Annexure 1- Cover Page

Dissertation as part of project component in Environmental Law Submitted to VIT

School of Law, VIT, Chennai, as requirement for project

By

R. Kanishk Vishva 18BLB1011

P Akilananth 18BLB1014
Ashlin Christo P R 18BLB1036
M Sathya Thava Sudhan 18BLB1088
Sachin S 18BLB1092

Under the supervision of

Prof. Arun D Raj

VIT School of Law, VIT

Chennai
[2022]

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Annexure 2- Declaration

DECLARATION

I, R. Kanishk Vishva ,P Akilananth 18BLB1014, Ashlin Christo P R 18BLB1036, M Sathya

Thava Sudhan 18BLB1088, Sachin S 18BLB1092 B.A.,/B.B.A., LL.B (Honours), hereby
declare that the dissertation titled “Extinction and Biodiversity” as part of project component
in Environmental Law is submitted by us to VITSOL, VIT, Chennai as requirement for the
award of degree of B.A., / B.B.A., LL.B (Honours) is my original work.

It is further declared that all the sources of information used in the dissertation have been
duly acknowledged. I understand that the dissertation may be electronically checked for
plagiarism to assess the originality of the submitted work.

Place: Chennai, Tamil Nadu

Date: 22/05/2022 (Signature of the student)

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to all those who gave me the possibility
to complete this report. Special thanks to my professor Arun D Raj whose help, stimulating
suggestions and encouragement helped me at the time of the fabrication process and in
writing this report. I also sincerely thank him for the time spent guiding and moulding me to
do this work at my best.

My profound thanks go to all classmates, especially to my group members for putting it just
as much effort and making this project successful.

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Abstract

The current massive habitat degradation and species extinction is occurring on a

catastrophically short timescale, and its consequences will fundamentally reset the future
evolution of the planet's biota. The fossil record indicates that global ecosystem recovery
took millions, if not tens of millions, of years. As a result, human intervention, the very
agents of the current environmental disaster, is essential for any hope of short-term biota
recovery or maintenance . Many current recovery efforts suffer from flaws, such as a lack of
data on species diversity and distribution, ecological processes, and the magnitude and
interaction of threats to biodiversity (pollution, overharvesting, climate change, disruption of
biogeochemical cycles, introduced or invasive species, habitat loss and fragmentation through
land use, disruption of community structure in habitats, and others). To remedy these flaws, a
far larger and more quickly deployed expenditure is clearly required. Human activities, such
as agricultural or harvesting techniques, must be linked to relevant research generated in the
biological, earth, and atmospheric sciences for conservation and restoration in human-
dominated ecosystems. Climate change and changes in global biogeochemical cycles are two
challenges to biodiversity that require extensive international cooperation and scientific
contribution to prevent their adverse impacts. In a world already altered by human activity,
any approach for biota recovery must consider the relationship between humans and the
ecosystems on which they rely.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

1) Introduction

2) Main drivers of species loss

3) Solutions

4) Objectives

5) Lessons from Past

6) Biodiversity Loss and Recovery Scenarios

7) Long term costs

8) International Action

9) Conclusion

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CHAPTER 1

1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Human activity is causing plant and animal species to become extinct at an ever-increasing
rate. What are the reasons for this, and why is biodiversity important?

1.2 OBJECTIVE

The last mass extinction happened due to natural circumstances, whereas extinction now is
primarily caused due to man made issues amounting from occupying habitats of animals to
hunting as a sport.

1.3 SCOPE

The scope of this paper will go the extent that about the causes of extinction and its main
drives. Solutions to it, lessons from the past and long term costs.

1.4 HYPOTHESIS

The issue of extinction possess a serious threat to biodiversity. Only if conservation

legislations were better there could be better rate of population of species.

1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The research done is done in doctrinal method as analysing the situation in the past and in the
present requires such methodology.

INTRODUCTION

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For millions of years, Earth's ecosystems have evolved into diverse and complex biological
groups that live in harmony with their surroundings. Human activity has had an impact on
nature in nearly every corner of the world since the 16th century; wild species and animals
are in danger of extinction, deforestation and land degradation are creating water scarcity and
erosion, and climate change is generating ocean acidification.

