History and Culture of Pakistan by Nigel Kelly

Pakistan History, Culture and Government

by Nigel Smith
Pakistan a by Farooq Bajwa

 This document is consisted of only facts in order to provide students a quick recap of
the units.
 This document also provides support to students for 7, 10 and 14 mark questions in
order to identify relevant facts.
 Students must be able to build their own analysis according to the requirement of the
question.
 Students must realize that they should read book deeply in order to grasp different
concepts and events according to chronological order.

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 SECTION I
DECLINE OF MUGHAL EMPIRE
Causes and consequences of the decline can be divided into two eras
1. During Aurangzeb time period (till 1707)
2. After Aurangzeb time period (after 1707)
REASONS OF POPULARITY OF AURANGZEB:
 He employed some Hindu advisors
 Abolished many local taxes
 Made donations to Hindu temples
Reasons of decline during Aurangzeb time Reasons of decline after Aurangzeb
• 1. Aurangzeb re-imposed Jizya • Weak Successors
tax • Succession Disputes
• 25 years of Deccan Wars • Foreign Invasions
• Forbade Hindu festivals • Weak Control
• Destroyed Hindu temples • Arrival of British
• Spend huge sums on building
luxurious palaces

How did Deccan wars contribute in the
decline?
• Absence of Aurangzeb from the center
as these wars continued for 25 years
So administrative issues.
• Wastage of treasury as most of the
money was being utilized in these
wars for weapons.
• Loss of army during the war leading to
weak defense.
How did Aurangzeb’s policies contribute in
the decline?
 Re imposed Jizya tax
 Hindu temples were destroyed
 He tried to ban old Hindu practices
such as suttee.
 Enforced Islamic law, making Hindus
and Sikhs live according to the Quran

How did vast empire contribute in the How did foreign invasions contribute in the
decline? decline?
• Weak Administration  Persian leader Nadir Shah
• Weak Communication leading to  Ahmad Shah Durrani
delaying of messages so more threat  Marathas
of internal rebellions  Arrival of British
• Weak mansabdari system
• In competent successors were unable
to control such a vast empire

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How did internal rebellions contribute in the
decline?
 War against Rajput from 1679-81,
Sikhs, Jats and Satnamis so military
weaknesses
 Led to corrupt mansabdari system as
mansabdars started taking control of
their areas
 Weak control as incompetent
successors was unable to deal with
these rebellions.
How did succession disputes contribute in the
decline?
• Wastage of money and army.
• Courtiers became strong as successors
were busy in the fights for throne.
• Less concentration on the empire
leading to more foreign invasions that
weaken the empire.

How did weak successors contribute in the
decline?
• Successors were incompetent.
• They were more interested in their
pleasure seeking behavior.
• They were concentrating in the wars
for the throne rather than on Empire.
How did British strength contribute in the
decline?
• More military strength due to
industrial revolution
• Well planned and united.
• Gain power by destroying local cotton
industry as they were producing cheap
manufactured goods and only taking
raw material from India leading to
weak economy of India.

EAST INDIA COMPANY (EIC)

 EIC was a trading company
 Established in 1600 with the permission of Queen Elizabeth
 It was allowed to trade in the east of Africa and was given monopoly
 First it decided to trade in East indies and then it chose India for trade as an alternate.
 EIC is divided into two eras
o 1612-1784
 Group of individuals
 Monopoly
 No govt interference
 Aim is to maximize profits
 More imports from India
o 1784-1850
 British govt. took administrative control of India

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  Aim is to take hold to India as it was a colonization time period
 More exports to India
Why did EIC select India for trade?
 Rich in spices, silk and cotton
 Three sided water, which was major mode
of transportation
 As an alternate as Dutch did not allow
them to enter in East indies.
How did it increase its influence?
 It started established its trading post and
headquarters (which were known as
presidencies)
 Development work like railway
development
 Establishment of an army
Why did the British build railways in India during
the nineteenth century?
 Railways transported raw materials
easily/cheaply to the ports for
export/manufactured goods to be
sold throughout India, increasing
British profits.
 Railways carried troops swiftly
around India (helping the British to
maintain law and order and extend
power).
Note: not for First War of Independence.
 British could travel the country and
spread their ideas / culture, gaining
support / to govern effectively.
 In times of famine food could be
transported quickly to affected
areas.
 To win support of Indians who
found them useful for travel as
families were able to travel to visit
relatives in other parts of India.
Why did British govt. take administrative control
of EIC?
 To prevent Bengal exploitation to restore
their reputation as EIC was warned
through Act of parliament but it did not
Why did Indians welcome EIC?
 More imports from India so more profits
 EIC was paying them in silver which was
international mode of payment.
 It started a lot of development work in
India like railway development
Why did EIC take control of Bengal?
 Rich in spices, silk and cotton
 One of the largest province with a port
which was main mean of transportation.
 One of main presidency of EIC and Siraj-ul-
Dullah asked them to leave once they
disobey him.
Why was Robert Clive appointed the first
Governor of Bengal?
 Clive commanded the British army
to victory at the battle of Plassey in
1757 and established relations with
Mir Jafar.
 The battle increased Clive’s
reputation and his importance to
the East India Company (EIC)
because he became the foremost
commander of British forces in
India.
 The battle was also a success for
the EIC because they now
controlled the profitable trade in
Bengal.
 As a reward for being considered
responsible for the EIC amassing
immense fortunes, especially in
Bengal
 Clive’s reputation and importance
was further enhanced by his
success at the battle of Buxar in
1764 which increased British
control of eastern India.
Resistance by the Indians against British between
1750-1850
 Siraj ul Dulha pushed them out of Bengal
in 1756
 In 1782, the first governor general of India
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  EIC was earning huge profits that were
10% of Queen’s income so British wanted
to take maximum profits by taking control
of EIC.
 Era of colonization
Attempts by the British to take control of India
between 1750-1850.
 Appointed Warren Hasting as first
governor general of India for
administration of India
 Direct wars
1. Battle of Plassey 1756
2. Battle of Buxar 1764
3. Battle of Mysore 1799
 1803, the British entered in Delhi and
forced the Mughal emperor, Shah Alam to
accept British protection.
 Puppet Rulers
Mir Jaffar
 Treaties
Treaty of friendship and peace with
Punjab and Sindh
 Policy of having no policy
In case of treaties and doctrine of
Lapse
 Divide and rule policy
Warren Hastings, signed a treaty with
st
Marathas to end 1 Anglo- Maratha war. It
proved that marathas were strong enough
to force to negotiate with them instead of
capturing their lands.
 Tipu Sultan gave them tough time and
they were unable to invade Mysore in his
life
 Ranjit Singh was so powerful that they did
not dare to attack on Punjab in his life.
Attempts by the British to westernized India
 Christian missionaries came to India to
convert the local population as well as to
set up schools. In these schools the
missionaries taught Christianity and
expected local religions to be given up
which was resented by Muslims, Hindus
and Sikhs alike.
 The replacement of Persian and Sanskrit
by English as the official
language in the 1830s deeply upset
both the Muslims and Hindus. This had the
potential to threaten their languages.
 A number of social reforms had been
imposed by the British
without consultation or care for local
feeling which caused much unrest like pardha
was prohibited.
 Indians had to send their children to co-
educational schools which was hated
since it appeared to impose the British
system on the Indians without due regard
to their religious and cultural feelings.
 Thomas Macaulay believed that European
ideas of education were vastly superior to
anything coming out of India and, as a
result, the British imposed a system of
education that promoted western values
on a people who resented this
interference.
 They were also forced to abandon purdha
which had been an Indian custom for
centuries.
 In 1795 the killing of baby daughters was
declared to be murder, but the British
found difficulty in enforcing this as it was
again a tradition practised in many parts
of India.
 Suttee, the ritual burning of Indian
women on the funeral pyres of their
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 husbands was also banned by the British, first in
Bengal and then in the rest of the country.
Although the British had been reluctant to get
involved in
banning this practice, there was little opposition to
the outlawing of it.

