok
involves the tapping of a thorn (usually from a pomelo tree) bound to a bamboo stick into the skin of a
person. The ink is composed of a mixture of coal and water. The ink is embedded into the skin following
a specific tribal design.

This practice is believed to be in existence for many years and the original mambabatoks have
died a long time ago. Fortunately, though, there still lives someone who has been practicing the art for
more than seventy years and is now teaching the young the same art. She is the famous Apo Whang-od
who is considered to be the last mambabatok in her region. She, herself, has tribal tattoos covering her
body. She learned the art of Batok from her father when she was still a child, and has since dedicated her
life as a mambabatok when she lost her husband.

Apo Whang-od was recognized and praised for her impressive skills in tattooing that even people
from all over the world travel to the Philippines and trek for 15 hours from the main city to the mountains
just to get a tattoo from her. Common Kalinga tattoo designs include animals like centipedes and snakes,
patterned lines and shapes, and patterns that are usually used to decorate textiles, pottery, and tools. The
designs have different symbolic meanings which range from magical or talismanic abilities to health,
wealth, and abundance.

Discussion of the Cultural Practices and their Implications

The following cultural practices mentioned in this text show how rich the culture of the
Philippine indigenous communities is. From religion to rites of passage and art, these cultural practices
have existed for such a long time. The fact that they have preserved these up to this day shows how much
they value their culture and heritage.

The first practice that was mentioned in this text is animism which is a belief that is common to
many indigenous communities. This belief has been practiced for many years, long before the dominant
religions in the world came into existence. In fact, our Filipino ancestors were animistic, too. They were
pagans and do not have any specific religion until Christianity was introduced to them during the 333-
year occupancy of the Spanish people in our country. Since then, the Philippines became a Christian
country and some other religions were introduced, too, leaving the practice of animism to those whose
culture and roots are stronger than whatever exterior influence there is.

This belief isn’t something that should be considered unusual – especially considering how our
ancestors were once animistic. Just like any other religion that is predominant in the world, animistic
people – Ifugaos in this case, exert so much faith in their beliefs regardless if their faith is considered
unusual to many. Their belief that spiritual entities are embodied by carved woods, or in the form of
plants and animals, is not any different from how we, Christians, believe in a higher being, our God, and
how we pray to saints and ask for guidance or blessing. The Ifugao people get their strength and guidance
for their livelihood from anitos and whatever form they think embodies such entity, like how Ifugao have
bul-uls for their farming. During a good harvest, they thank them and celebrate them just like how any
other people with religious beliefs thank their god for their blessings.

Another practice discussed in this text is marriage which is a rite of passage. A huge part of the
population marries, but how this is celebrated all over the world varies. As previously mentioned,
Christians celebrate their marriage through a church wedding, sometimes it is held in other venues, but is
still presided by a priest. This is the same as other dominant religions with minor variations depending on
their culture.

In the T’boli culture, their marriage is a long process that usually lasts for years. That is because
of the arranged marriage that is usually contracted at such a young age. This practice is not unique to the
T’boli people. In fact, this is a common practice in rich families and even the royal families to keep their
wealth and their bloodline. Such practice, however, can be dismissive of one’s right and freedom to
choose. T’boli people can be arranged for marriage even at an age when a person isn’t mature enough to
decide for themselves. Such practice can take a huge toll on the person’s well-being, especially if they get
wedded to someone they don’t approve of. It should be noted how such decision mostly comes from the
parents more than the involved couple – a clear manifestation of the lack of their freedom to choose.

To be married to someone who has a good and loving character may have benefits, although
sometimes it would require time and effort to adjust to such a set-up. A couple who has built a strong
relationship for themselves is beneficial to the community considering how they will soon form a family
which is a vital part of the community. Conversely, if a person enters a marriage that is dysfunctional for
reasons like abuse, poverty, or simply indifference to both parties, then it won’t do any good to their
community, let alone themselves. This is the concerning part of such practice, especially if we consider
how anyone of any age in the T’boli group, can experience it. It is, however, important to not single out
the T’boli community to such practice when it is prevalent in many cultures. Although authorities have
tried to appeal to stop this practice, mostly for the reason that children are usually involved, it is important
to remember that this practice had been in their culture for so long and it is not easy to discontinue it
simply. It will take time to observe a decline in such practice, probably because of modernization of ideas
or them being accepting and more knowledgeable of basic human rights, but completely abolishing this is
impossible, at least in the meantime.

The last practice mentioned in this text is the traditional method of tattooing of the Kalinga
people called Batok. Art is undeniably one of the highlights of any culture as it shows how people express
themselves. It is commendable how many indigenous communities have been so dedicated to their art that
they have preserved them so well, especially still following traditional methods that were in existence for
many years.

Kalinga people use tattoos to express beauty and power. In the past, the more tattoo a person has
in their body, the more beautiful or powerful they are. Every tattoo holds significant meaning to them and
the design isn’t randomly chosen at all. As mentioned, some design symbolizes abilities, character, and
desires. People who have tattoos in their community are admired by many as if each tattoo inked into
their body serves as a badge of honor.

Although this type of art is beautiful and respected in their culture, the perspective changes
especially when people whose body is covered in tattoos, go to lowland areas like the city. People still
have varying opinions regarding tattoos, regardless of what culture a person is in. Even those who have
lived their whole lives in urban areas can still get unsolicited remarks from people who view tattoos as
unnecessary dirt marked into the body which is supposed to be holy in the context of religion. This seems
worse to the people of indigenous communities who receive judgmental eyes because their whole body is
almost covered in tattoos. It may even get to the point that they get rejected for a job position only
because they are covered in tattoos. This is even attested by a Kalinga person. Little do the people outside
their community know how the tattoos in the Kalinga people’s bodies mean so much to them than just
unnecessary dirt.

It is saddening to know how the indigenous people face prejudice and discrimination for their
culture that they respect and are proud of. The indifference of some people to the culture that they are not
a part of is one of the reasons why the world is in chaos. If only everyone is accepting and understanding
of others’ cultures, then it would be easier for everyone to just express themselves according to the
culture that they are a part of. It is important to mention how the practices of the indigenous communities
signify so much in their lives. These communities, like any other community, have their own culture and
identity that hold strong significance. Many indigenous communities have experienced injustices for
reasons like them being inferior and highly vulnerable. However, just because one community is a
minority in comparison to the dominant part of the population, doesn’t mean that their culture should be
regarded as unusual or insignificant.

References

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