Biodiversity loss refers to the worldwide extinction of species (plants and animals), as well as
the local decline or extinction of species in a specific environment.

Humans have altered ecosystems at a faster rate than ever before in the last 50 years; 60% of
ecosystems have been degraded and are often over-exploited, and pressures on nature are
increasing despite the expanding number of responses to biodiversity loss.

The existence of humanity as a species, as well as our communities and their future
evolution, is dependent on nature and its contributions to people. Nature and its contributions
to humanity, on the other hand, are continuing to dwindle, owing mostly to human activity.
13 percent of the 2,493 species examined in Europe and Central Asia are on the International
Union for Conservation of Nature's (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species, accounting for
6.5 percent of the total number of species on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
worldwide.

MAIN DRIVERS OF SPECIES LOSS

1. Climate change

Climate change has, of course, impacted life on Earth in the long run – ecosystems have
come and gone, and species have gone extinct on a regular basis.

Rapid, man-made climate change, on the other hand, accelerates the process without giving
ecosystems and species the time to adapt. Rising ocean temperatures and melting Arctic sea

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ice, for example, have an impact on marine biodiversity and can alter vegetation zones, which
has global ramifications.

Overall, climate is a primary determinant of species distribution over the world, and climate
change causes them to adapt. However, many are unable to cope, and as a result, they will
become extinct.

2. Deforestation and habitat loss

Extinction and biodiversity loss are directly linked to deforestation. Every year, an estimated
18 million acres of forest are lost, largely due to logging and other human activities,
destroying ecosystems that support numerous species.

Tropical rainforests, such as the Amazon, are home to a large percentage of the world's
known species, yet they are in decline owing to human activity.

3. Overexploitation

Overhunting, overfishing, and overharvesting have all contributed to the loss of biodiversity
in recent centuries, resulting in the extinction of several species. Poaching and other forms of
profit-driven hunting raise the danger of extinction; the disappearance of an apex predator —
or a predator at the top of the food chain — can have disastrous effects for ecosystems.

4. Invasive species

Non-native species introduced into an ecosystem can endanger endemic wildlife (as predators
or resource competitors), harm human health, and disrupt economy.

5. Pollution

Pollution fundamentally affects the Earth's ecosystems, from the burning of fossil fuels
(releasing harmful chemicals into the atmosphere and, in some circumstances, depleting
ozone levels) to the dumping of 19 billion pounds of plastic into the ocean every year.
Pollutants have the capacity to impact species' behaviour, even if they do not necessarily
cause extinction.

Acid rain, which is typically induced by the combustion of fossil fuels, can, for example,
acidify smaller bodies of water and soil, negatively altering animals' breeding and feeding
patterns.

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From the tiniest bacteria to the greatest animal, ecosystems rely on all aspects. Everything is
linked together. Others breathe oxygen produced by others. Some serve as food for larger
species, which then become prey for even larger ones. Every living thing has a part to play in
keeping things in check. When one element is removed, the balance is disrupted, and
significantly more species are lost as a result.

Although humanity considers itself to be at the top of the food chain, it is also reliant on the
other components. The impact of the disappearance of the lower segments of the chain will
be felt all the way to the top.

The loss of genetic variety in our global food system has serious consequences for its long-
term viability. Only 30 crops provide 95 percent of human dietary energy needs, and only
four of them — rice, wheat, maize, and potatoes – contribute more than 60 percent, out of the
millions of species and types known and recorded by humans.

As farmers around the world have replaced various native varieties and landraces with
genetically uniform, high-yielding types, this homogenization of agricultural production has
resulted in considerable genetic degradation.

Any loss, degradation, or relocation of biodiversity can affect human well-being, but it can
have a particularly negative impact on the well-being of poor and marginalised people, who
are a) more directly reliant on natural resources and the services provided by nature to meet
immediate livelihood needs, and b) often unable to afford substitutes in the absence of freely
available natural resources and services. We don't know much about the consequences of
biodiversity loss, but what we do know shows that biodiversity loss will obstruct the
fulfilment of many development goals, including health, food security, and catastrophe risk
reduction.