Educational reforms of British between 1773-1856
 British introduced co-education which was
against the interests and values of Indians
as they were used to practice Pardha.
 Language in educational institutes was
changed to English in 1835 so again
opposed by Indians as they thought that
British were imposing their culture to
Indians.
 There were some missionary schools,
promoting Christianity so Indians
considered it interference in their religion.
Reasons for the annexation of Sindh
 To regain their prestige or pride in India
as they were badly defeated by Afghanis
 To prevent Sikh Expansion as in Punjab
there was Sikh rule and they were
expanding their rule.
 To avoid Sikh expansion towards Sindh.
 Amirs of Sindh attacked the presidency of
British in 1843.

WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 1857

Causes of the revolt How did events of 1856-57 contribute in the WOI?
1. Political Causes 1. Seizure of Oudh in 1856 convinced many
 Persian was replaced by English Indian leaders that the British were simply
 Doctrine of Lapse greedy land grabbers
 Mistreatment of Mughal Emperor 2. Royal family was shifted from Red Fort to
2. Religious Causes and Social Causes Qutub Sahib was seen as a sign of
 Co-education was highly opposed disrespect.
 Indians were considered second 3. Introduction of Grease Cartridges
class citizens (treated them as
inferior race)
 Official language was changed to
English
 Introduction of a new way of life
with its railway, roads and
telegraph was unacceptable to
many Indians.
 Grease cartridges issue
 Promotion of Christianity
 Suttee was banned

3. Economic
 Cotton industry was destroyed
after Indian revolution
 Low wages of Indians reduced
their purchasing power.
 High taxation and tax collectors
were corrupt.

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 4. Military Causes
 Grease Cartridges issue
 Low salaries of Sepoys
 There was a rumor that Muslims,
Hindus and Sikh soldiers would be
forced to convert to Christianity.
 Use of Indian troops in
Afghanistan had also proved
unpopular as Hindu soldiers did
not want to leave their “Mother
India”.
Reasons of Failure
 Disunity among the Indians
 British strength
 Lack of effective leadership
 It was an unplanned uprising
How did strength of British contribute in the
failure of WOI?
 Modern weapons due to industrial
revolution
 Military expertise due to proper planning,
training and strategies
 They were united and fought for same aim
Effects of revolt on Indians
Positive Effects:
 EIC was abolished
 Greased cartridges were banned
 Doctrine of Lapse was abolished
 Proclamation of 1858 gave more rights to
Indian.
Negative Effects:
 They took direct control of India
 Muslims were blamed for the revolt
 High taxation on Indians
How did lack of unity contribute in the failure of
WOI?
 They had different aims as many of the
Rajas were fighting to save their own areas
rather to protect their country as a nation
 Punjab and Sindh did not participate as
these provinces were annexed by the
British with the help of central Sepoys so
now when this revolt was started in
central India then the two provinces
refused to support.
 Princely states did not participate rather
some of them like Kashmir supported
British.
Why was EIC abolished after revolt?
 EIC was gaining a lot of profits from India
So British wanted to take all profits from
themselves without any share.
 EIC was there in India since 1612 and knew
many of the internal governmental secrets
hence by abolishing EIC British wanted to
avoid possible threat to their rule.
 By abolishing EIC British wanted to regain
Indians trust and wanted to satisfy them
as EIC was exploiting their wealth.
Effects of revolt on Muslims
 They were blamed for the revolt
 Muslims refused to except British as their
rulers because British took rule directly
from Muslims so relations detoriated
while for Hindus that was only the change
of masters
 They refused to send their children to
educational institutes as they considered
them against Islam due to British policies
like co-education.
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  Ratio of sepoys was decreased from 1:5 to
1:2
Why were Muslims blamed for the revolt?
 Last emperor was a Muslim, Bahadur Shah
Zafar so they took rule from Muslims so
British thought that Muslims stood against
them to save their rule in the form of 1857
revolt.
 Muslims reacted strongly as they refused
to send their children to English schools
 Muslims were reluctant to except British
as their ruler as a result relations between
the two detoriated and were considered
culprit by the British
Why did British form AINC by themselves in1885?
 British wanted to satisfy Indians as
through this plate form Indians would be
able to express their views.
 British wanted to avoid any possible revolt
against them like WOI so congress was a
way to gain Indians’ confidence.
 For a smooth rule, congress was away of
communication with different races in
India.
REFORMERS
1. Shah Wali Ullah
2. Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi
3. Haji Shariat Ullah
How did SWU try to revive Islam in the
subcontinent?
 He translated Quran into Persian.
 He made himself a role model for the
Muslims.
 He called Ahmed Shah Abdali to fight
against the Marathas.
 He wrote different books and specially a
book on four caliphs to abolish sectarian
differences.
Why did SWU translate Quran into Persian?
 Muslims were given lower cast
services/jobs as a result they faced a lot
economic issues.
Why were British turned against Congress short
after its establishment?
 1886 aim was changed from loyality to
queen to more welfare of their mother
country.
 More Indian representation in ICS
 Congress persuaded British to introduce
the Indian Council Act of 1892
 Congress men thought that British rule
had brought benefits to them only a
peaceful protest was required to
encourage the British to relax their tight
control. This approach was highly
unpopular among the British.
Why did SWU try to revive Islam in the
subcontinent?
 He believed that many of the problems
were due to in complete knowledge of
Quran due to language constrains
 Disunity among the Muslim community
due to sectarian groups.
 Many unislamic practices were indulged in
Muslims’ lives as they were living with
non-Muslims from centuries.
Explain the importance of SWU’s work.
8
  To develop better understanding of
Quranic knowledge as Muslims of India
were unable to understand Arabic So led
to easy access or understanding of Quranic
knowledge.
 Many unIslamic practices were crept into
the lives of the Muslims so by providing
full Quranic knowledge, he wanted to
purify their lives.
 It was a way to protect Islamic, values,
culture and identity as Muslims were
moving away from Islam.
Why did SASB try to revive Islam?
 Many areas were ruled by Non-Muslims
like Punjab and SASB believed that
Muslims should be ruled by Muslims only.
 Muslims were not allowed to practice
their religion freely in Punjab so he started
an armed struggle against them.
 Many unislamic practices were indulged in
Muslims’ lives as they were living with
non-Muslims from centuries.
Why did Jihad Movement fail?
 Disunity among Mujahedeen force
 Yar Muhammad betrayed SASB
 Locals told a secret way to British during
Balakot war.
 Lack of military strength due to lack of
training
Importance of JM
 First movement to free Muslims from non-
Muslim rule
 This movement was not supporting any
particular ruler but wanted to achieve
religious and spiritual freedom
 Jihad movement was a uniting force
 Jihad movement was considered a fore-
runner of Pakistan Movement
Why was Faraizi Movement formed?
 HSU believed that Muslims were moving
away from Islamic practices so to remind
them their true values and obligations this
movement was formed.
 Muslims of East Bengal were oppressed by
 He was the first Muslim thinker who
stated that the decline of the Mughal
Empire was due to negligence of Islamic
principles.
 He made Islamic teachings available to all
Muslims by removing language constrains.
 He also showed that Muslim revival could
only take place if there was an acceptance
that sectarian division had to stop.
Why was Jihad Movement launched?
 SASB was the man of action and believed
that an armed struggle was necessary to
overthrow non Islamic forces.
 Sikhs were dominant in Punjab and
banned many of the Islamic practices
including Azaan so he decided to stand
against them in the form of JM.
 To prevent extension policy of Sikhs in
order to sustain Muslim rule and their
dignity.
Why was there disunity among the mujahedeen
forces?
 Gathered from different areas
 Sikhs propaganda that SASB forces were
unislamic
 Forces were bribed by the British
Why did HSU try to revive Islam?
 He considered India as Dar ul Harb
 Many unislamic practices were indulged in
Muslims’ lives as they were living with
non-Muslims from centuries.
 Muslims of Bengal were suppressed by
Hindu landlords.
 Muslims forgot basic principles of Islam.
Importance of FM
 It encouraged Muslims when they were
demoralized.
 It brought spiritual revival which resulted
in the revival of Islam.
 Bengal peasants became united in their
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 the Hindus and the British both
 Un-Islamic practices were crept into their
lives.
SIR SYED AHMED KHAN
Why was he known as pro-British?
 He did not want that the Muslims take
part in WOI, 1857. Rather he save the lives
of some English women there so had
blamed to be Pro-British or traitor.
 He was in favour of modern education and
asked Muslims to send their children to
English schools, although it was for their
social benefit but was highly criticized.
 He worked to develop relations between
the Muslims and the British. Hence
considered pro- British.
Improving relations with British
 Causes of Indian revolt to identify all
causes behind the mutiny
 Tabiyan ul Kalaam to define similarities
between the Christianity and Islam.
 Loyal Muhammadans of India to mention
the names of loyal Muslims in WOI. It
showed that all Muslims were not against
British in the war.
 Clear the meaning of word “Nadarath”.
British considered it as an insult while he
explained that Nadarath was derived from
word “Nasir” which means “Helper”
 Ahka’ame-Ta’ame Ahle Kitab in which he
told Muslims that they could eat with
non- Muslims (who owned a book like
Christians)
Political Work
 He was against INC
 Demanded separate electorates
 Introduced “Two Nation Theory” after
Urdu-Hindi Controversy
 Developed Muslim political party
“Patriotic Alliance” which was later
converted into Muhammadan Defense
Association
Reasons of developing Two Nation Theory
opposition to harsh treatment they
received. They were more aware of their
rights so more political and economic
benefits.
Why did he establish Aligarh Movement?
 To develop relations with the British
 To acquire modern education
 For political development
Educational Work
 Muhammadan Anglo oriented school at
Aligarh in 1875.
 Scientific society at Gazipur in 1863in
which he translated science and modern
knowledge into Urdu and Persian
 Muhammadan Educational Conference
 Tehzib ul Ikhlaq, a magazine in which
articles from different scholar were
included to encourage Muslims for
education.
 Different institutes in different areas like in
Muradabad and Gazipur.
Religious Work
 Tabiyan ul Kalaam to define similarities
between the Christianity and Islam.
 Ahka’ame-Ta’ame Ahle Kitab in which he
told Muslims that they could eat with
non- Muslims (who owned a book like
Christians)
 He wrote a rebuttal of William Muir’s
book on the life of holy Prophet PBUH
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  Urdu Hindi Controversy 1867
 Muslims were totally different from
different communities socially,
economically, religiously and language wise
 To avoid Muslims exploitation in India, it
was necessary to make them politically
strong by giving them separate identity.

SECTION II
1905-1911

Causes of partition of Bengal Effects of partition of Bengal

Political Causes:
 Hindus in Bengal were political strong and
experience there so POB broke their
power.
 They were calling for new reforms so
which was challenge to their authorities.
 Some leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak
were also asking for Self-Rule in India so
British wanted to remove threat to their
authority.
Administrative Causes:
 Huge population so difficult to
communicate.
 Largest population thus hard to
administrate
 Calcutta was a port, capital and industrial
city hence wanted to give more focus on
it.
 For equal development of both wings.
Geographical Causes:
 Population wise largest province, 10 times
largest then Britain
 Economically west and east Bengal
differed from each other.
 Consisted of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. One
governor could not manage it.
Social and Economic Causes:
 West Bengal was more developed due to
Calcutta then the East Bengal.
 East Bengal produced only raw material
 More illiteracy in East Bengal.
On Hindus:
 Hindus were unhappy because
 Muslim majority province was created
after POB
 Their political strength decreased in
Bengal
 According to Hindus once again British
were applying their divide and rule
policy.
 Hindus were getting cheap labour
from East Bengal but partition
threatened that monopoly.
On Muslims:
 Muslims were happy because
 Political strength increased due to a
new Muslim majority province.
 More chances of boosting East Bengal
economically.
 Relations with British improved.
 Muslims will not be exploited any
more

Reaction of Hindus British Reaction

 Swadeshi Movement  Restrictions on Newspapers and public
 Assassination attempt on future viceroy meetings between 1906-1908. Editors
Lord Minto were prosecuted and imprisoned.
 Hundreds of protests, riots and strikes  Press Act 1908 gave more control of govt

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Importance of Swadeshi Movement
 Gave more financial loss to British and
forced them to reverse partition
 Support of congress so politically strong
 Unity among Hindus so more riots and
strikes so more chances of disturbance in
law and order situation.
How was it reversed?
 