SOLUTIONS

Conservationists are yearning for a biodiversity agreement with the same clout as the Paris
climate accord. However, despite the fact that many experts believe it poses a similar threat
to humanity, this topic has garnered a pitiful amount of attention thus far.

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The last two major biodiversity treaties, signed in 2002 and 2010, failed to halt the greatest
loss of life on Earth since the dinosaurs died out.

Nations committed to halve the loss of natural habitats, ensure sustainable fishing in all
oceans, and extend nature reserves from 10% to 17% of the world's territory by 2020 under
the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, which were established eight years ago. Many countries,
however, have fallen behind, and those that have established additional protected zones have
done little to enforce them. From Brazil to China, "paper reserves" may now be found.

In addition, the subject is not high on the political agenda. Few heads of state attend
biodiversity discussions in comparison to climate summits. The US has failed to ratify the
pact and merely sends an observer since Donald Trump took office. It is the only UN member
state that does not participate, along with the Vatican.

A convergence of scientific concerns and increased interest from the business community
was one reason for optimism. The leading climate and biodiversity institutions and scientists
from the United Nations met for the first time last month. Forest conservation, tree planting,
land restoration, and soil management, they discovered, may contribute up to a third of the
carbon absorption needed to maintain global warming within the Paris agreement limitations.
In the future, the UN's climate and biodiversity agencies should collaborate on evaluations.

You may lessen your negative impact on the environment and boost local biodiversity by
making a few simple habit modifications and proactive activities.

1. Help Native Pollinators.

Pollinators are essential for the reproduction of most blooming plants, and many species
on our planet rely on them for life. This is why the quantity of plants in a given area is
given such a high priority in the Biodiversity Hotspots criteria. Give pollinators an extra
boost in your backyard by: reducing or eliminating the use of pesticides, providing nectar
sources by planting a variety of wildflowers and native plants that will bloom throughout
the season, leaving logs and rocks in your yard or build bee boxes for native bees to make
their home, encouraging your City to stop weed- pollinator corridors by whacking median
sections and sidewalk margins and allowing native wildflowers to thrive.

2. Reduce or eliminate pesticides and fertilizer.

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If you live in a dry area, you might want to consider getting rid of your lawn. Plant native
plants that are well adapted to your environment instead. Pesticides and fertilisers will be
used less frequently as a result of this. Avoid buying plants from nurseries that use
neonictinoids or other systemic insecticides. They remain in all parts of the plant after
application, from the seed to the stem to the blossom, wreaking havoc on already stressed
pollinators. Instead, use organic compost and soil additions. Pest infestations are best avoided
by maintaining good soil health, but if you do receive unwanted visitors, discover how to care
for your plants using organic pest management.

3. Restore habitat in your yard.

Consider converting your yard into a mini-wildlife sanctuary if you have one. Whether you
have a balcony or a 20-acre farm, the National Wildlife Federation offers a programme to
assist you attract wildlife. Providing wildlife with water, food, cover, and a place to raise
their young can go a long way in a world where habitat loss is the leading source of
biodiversity loss.

4. Restore habitat in your community.

If you don't have access to a yard, consider volunteering at a local ecological restoration
project. Land trusts, wildlife foundations, Native Plant Societies, government agencies (e.g.
Forest Service, Fish & Wildlife), and environmental organisations are all good places to
explore for volunteer opportunities. You'll spend time outside and learn about the local
wildlife and vegetation.

5. Reduce your consumption.

This is, without a doubt, the activity that will have the greatest positive environmental
impact. The less habitat is destroyed to obtain those resources or the energy to
manufacture those things, and the less garbage is disposed of in landfills, the better. Make
the decision to live a basic lifestyle. Most "minimalists" prefer to live a simple life in
order to spend more time doing the things they enjoy rather than shopping and mending
items. "Own Less, Live More" is the concept. However, it's indisputable that living a
minimalist lifestyle is good for the environment.

6. Reuse and recycle.

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 Composting is crucial in this situation. It minimises the amount of waste that ends up
in landfills as well as the amount of space required to store that waste. Consider how
you can put those single-use goods to good use. Keep track of what's recyclable in
your neighbourhood. Even tiny communities like mine can increase the amount of
items they can collect when new markets for recycled products open up.
7. Reduce your energy demand.