Capital changed from Calcutta to Delhi
 Creation of united Bengal as a presidency
with a governor general
 Creation of provinces of Behar and Orissa
with lieutenant governors
 Restoration the post of chief commissioner
of Assam
Demands of S.D
 In all local and provincial elections Muslims
should have their own representatives,
who would be elected only by Muslim
voters.
 In the councils, the Muslims should have a
higher percentage of seats than their
percentage of the population.
Describe the creation of formation of MLL
In 1905, Muslim leaders met at the twentieth
session of the Muhammadan Educational
Conference at Dhaka. After the conference had
finished a meeting was called, chaired by Nawab
Viqar ul Mulk to consider setting up an
organization to be called “All India Muslim League”
on newspapers
 Tilak was arrested in 1908 and sentence to
six year imprisonment.
Reasons of Reversal
 Swadeshi movement so huge economic
loss
 Assassination attempt on future viceroy
Lord Minto so threat to their lives
 Hundreds of protests riots and strikes so
law and order situation was disturbed.
 Government in Britain was changed in
1910 so new govt was keen to develop
relations with Congress, who was
supporting Swadeshi Movement.
Simla Deputation
th
8 October 1906, a deputation of
prominent Muslims led by the Aga Khan
visited Viceroy Minto at Simla.
 They requested that Muslim strength in
India should be estimated by their
political strength not by their numerical
strength.
Why was Simla Deputation sent?
 To prevent reversal as Muslims knew that
they won’t be able to carry out such a
protest to stop partition being reversed.
 INC was dominated by Hindus so Muslims
feared that Hindu agitation would lead to
Hindi becoming the official language. So
Simla deputation was to prevent Muslims
social rights in India.
 In 1905, new liberal party was elected in
Britain. The liberals had stated that there
would be increased local participation in
govt so S.D was a way to safe guard
Muslims political rights.
Causes of formation of ML
 To counter INC as it was dominated by
Hindus and Muslims badly required their
own organization
 To prevent reversal
 Success of S.D encouraged Muslims to
form their own organization.
 To protect Muslims’ rights.
12
Importance of ML to safe guard Muslims’ rights in
the sub-continent
 Protected and promoted political thinking
among the Muslim masses
 It was keen to upgrade Muslim social
status in the society.
 Played major role in Pakistan Movement
as it was the political organization who
demanded Pakistan.
Causes of presenting MMR in 1909
 To calm down Hindus by giving them more
participation in the upcoming reforms.
(that was the time period of Swadeshi
Movement so law and order situation was
disturbed.)
 The last reforms were presented in 1892
so now long time had been passed so new
reforms were badly required to stabilize
their rule.
 To avoid economic loss which the British
were facing during Swadeshi Movement.
Reasons of opposition of MMR
 Members were nominated
 Indians’ role was advisory
 Separate electorates to Muslims was
considered Divide and Rule policy of the
British by Hindus.
 Voting right was very low.
 Powers were in the hands of British
1913-1918
Why did ML change its aim from loyalty to self-
rule?
 Due to reversal of Bengal Muslims felt
betrayed so they divert their aim.
 Balkan wars realized that British were anti-
Muslims.
 MMR were not satisfactory as Indians’ role
was advisory so made all Indians including
Muslims annoyed.
 Jinnah joined ML and he was the member
of congress as well so due to his influence
Reasons of including objective of loyalty in the
basic aims of ML
 To gain the trust of the British as Congress
had demanded Self-rule during Swadeshi
Movement so this objective made a clear
cut difference among the two parties.
 To improve the relations between the
British and the Muslims.
 During Simla Deputation, Minto had
accepted the demands of Muslims despite
of the fact that the Secretary of State,
Morley, was against it. So ML, after its
formation showed loyalty to gain
relaxation in the upcoming reforms.
Reforms of MMR
 Number of Indian seats increased in
different councils like executive, legislative
and council of prince.
 Mainly members were nominated
 Main powers were in the hands of British
while Indians’ role was purely advisory.
 Separate Electorate was given to the
Muslims.
 Voting right was given to Indians but still
less than 10%.
Importance of MMR
 Indians participation in the councils
increased.
 Voting right was given to Indians
 Separate electorates to the Muslims,
pleased them.
Why some of the Indians wanted to support
British in WWI?
 Some Indians thought that they are British
colony so they should support them
 It’s a way to please British to gain more
concessions
 British were fighting for the right of
nations that how should they govern so it
was an indication that they might be able
to get self-rule after the war.
13
 ML made objective similar to congress.
Why some of the Indians did not want to support
British in WWI?
 Muslims of India were reluctant to fight
against their Muslim brothers.
 To pressurize British for Self-rule and more
political strength.
 Balkan wars were against Turkey so
Muslims didn’t want to participate
Defence of India Act
During the WWI period, the anti-British groups sprang
up in India. However these were crushed by the
British. This discontent with in India forced the British
to pass the Defence of India Act, which gave the extra
ordinary powers to deal with unrest. Hundreds of
alleged revolutionaries were exiled or were imprison
without proper trail.
Why did British want Indians’ support for WWI?
 India was one of the largest colonies of
British with huge population so a
significant source of human power during
the war.
 British were ruling India more than half a
century so they considered it their legal
right to get support of their population in
difficult time.
 WW1 was between the super powers of
the world ,hence for effective and more
powerful participation they wanted to
enlarge their forces by asking support
from Indian population .
Causes of signing Lucknow Pact
 To have unity among the two political
parties in order to gain more political
strength in India
 Jinnah was the member of both political
parties, The Muslim League and the
Revolutionary activities during WWI
 1913, Lala Hardayal, who was in exile in
America, set up a Mutiny Party which sent
arms to India and arranged for armed
opposition to the British.
 Silk letter Conspiracy
 1915, there was also a planned uprising by
Indian Nationalist in the Punjab.
 Mutiny by Indian troops, serving in the
British army in Singapore.
Why were there revolutionary activities in India
between 1914-18?
 WW1 was started in 1914 in which Britain
was an effective member so it provided an
opportunity to the colonies like India to
gain more political, economic and social
powers so through revolutionary activities
they planned to get maximum power like
“nationalist” planned an uprising in Punjab
in 1915.
 As British remained involved in the war for
4 years, so sepoys also got a chance to
manipulate them and made them further
weaker so a mutiny by Indian troops also
started in Singapore.
 WW1 diverted their concentration from
their colonies to war so it enhanced the
chances to drive British out from India, so
many conspiracies like Silk Letter
Conspiracy was started.
Importance of Lucknow Pact
 It was the first time that Hindus and
Muslim had made joint demands for
political reform to the British as a result it
was a way to pressurize British for more
political rights for the Indians.
14
 Congress so due to his influential role both
parties signed LP.
 As there was WWI so both parties wanted
to pressurize British for the Self Rule
1919 EVENTS
Causes of Montague Chelmsford Reforms
 To fulfill the promises of the British as they
promised to give more political rights to
the Indians in upcoming reforms during
WWI.
 There were a lot of revolutionary activities
in India between 1914-18 So these
reforms were presented to control these
anti- British activities by getting
confidence of the Indians.
 Home Rule League was demanding more
self-governance for the India as a result
this unity of Indians was an alarming
situation for the British so they decided to
give some measures of responsibility to
representatives chosen by an electorate in
order to overcome increasing threat to
their rule.
 Last reforms were presented in 1909 and
according to the reforms it was necessary
to present new reforms in 1919.
Drawbacks of the Reforms
 Many Indians had fought with the British
in WWI so expecting much greater
concessions but there were restricted role
of Indians as Viceroy had more powers and
he could pass any law So Indians got
annoyed due to restricted political rights.
 Executive Council was still made up of only
nominated members, although three of
these were now to be Indians but British
did not give strength to Indians.
 Congress and League had recently come
together, calling for self-rule so they were
bitterly disappointed by the new structure.
 The British had reluctantly accepted
separate electorate for the Muslims. Soon
the non-Brahmins, Sikhs and Eurasians
 First time Congress accepted the right of
S.E and weightage for the Muslims so
importance of Muslim community
enhanced in India.
 It showed that the Muslims acknowledged
that they stood much more chance of
protecting their rights if they work with
congress against British as joint demands
indicated more rights for the minorities.
Importance of Mont-Ford Reforms
 More political representation of the
Indians was there in the reforms which
showed that British were now inclined to
recognize the rights of Indians so their
importance in govt. structure increased.
 As diarchy was introduced at provincial
level, it showed that Indians were sharing
administrative responsibilities of the
British so it helped them to gain
governmental experience.
 Voting right was increased till 2% due to
property qualification criteria. Although it
was still low but it showed an
improvement so proving the importance
of the reforms.
Causes of presenting Rowlatt Act
 The British had offered concessions in the
Mont-Ford Reforms which they had hoped
would win the support of the Indians but
these reforms were highly criticized So
Rowlatt act was presented to control the
upcoming situation in India.
 To control the anti- British activities in
India as there were a lot of revolutionary
activities in India during WWI So to main
their hold and peace in India, it was
necessary to take step in the form of
Rowlatt Act.
 Indians were getting politically strong and
demanding Self-rule which was a great
threat to British survival So they decided
to restrict Indian political activities
15
 were calling for concessions too. As these
were granted, the divisions within Indians
society were increasingly emphasized so
congress considered that British were
again applying their divide and rule policy.
 Voting right was still too low.
Opposition to Rowlatt Act (4)
The proposals caused uproar in India as they
appeared to go against two of the central
principles of British justice, namely trial by jury and
safeguards against illegal imprisonment. Jinnah
resigned from the imperial legislative council in
protest, and Gandhi launched a hartal against the
proposals. Throughout April1919 there were
strikes and demonstrations across India.
Amritsar Massacre was not Justified
 Crowed was unarmed and it was a
peaceful meeting so it was not necessary
to take armed action against them.
 There were women and children in the
meeting so according to international law
one cannot fire on women and children So
it was unjustified.
 Dyer’s intensions were sinister since the
beginning as he himself admitted in an
interview with Hunter that from the time
he became aware of the public’s peaceful
protest against the British, he had decided
to open fire on them even if there was no
instigation on their part.
through Rowlatt act.
Amritsar Massacre was justified
 According to Rowlatt Act all public meeting
were banned while on the other hand
there was crowd of 20,000 people at
Amritsar So Dyer had to take action.
 To strengthen British rule, it was necessary
to show British power to all Indians not
only on the crowd.
 After Mont-Ford reforms and Rowlatt act,
many anti-British activities started in India
which caused sever unrest particularly in
Punjab. Which really disturbed law and
order situation and this gathering further
deteriorated the situation so Dyer was
justify as he wanted to restrict these
activities to maintain peace.
Why the British did not grant self-rule in
Mont-Ford reforms?
 British did not want to give Self Rule to
Indians as they did not want to lose their
control over one of their major colony
especially after Lucknow pact as ML and
Congress were united so British
considered them a serious threat to their
rule so self-rule was not granted to
remove that threat.
 There were increasing revolutionary
activities in India during WWI so British
were annoyed and they decided to curtail
the activities of Indians. So they did not
grant Self-rule in order to restrict their
political strength in India.
 One of Home Rule league campaigns in
India was by Annie Besant, who was highly
in favour of self-rule but Montagu
announced in the British House of
Commons that the British will only
increase their number but will not grant
them self-rule until; they were ready to
govern itself as a part of British Empire.
16
 Khilafat Movement