The primary cause of climate change is the burning of fossil fuels, which is hastening
biodiversity loss by posing unprecedented challenges to the world's plants and animals. Start
at home by conserving energy. A Home Electricity Audit will help you become more aware
of areas in your home where you can save energy. After that, include renewable energy
sources.

8. Buy local foods.

Buying directly from a local farmer at a farmer's market or a farm stand allows you to learn
more about how your food was grown and make specific requests, such as no pesticides or a
wider variety of produce. It's much easier to persuade someone with whom you have a
personal relationship to change their ways than it is to persuade a large organisation to do so.

9. Buy organic foods.

While organic certification does not guarantee that your food is pesticide-free, organic
growers must adhere to strict pesticide-use guidelines.

10. Donate to conservation efforts.

Species extinction is at an all-time high, yet there never seems to be enough money to
save them all. Make conservation efforts in the world's biodiversity hotspots a top priority
in your charitable donations. "We're likely to get far greater "biodiversity for our buck"
on every pound spent abroad, especially if we focus on the world's poorest developing
countries, many of which are in global biodiversity hotspots," James Borrell, a PhD
student in Conservation Genetics, wrote in an article for The Conversation.

11. Advocate for Biodiversity.

Learn about the value of biodiversity and be able to respond to the questions "Why is it so
important?" and "Why should we make sacrifices to protect it?" Multiple major dangers to
biodiversity are posed by genetically engineered crops. Support the recommendations on GM

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crops made by the International Union of Concerned Scientists. Connect the dots. Learn
about wildlife and conservation biologists in your area, as well as political activists and
community leaders. Connect with experts and campaigns via social media. Make an effort to
influence your government. Sign petitions or start your own. Politicians who support steps to
safeguard biodiversity should be supported. Send out your message. Talk to your buddies
face to face. Make use of social media. Create a blog. Make a presentation at a local event.

Biodiversity, or the diversity of all living species on our world, has been rapidly reducing in
recent years, owing primarily to human activities such as land use changes, pollution, and
climate change.

Following proposals from the European Parliament in January 2020 to address the key
drivers of biodiversity loss and set legally binding targets, the European Commission
unveiled the revised 2030 Biodiversity Strategy in May 2020.

Parliament endorsed its position on the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030: Bringing nature
back into our lives to guarantee that the world's ecosystems are restored, robust, and
appropriately safeguarded by 2050 during its June 2021 plenary session.

MEPs demanded legally binding targets to halt biodiversity loss at a UN biodiversity

conference (COP15) in China in October on the 16th of January. The conference brings
together signatories to the United Nations Biodiversity Convention from 1993 to discuss the
convention's post-2020 strategy. Parliament wants the EU to take the lead by ensuring that
natural areas cover 30% of EU territory by 2030 and that biodiversity is taken into account in
all EU initiatives.

Projects for Conservation:

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  Convention of Biological Diversity
 The major causes for biodiversity loss
 Man-made causes for the loss of biodiversity
 Projects to save threatened species
 Project Tiger
 Crocodile Breeding Project
 Lesser Cats Project
 The Manipur Brow-antlered Deer Project
 Project Elephant
 Project Rhino
 Himalayan musk deer project
 Project Hangul

Conservation of biological diversity is essential for the survival of the human race.

Objectives and advantages of biodiversity conservation

 Conservation of biological diversity leads to conservation of essential ecological

diversity to preserve the continuity of food chains.
 The genetic diversity of plants and animals is preserved.
 It ensures the sustainable utilisation of life support systems on earth.
 It provides a vast knowledge of potential use to the scientific community.
 A reservoir of wild animals and plants is preserved, thus enabling them to be
introduced, if need be, in the surrounding areas.
 Biological diversity provides immediate benefits to the society such as recreation and
tourism.
 Biodiversity conservation serves as an insurance policy for the future.

Ex situ conservation

Ex situ conservation is the preservation of biodiversity outside of its natural habitat. In places
like zoological or botanical parks, animals and plants are kept or cultivated.

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Another type of ex situ conservation is the reintroduction of an extinct animal or plant into its
native habitat. The Gangetic gharial, for example, has been reintroduced in rivers in Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan, where it had gone extinct.

Ex situ conservation takes place in seedbanks, botanical, horticultural, and recreational

gardens.

In situ conservation

In situ conservation refers to the preservation of animals and plants in their natural habitats.
This includes the formation of In situ conservation refers to the preservation of animals and
plants in their natural habitats. This includes the creation of national parks and wildlife
refuges. Reserves of the biosphere Reserves of natural beauty Forests that have been set aside
and protected Plots for preservation Forests that have been set aside Conservation of
agrobiodiversity Farmers became victims of monocultures in their thirst for money after the
introduction of cotton, tobacco, sugarcane, sunflower, soyabean, and other crops. As a result,
many indigenous agricultural varieties have been lost. Furthermore, the hybrid types of fruits
and vegetables introduced for pulp (e.g., tomatoes) are more sensitive to disease and pests.
Though hybrid types are favoured, traditional wild seed kinds should be saved for future use
in the case of an outbreak that wipes out hybrids altogether. Botanical gardens, agricultural
departments, seed banks, and other institutions should not be responsible for agrobiodiversity
conservation on their own. Every farmer, gardener, and cultivator should be aware of his or
her responsibility in agrobiodiversity preservation and conservation.

● The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international treaty that The

convention's goal is to prevent the extinction of species and the damage of their habitats. The
developed world is eager for a steady supply of biological resources from emerging nations,
as well as simple access to them. Developing countries that lack the technological capabilities
to harness their resources are encouraging developed countries to do so. As a result, the
benefits of these natural resources have been channelled out of industrialised countries.
Developing countries are increasingly clamouring for a larger part of the economic gains. The
unsustainable exploitation of natural resources, particularly rainforests, is also a source of
worry for wealthy countries. The Convention on Biological Diversity's main points "The
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protection of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and
equitable sharing of the benefits emerging from the usage of genetic resources" are the goals
of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Parties shall develop national policies for the
conservation and sustainable use of biological resources, according to the agreement. Create
protected regions, repair degraded ecosystems, eradicate alien species, and build ex-situ
conservation facilities.

According to the 2019 IPBES Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services, wild mammal biomass has decreased by 82 percent, natural ecosystems have lost
approximately half of their area, and a million species are threatened with extinction, all due
to human actions. A quarter of all plant and animal species are in danger of extinction.

One million plant and animal species were on the verge of extinction in June 2019. Since
1750, at least 571 species have become extinct, with many more sure to follow. The
degradation of natural ecosystems by human activity, such as cutting down forests and
converting land into farming fields, is the primary cause of extinctions.

The presence of a dagger symbol next to the name of a species or other taxon usually denotes
that it is extinct.

Over five billion species, or more than 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, are
thought to have perished. There are an estimated 8.7 million eukaryote species on the planet
now, with the number likely to rise dramatically if microbes such as bacteria are included.

Reduced human contact with the natural environment and biodiversity, according to the
biodiversity hypothesis, may have a negative impact on the human commensal microbiota
and its immunomodulatory ability. The theory is based on the fact that two major socio-
ecological phenomena — biodiversity loss and rising rates of inflammatory disorders – are
linked.

Urbanization and habitat fragmentation are causing a growing disconnect between humans
and their natural surroundings. In addition, immunological non-communicable diseases have
become more prevalent in recent decades, particularly in urbanised areas.

The degree of variation in life on Earth is referred to as biodiversity. The term "biodiversity"
refers to the amount of different creatures that live in a given ecosystem. Biodiversity, on the
other hand, is not evenly distributed around the globe, but is higher in the tropics near the

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equator, as well as in the Western Pacific Ocean, where warmer sea surface temperatures
attract life.

Biodiversity

The Science of Diversity

Scientists believe that there are between ten and fourteen million different forms of life on the
globe today. This is despite the fact that nearly all species that have ever lived on Earth have
become extinct. This has been triggered by several significant mass extinction events
throughout Earth's history, the most recent of which was the demise of the dinosaurs 65
million years ago.