Causes of KM First Khilafat Conference (4)

 Khilafat Movement(KM) was established  In November 1919, a conference was
after the treaty of Versailles 1919, in which called in Delhi to try to persuade the
Germany and Austria were being punished British to keep their promises about
therefore there were chances now that maintain the Turkish Empire.
being the ally turkey will also be punished  Leaders were Ali brothers, Abdul Kalam
So KM was a way to remove that threat Azad and Gandhi
and to make an effort for Ottoman empire.  Outcome was that a resolution was
 British promised to protect Turkey in passed that a delegation would be sent to
st
return Indians supported them so after 1 British to make sure that the British were
Khilafat conference, Indians decided to aware of the strength of the Muslim
remind them their promises through KM. support.
 Turkey was a Muslim country and there  The conference also passed the resolution
were a lot of holy places, with that Khalifa of boycotting British goods and adopting a
was considered a very respective policy of Non-cooperation with the British
personality So to protect holy places,
Khalifa and khilafat, this movement was
established.
 Self-rule was a common demand of all
Indians so KM being the religious and the
Political movement, was a way to
pressurize British to grant self-rule.
 Afghanistan and Persian, both Muslim
countries, had been the subject of rivalry
between Russia and Britain. Little
attention was paid to the views of the
native, Muslim population. So Muslim
community all round world felt
demoralized and was annoyed.