The phrase "biological diversity" was coined by conservationist Raymond Dasmann in 1968,
but it wasn't until the 1980s that the abbreviated word "biodiversity" became popular among
scientists and the general public. There are presently four degrees of biodiversity on the
world, according to scientists:

Taxonomic diversity (the number of species)

Ecological diversity (diversity of place)

Morphological diversity (diversity in genetics)

Molecular diversity

The loss of biodiversity on the planet, linked to climate change, has serious implications for
the future of life on Earth.

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LESSONS FROM PAST

The fossil record clearly demonstrates the existence of extinction on numerous scales, as well
as the severity and selectivity of effects, as well as the pattern of recovery and survival. So,
how useful is the fossil record in anticipating both extinction and recovery possibilities in the
current crisis? When we think about this subject, we realise that there are various features of
these historical events that make them less relevant to the current situation.

To begin with, ancient mass extinction events have been reported over comparatively long or
ambiguous periods. The current dilemma has spanned centuries or millennia in history, with a
considerably accelerated impact that began in the twentieth century with the exponential
expansion in global human populations. As a result, the alteration of the current biota may be
most essential during a period of about 75 to 100 years.

Second, historical mass extinction events were characterised by global-scale ecological

change. In contrast, the current event is characterised by a "patchy" pattern of habitat
fragmentation and loss, with significant differences in repercussions for different ecosystems
and regions of the world. Although there is a growing body of evidence that global climate
change and changes in global biogeochemical cycles may cause widespread ecosystem
transformations, significant biodiversity loss has yet to be linked to these effects.

Third, data from the fossil record on large extinction events frequently fails to provide a clear
link between main cause and consequence. The current biodiversity catastrophe, on the other
hand, has only one clear biotic cause: humans. Furthermore, the source of the trauma is
thought to be capable of mitigating its own negative consequences. Although many species
may face extinction as a result of the current occurrence, many parts of human-caused global
change can be reversed.

All of the preceding distinctions are relevant to any recovery scenario derived from fossil and
geological evidence. According to many studies, replenishment and diversification of the
biota following mass extinction events required a millions or tens of millions of years of
recovery time. Such predictions based on fossil data must surely indicate the time lag that
could be predicted for a natural biota comeback following the current extinction catastrophe.
Nonetheless, given the central role of people in both processes, such historical lessons do not
adequately influence our prospects for current extinction or recovery.

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Biodiversity Loss and Recovery Scenarios in Human-Dominated Ecosystems

The idea that the state of what "we've captured in the net" determines the success of any
restoration or recovery method is repeated throughout this debate. As a result, greatly better
knowledge on the basic state of the world biota, as well as the many comparative levels of
degradation currently occurring or forecast, remains a critical priority for biodiversity
conservation. When we analyse the disparity between urgency and investment, we can
comprehend the magnitude of the problem this aim poses. Experts in systematic biology—the
study that involves the discovery, analysis, and classification of diverse species and the
groupings that contain them—have created patterns of species diversity and endemism that
are crucial for identifying hotspots or other conservation priorities. Only about 6,000
specialists are in charge of organising and updating the database on the 1.6 million species
that have been named, with potentially millions more yet to be discovered. Indeed, the
world's systematists have inadequately covered the catalogued species already represented by
nearly 3 billion specimens in museums, botanical gardens, herbaria, frozen tissue collections,
seed banks, bacteria type cultural collections, zoos, and aquaria. When one considers that
many of the countries that own hot spots and otherwise account for 80 percent of the world's
named species have only about 6% of the world's scientists in any field, the problem becomes
even more acute. The success of conservation initiatives in these nations depends on the
development of taxonomic and managerial capability. When compared to spending in space
research, such scientific initiatives that serve international conservation concerns are
insignificant.

Despite this, it is widely acknowledged that amassing scientific knowledge is not the answer
to our environmental challenges. As we work to increase our understanding of biodiversity
and ecological linkages, we must also consider the diverse functions of our own species,
which is likely the most delicate and intricate community relationship within those
ecosystems. "The wilderness garden is not humanity-free, and it never will be," Janzen said.
The realisation that the world is encompassed by human-dominated ecosystems calls into
question any notion that we may return the biota to a condition that is ideally pristine and
"uncontaminated" by human populations. Human activity is as important as, if not more
important than, any other aspect in the ecological equation. The question of how human
populations might embrace habits that benefit both themselves and the biota's long-term
viability remains unsolved. Here, some irrational arrogance should be avoided. Because

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biodiversity extraction is relatively limited in comparison to intensive farming, convincing
farmers that increased monoculture is less productive and sustainable than biodiversity
extraction is difficult. Even successful conservation efforts, like the Elwha River restoration
work mentioned earlier, were sparked by a shift in human needs and priorities—in this case, a
desire for larger salmon populations for food, sport, and ecotourism.