Second Khilafat Movement (4) Third Khilafat Movement

 Held in Amritsar in Dec 1919
 It was agreed that the three organizations,
the KM, congress and ML would work
together to oppose plans of dismembering
Turkish empire.it was agreed that Gandhi
would take the lead in trying to persuade
the British not to punish Turkey.

Causes of launching Why did NCM fail?

Non- Cooperation Movement in 1919
 To attain Self Rule as it was the aim of the
Indians at that time and was not granted
in Mont-Ford reforms so now KM
provided best opportunity to Gandhi to
force them for Self-Rule so NCM was a
way to force them.
 In 1920, The Muslim in India sent a
 Chura churi event….. violence spread
 Difference of objective as Hindus wanted
Self-Rule while ML wanted to save Khilafat
so separate aims led to its failure.
 Political leaders were arrested along with
30000 protesters becoz of NCM as there
was a nationwide strikes and

17
 message to the viceroy warning that if the demonstration in Bombay so there was
terms of the unfair treaty of sevres were lack of support and guidance and NCM
impose on Turkey, then a policy of NCM in failed
the country would began. As the terms of
treaty were announced hence NCM
started.
 Indians were now getting politically strong
so by starting NCM, Gandhi clearly
indicated that Indians would not be
suppressed anymore and would call for
their rights so NCM showed the Indians
strength to the British.

Why did Muslims of India migrate to Afghanistan?
 As India was considered as Har ul Herb so
they were encouraged to migrate towards
Afghanistan.
 To pressurize British for achieve the aims
of KM
 It was being told to them that they would
be welcomed by Afghan govt. by offering
them agricultural lands so it was an
attraction for the Muslims and they
migrated.
Why was Hijrat Movement a failure?
 Afghan govt. did not welcome them so this
attitude of Afghan govt. contributed to the
failure of the movement.
 Leaders were not migrated hence no
influential person to persuade Afghan govt
to compensate them.
 When these migrants came back, they
were empty handed so HM failed due to
economic loss.

Why did Gandhi call off NCM in 1922? Why was there Hindu Muslim unity in KM?
 Chaura Chauri event spoiled the image of  Same aim, self-rule
the movement as at Chaura Chauri a police  Due to Lucknow pact, both were united
station was set on fire and 21 policemen  To show opposition to 1919 events
were died.
 There was less focus on the call of Self
Rule because Muslims were mainly
concerned about Turkey so Gandhi
considered it use less to carry on the
Movement.
 Leaders of KM like Ali brothers were in
prison so Gandhi did not feel any
hesitation or reluctance to called NCM off
so it failed.

How were Indians able to increase their influence
over British during KM? Or how KM developed?
 Khilafat movement was officially started
after first Khilafat Conference and
gradually its influence was increased when
British announced treaty of serves in
1920and Turkey was also punished. As
retaliation Gandhi started NCM to support
KM as a result due to more economic loss
pressure on British increased.
 Hijrat Movement was another way to
Why was KM fail?
 Chura Churi event…… Gandhi called off
NCM so pressure released.
 Hijrat Muhammad failed so Muslims lost
interest in KM due to economic loss.
 Kamal Ata Turk abolished Khilafat in 1924
so no need to carried on KM.
 After the second Khilafat conference the
main political leaders such as Ali brothers
were arrested and imprison because they

18
 increase influence of the movement as
Muslim migration showed the increasing
pressure on the British.
 1919-24, Indians tried to increase
pressurize on British through riots and
strikes and different uprising like Moplah’s
uprising 1921, in which 10,000 Moplah’s
get the police station on fire and took
arms from there. Although British were
successful to overcome it but Indians
proved that British were under a constant
threat which unable Indians to increase
their influence on British during KM.
What was Satyagraya?
Gandhi was keen advocate of the policy of passive
resistance and he named it satyagraya. He argued
that one should avoid violence against the evil doer
and resist the tyrant through moral supremacy. He
gave this policy to the Indians in seeking Swaraj
(Self Rule) for Indians.
CONSTITUTION MAKING TIME PERIOD
(1927-35)
Why did Jinnah present Dehli Proposals?
 Constitution making time period so Jinnah
wanted to peotect the Muslim interests as
these proposals were to discuss how
Muslim interests should be protected in
the future and he was particularly keen to
discuss the future of SE.
 To have unity with congress as Jinnah was
highly in favour of Hindu Muslim unity.
 To abolish communalism as after 1922
there were a lot communal differences so
Jinnah was determined to fix all those
differences.
Opposition to Simon Commission
 All members were British so according to
Indians their problems and views could not
be conveyed properly in the absence of
passed a series of resolutions, stated that
no Muslim should attend British schools,
serve in the policy or army or offer any
form of cooperation to the British. Hence
there was a lack of leadership and
guidance which led to the failure of KM
 Distraction of views regarding self
rule.(different aims)
Causes of sending Simon Commission
 Communalism in India threatened to undo
any cooperation between Hindu and
Muslim. The British, however, were soon
to take action which restored that
cooperation. So Simon Commission was
sent to restore peace by fixing
communalism.
 Govt. of India act of 1919 had stated that a
commission was to be set up after 10
years to enquire into the working of the
reforms set up in 1919 so to fulfill the
requirement of last reforms this
commission was sent.
 The British Conservative govt., however,
feared that it might soon lose power to the
labour party, which it thought was too
sympathetic to the beliefs of Indian
nationalism so A labour govt. might make
too many concessions therefore to restrict
labour party, conservatives decided to
form a constitution before their govt.
Opposition to Simon Report(1930)
 It reported that Indians were not yet
ready for the self-rule.
 This report did not fulfill the Muslim
19
 Indian participation.
 Indian political parties were not concerned
as a result they felt insulted and they
opposed Simon Commission.
 Conservatives were in Govt So Indians
thought that they were less keen to give
favours to the Indians therefore they
criticized an attempt by the conservatives.
Causes of presenting Nehru Report
 To show opposition to the Simon
commission
 To abolish increasing communalism
 To safeguard Indians rights in upcoming
constitution by presenting some
recommendations on their behalf.
Causes of presenting 14 points of Jinnah
 Delhi proposals were not included in NR so
Jinnah presented 14 points in order to
counter NR .
 Amendments, proposed by Jinnah were
ignored so 14 points was a way to present
Muslim demands to British for upcoming
constitution.
 To protect Muslim rights in the
subcontinent
Why was Iqbal selected for presidential address at
Allahabad in 1930?
 He was a famous poet and his poetry was
full of hope for the Muslim telling them to
be proud of their past. So due to his
popularity, he was selected.
 In 1926, Iqbal was elected to the Punjab
assembly and soon made an impact with
his skill in handling new laws so his
political skills proved him capable for the
address.
 1927, he was appointed as general
secretary of ML so he was given
opportunity for presidential address due
to his post.
demand to separate Sindh from Bombay
and extension of reforms to NWFP and
Balochistan.
 Basic demands of minorities were not
considered as weightage was not granted
to any community in India.
Why did ML oppose Nehru Report?
 Delhi proposals were not included in it.
 Amendments, proposed by Jinnah were
ignored
 Hindi was proposed as official language of
India which was against Muslims demands
 NR proposed no SE and weightage for any
community which angered Muslims
Causes of Salt March
 The British forbade the making of salt,
except under license from the govt.
 March was not only an attack on the
unfair salt laws but was seen as the
opportunity for Indians to disregard all
unfair laws and show opposition to British
rule in any possible.
 NR stated that within 1 year these
proposals should be accepted, otherwise
they will start a non-cooperation
movement so after one year this salt
march started which was a non-
cooperation movement.
Importance of Iqbal for Pakistan Movement
 He was the first leader who floated the
idea of a separate homeland
 Many future leaders like Ch. Rehmat Ali
followed the idea and on the basis of this,
name of Pakistan was suggested thus he
was inspiration for them.
 He was a great poet and his poetry
developed the sense of nation hood so
two nation theory strengthened.
20
Why did Iqbal give the idea of a separate country
in 1930?
 There was a lot communal violence in
India especially in 1920s so he realized
that Muslims of India would only be
protected in a separate home land.
 In Nehru Reports Muslim demands like
Delhi proposals were ignored, besides that
Hindi was demanded to be official
language therefore Iqbal came to a
conclusion that Muslim rights can easily
be practiced in a separate country.
 This idea was based on two nation theory
of Sir Syed as there were two nations in
India so they should have spate countries.
Success of RTCs
st
1. 1 RTC
1. India would be a federation and
princely states will be the part of it
as long as their rights were
recognized.
2. Maximum provincial autonomy
will be given.
nd
2. 2 RTC
i) Congress was present so majority was
represented.
ii) NWFP and Sindh will be given full
provincial status.
iii) As Gandhi took hard line towards
minorities so British realized to
safeguard their rights so communal
awards were presented.
iv) More than 100 delegates attended it
rd
3. 3 RTC
No major outcome
Causes of presenting Communal Awards
 Gandhi’s behavior in 2 RTC made the
nd
British realized that they should protect
minorities.
 Muslims demanded it so to fulfill their
requirements to gain their support.
 Congress had started NCM again so for a
smooth rule, British decided to get the
favours of minorities in India.
Causes of presenting 1935 Indian Act
 RTCs were failed so they decided to form a
Reasons of holding RTCs
 To discuss Simon Report with Indians.
 Labour party was in government and they
wanted to give relaxations to the Indians
so RTCs were held to know the Indians
views for the upcoming constitution.
 It was the constitution making time period
and constitution cannot change easily
therefore before final recommendations
British decided to know the Indians
opinion through RTCs.
Failure of RTCs