The requirement to protect the basic ecosystem functions that are dependent on biodiversity
is the most effective argument why human activities should safeguard biodiversity at a more
general level. Ecosystem process and function influenced by a small number of interacting
species ensures environmental quality on a vast scale and, as a result, has a direct impact on
human health and well-being. This is a difficult argument to make to either highly
competitive and heavy consumers in industrialised countries or destitute, marginalised
populations in developing countries. However, the case must be made by demonstrating the
benefits of living in harmony with biodiversity and the services provided by the natural
world.

Scenarios for recovery are far from apparent in the world of uncertainties regarding the nature
of global biodiversity, the nature of its loss, and the most effective strategies for mitigating
that degradation. Nonetheless, our study and discussion of many of the topics covered in this
colloquium allows for a few basic conclusions and suggestions. Although historical
extinction events highlight the existence and potential for such disasters today and in the
future, they offer scant insight into the current biodiversity crisis. Past extinction events, on
the other hand, imply that if natural processes are left to their own devices, global ecosystems
will revert to a condition that is advantageous to many of its species, including humans, over
uncomfortably long periods.

Any potential of recovery or even maintenance of the biota in any condition that approaches
its current state requires intervention on the part of the source of these current traumas,
namely people.

There are significant flaws in current efforts on this front, including a lack of basic
knowledge about species diversity and distribution, ecological processes, and the relative
degree of threats (land use change, pollution, nitrogen deposition, and others) across many
habitats and areas. To remedy these flaws, a far larger and more quickly deployed
expenditure is clearly required.

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Furthermore, many conservation and restoration programmes in human-dominated
ecosystems lack significant links between agricultural or harvesting methods and biological
sciences. Climate change and changes in global biogeochemical cycles are two challenges to
biodiversity that require particularly active international cooperation and involvement from
the scientific community to counteract their adverse consequences. Our plans for maintaining
or recovering our important ecosystems must be framed by the overriding realisation that we
live in a world that has already been drastically changed by human activity.

Long Term Costs

If ecosystems degrade to an unsustainable level, the problems that emerge can be exceedingly
costly to fix economically.

For example, in Bangladesh and India, logging of trees and forests means that monsoon
floods can be extremely devastating. Similarly, many avalanches and mud slides that have
taken many lives in various parts of the world may have been exacerbated by the removal of
so many forests, which act as a natural barrier and can absorb the brunt of such events.

Climate change and environmental degradation, as noted by the Centre for Science and the
Environment, can have a greater influence on regions and exacerbate the effects of severe
weather systems. As they go on to say, this is an even bigger issue in poorer areas like India's
Orissa.

Coral reefs, forests, and other ecosystems are all disappearing, which can exacerbate the
effects of natural disasters.

The expense of the consequences, as well as the problems that may come as a result (such as
disease and other illnesses, or rebuilding, and so on) is far more than the cost of maintenance
and sustainable development approaches that could be utilised instead.

For instance, assuming a pessimistic scenario, if enough trees, forests, and similar ecosystems
perish or deteriorate substantially, the oxygen-producing advantages from such ecosystems
are jeopardised.

More pollution would be released into the atmosphere.

The cost of addressing this, as well as the related illnesses, problems, and other cascading
effects, would be enormous (as it is assumed that industrial pollution will increase, with
fewer natural ecosystems to absorb it). Furthermore, other species in that ecosystem that rely
on it would be further endangered, leading to an ecosystem-wide downward spiral.