st
1 RTC
i) Congress was absent so majority
representation wasn’t there.
ii) Only 86 delegates attended.

nd
2 RTC
i) New coalition govt. was less keen to
give relaxation to the Indians.
ii) Gandhi took hard line towards
minorities.
iii) British threatened that they will
present their own solution to Indian
problems

rd
3 RTC
i) Jinnah went on voluntary exile so
didn’t attend
ii) Congress didn’t attend and again
started NCM.
iii) Only 46 delegations were there.
iv) It was only held because it was pre
planned.
Gandhi Irwin Pact
th
On 5 March 1931, this pact was signed in
which Irwin agreed to release most of the
political prisoners and returned property
ceased by the govt. and Gandhi agreed to call
off NCM, give up his demand for full
independence and will attend the next round
of talks.
Importance of 1935 Act
 India will be a federation…… demanded by
21
 constitution by themselves as they
nd
declared after 2 RTC that if Indians were
failed to get a solution of Indians problems
then they will give their own solution.
 New constitution was supposed to be
presented in 1929; it was already too late
so they didn’t want to make it further
delay.
 Conservatives were in govt. who were less
keen to give favours to the Indians so
made constitution by themselves.
Opposition to 1935 Act
 Governor General has special powers ans
he could pass any law.
 Provincial governors had more authority,
they could dismiss the provincial ministers
even the whole cabinet under special
circumstances.
 Still 75% couldn’t vote.
1937 ELECTIONS
Why did congress decide to participate in 1937?
 To make congress men happy
 To judge their political conditions in India.
 To spread their massage to all Indians
through election campaign.
Results of 1937 elections
 Won absolute majority in 5 provinces
 Largest single party in other 4 provinces
 Formed govt. in 8 provinces
 In other 3 provinces, there was Muslim
majority but ML was not able to form
govt.
 ML only won 109 seats out of 482 seats
reserved for Muslims.
Indians.
 Provincial autonomy…… ML demand was
fulfilled.
 NWFP and Sindh were given separate
provincial status………. ML was happy.
 Voting right was 25% according to
property qualification………… huge
increase
Why did ML not perform well in 1937 elections?
 Image problem, considered party of elite
class.
 Focused on Muslim minority provinces
 First elections so lack of experience led to
weak election campaign.
 ML was divided into different fractions so
disunity
Congress Rule 1937-39
 Bande Matram
Hindu nationalist song in which Hindus
were encouraged to expel Muslims from
Hindustan
 Wardha Scheme
Educational scheme in which new
curriculum was introduced with the
introduction of cotton spinning by hands,
hindi was medium of instruction and
students had to bow in front of Gandhi’s
picture.
 Vidhya Scheme
Vidya mander scheme in which students
were given education in manders so
Muslims got offended as they felt
religiously offended.
 Flag conspiracy
22