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When you compare those expenses to the costs of taking preventive steps like protecting
forests and encouraging more sustainable forms of development, it's clear that taking
precautionary measures like protecting forests and promoting more sustainable forms of
development is the better option People will, of course, argue that these events will not occur
for various reasons. Others can only say "I told you so" when it's too late – a potentially very
terrible Catch. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) is a non-profit
organisation backed by the United Nations and several European countries that aims to
assemble, create, and present a convincing economic case for ecosystem and biodiversity
conservation. It has also attempted to place a monetary value on the ecological services that
humanity receives. Implementing REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation) might, for example, assist to halve deforestation by 2030 and reduce CO2
emissions by 1.5 Gt per year. It is projected that it would cost between US$ 17.2 and US$ 33
billion per year (p.18). The cost of reducing climate change is predicted to be $3.2 trillion.
They also highlighted another study that indicated that over $2 trillion in environmental
externalities were caused by 3,000 publicly traded corporations throughout the world (i.e.
costs that have to be borne by society from ignored factors, or social costs). This is the
equivalent of 7% of their total sales and up to a third of their total earnings.

International action

Many organisations, such as the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources' (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species and the United States Endangered Species
Act, are dedicated to the cause of prioritising conservation efforts. Norman Myers, a British
environmental scientist, and his colleagues have discovered 25 terrestrial biodiversity
hotspots that could serve as habitat protection priorities.

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), an international convention agreed in 1992–

3, has resulted in several governments around the world conserving portions of their lands.
The CBD's Strategic Plan 2011–2020 included the 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets, which were
published in 2010. Around 164 countries have made strategies to meet their conservation
goals since 2010, including the protection of 17% of terrestrial and inland waters and 10% of
coastal and marine ecosystems.

The Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services was published in
2019 by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem

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Services (IPBES), an international organisation formed to serve a similar role to the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which stated that up to a million plant
and animal species are facing extinction as a result of human activities. The same human
actions that are the underlying causes of climate change and biodiversity loss, such as the
destruction of wildlife and wild habitats, are also the drivers of pandemics, including the
COVID-19 pandemic, according to an IPBES report published in October 2020.

Only six of the 20 biodiversity targets set out by the Aichi Biodiversity Targets in 2010 were
"partially fulfilled" by the 2020 deadline, according to the UN's Global Biodiversity Outlook
report. According to the research, biodiversity would continue to diminish if the status quo is
not modified owing to "existing unsustainable patterns of production and consumption,
population expansion, and technological improvements." Australia, Brazil, Cameroon, and
the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador) were also singled out for having one of their animals go
extinct in the last ten years, according to the research. Following this, the leaders of 64
countries and the European Union agreed to protect the environment and restore the natural
world. There were no leaders from some of the world's major polluters, including China,
India, Russia, Brazil, and the United States. According to some experts, the United States'
unwillingness to ratify the Convention on Biological Diversity is jeopardising global attempts
to stem the extinction catastrophe. Top experts believe that even if the 2010 targets had been
attained, current extinction rates would not have been reduced significantly. Others contend
that the Convention on Biological Diversity does not go far enough, and that the aim should
be zero extinctions by 2050, as well as a halving of the environmental effect of unsustainable
food production. The fact that the goals are not legally binding has also been criticised.

With the passing of the 2020 target date for the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, scientists
proposed a measurable, near-term biodiversity target – similar to the below 2 °C global
warming target – of keeping described species extinctions to well below 20 per year over the
next 100 years across all major groups (fungi, plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates) and
ecosystem types (marine, freshwater, and terrestrial).

According to a report released in 2021 by scientists from the IPBES and the IPCC,
biodiversity loss and climate change must be addressed together since they are inextricably
linked and have similar effects on human well-being. Pamela McElwee, a human ecologist
and report co-author, says "People are increasingly feeling the effects of climate change in
their own lives, whether it's wildfires or hurricane danger. Biodiversity loss has a similar
impact on human well-being, according to our findings."

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Conclusion

Our planet is currently losing living species at 1,000 times the rate of natural extinction.
Many species are highly endangered, with wild populations of barely a few hundred
individuals or less. Ecosystems are flourishing and balanced because of the relationships
between species and the influence they have on one another. As more species perish, the web
of life unravels, hastening the loss of biodiversity while also jeopardising food security,
environmental services, and human health.

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