Causes of congress resignation from ministries
 WWII started and British prime minister
announced that India too be the part of
war, without consulting the congress. As
congress was in rule at that time so it felt
insulted.
 Congress demanded complete
independence in return of their support to
the British in WWII but British only offered
Self-rule.
 British were involved in WWII so
resignation was a way to pressurize them.
1940-47
Day of Deliverance
Justified
 Muslims were being exploited during
congress rule
 ML also had demands to be met before it
would agree to support the British but
neither the British nor the congress would
agree to these demands, making DOD a
justified act.
 Congress was pressurizing British for
complete independence so DOD showed
that ML was not supporting their demand
in order to avoid Hindu dominance in
future so it was justified.
Not justified
 Many of the policies were from other
political parties, not from congress.
 Congress got offended.
 Congress supported Muslims in KM so
they were expecting same support from
Muslim community now.
Importance of Pakistan Resolution
Union Jack indicated Indians as one nation
while blue on back indicated British
 Unofficial policies
Azan was banned
Slaughtering of cows was banned
Noisy processions were arranged during
pray time
Sometimes pigs were pushed into the
mosques
Why did ML celebrate Day of Deliverance?
 Congress rule ended
 ML also had demands to be met before it
would agree to support the British but
neither the British nor the congress would
agree to these demands.
 Congress was pressurizing British for
complete independence so DOD showed
that ML was not supporting their demand
in order to avoid Hindu dominance.
Why did Jinnah change his mind from unity to
partition?
Or
Why was Pakistan resolution passed?
 Muslims were being exploited during
congress rule, convinced Jinnah for a
separate home land for the Muslims.
 ML also had demands to be met before it
would agree to support the British but
neither the British nor the congress would
agree to these demands, proved that the
Muslim community would never be
listened under a united India.
 Congress was pressurizing British for
complete independence so it a threat for
the Muslims that there might come under
constant Hindu dominance once the
British left.
Why was Cripps Mission send to India?
23
 Muslims had an aim now to struggle for
 Muslim fractions reunited now.
 Muslim community in India gathered
under the flag of ML.
 ML became the most prominent Muslim
party as it was the only party who was
demanding ML.
Reasons of opposing Cripps Mission
 Complete independence was not granted
so congress opposed
 Partition was not granted so ML opposed
 British could not be trusted by the Indians
as they betrayed Indians in WWI
 Provinces could opt for their independence
after ten years indicated formation of
Pakistan so congress rejected.
Measures by the British to control it
 Congress party was banned
 Gandhi, Nehru and other senior congress
figures were arrested.
 Strongest measures like use of machine
guns and aerial bombing.
Reasons of failure of these talks
 Gandhi wanted ML to give immediate
support for complete independence while
partition will be considered after British
left. It was not acceptable for Jinnah
 Gandhi wanted more central powers
while Jinnah forced for provincial
autonomy.
 Gandhi refused to accept two nation
theories which was official policy of
league now.
 Gandhi considered himself spoke person
for all India while Jinnah reminded him
that he was the spoke person for only
congress.
 It was a British attempt to get the support
of Indians in WWII so Cripps Mission
arrived.
 Cripps Mission was sent to India to check
if a compromise could be reached which
would win support for the British war
efforts because both ML and congress had
different demands.
 To accomplished increasing communalism
in India to maintain law and order
situation.
Why was QIM started?
 To show opposition to Cripps Mission
 To take immediate control of India by
pushing British out of India.
 To avoid Japanese threat to India
Why Gandhi Jinnah talks were hold?
 To consider the future of India after the
British departure.
 QIM was failed due to lack of support
from ML so now Gandhi wanted their
support
 Gandhi realized that ML was an important
Muslim political party so must get its
confidence for their struggle for complete
independence.
 To avoid increasing communalism.
Causes of Wavell proposals and Simla conference
 WWII was about to end and they have to
focus on their own economy for
rehabilitation.
 British were intended to leave India but in
an organized manner so it was a transfer of
power program for a smooth departure.
 Decolonization time period hence through
this plan British trying to find out a way
out, how to leave India.
 To abolished increasing communalism
24
 Reasons of failure of Simla conference
 Congress wanted to nominate a member
for Muslim seat but ML had an objection.
 Congress said that ML was a losing party in
1937 elections so it should not allowed
nominating all Muslim seats.
 Jinnah said that congress had a constant
majority in the executive council as
schedule casts were bound to vote
congress.
Results of elections
 87% of the total Muslim votes won by ML
 91% of the total non-Muslim votes won by
congress
 All 30 Muslim seats were won by ML in
central legislative council
 446/486 won by ML in provincial
assemblies.
 Had absolute majority in Sindh and
Balochistan
 Single largest party in Punjab.
 Unexpected results in NWFP, congress won
Why did ML perform well in 1946 elections?
 Realized its image problem
 Due to election experience, this time
campaign was strong.
 Focus was on Muslim majority provinces
 Main aim was partition so Muslims of
India favored ML
Causes of CMP
 Elections 1946 proved that both
communities were keen towards their
demands, partition and complete
independence, so this part fulfilled the
demands of both communities.
 Simla conference failed so need of another
transfer of power plan as British wanted to
leave India.
 To overcome increasing communalism
Direct Action Day
th
Direct Action Day was called by League on 16
August after Nehru’s statement. It was to show
the strength of Muslims feelings. In many places
thousands demonstrations turned to violence in
Causes of elections 1945-46
 To check the political position of ML and
congress so they could be reached on a
compromise.
 ML demanded elections in Simla
conference
 To abolish communalism.
 To check if Pakistan is a national demand
or political demand.
Why these results were problematic [4]
 British were unable to take decision as
results showed that non-Muslims wanted
a joint India while Muslims wanted
partition. So there was a need of such a
solution which could satisfy both
communities.
Cabinet Mission Plan [4]
 India will have three parts
1. Western Muslim majority
provinces
2. Central non-Muslim areas
3. Bengal and Assam
 Each part will have their own constitution
 Each part will be connected with an Indian
Union. Indian union will deal with
communication, defense and trade
Reasons of failure
 Congress objected that why division was
on religious lines.
 How could be there more than one
constitution in same country?
 Nehru gave a statement that they won’t
bound to any plan once the British left so
Muslim realized that they had to take
partition directly from the British so they
called Direct Action Day.
Causes of Direct Action Day
 Nehru gave a statement that they won’t
bound to any plan once the British left so
Muslim realized that they had to take
partition directly from the British so they
25
which up to 4000 people died in the “Great
Calcutta Killing”.
Importance of DAD
 Communal violence disturbed the law and
order situation in India which made British
realized that only solution to Indians
problem was partition.
 As DAD greatly affect both communities
which was an indication for congress that
it was much better to have a peaceful
country rather than a country with
communal violence so they accepted
partition in 1947.
 It showed the strength of Muslim feelings
and solidarity to both the British and
Congress as a result it enhanced Muslims
political position in India and they got
politically strong.
rd
Drawbacks of the 3 June plan
 There was still a need to draw boundaries
between Muslim and non-Muslim areas,
particularly in Bengal and Punjab.
 The issue of princes had to be resolved.
What was to happen if a prince went
against the wishes of his people in deciding
which country to join.
 It was still undecided what the division of
assets (army, civil services, finance etc)
was to be.
Radcliffe Awards
 It was the boundary commission by the
British as boundary issues remained
unsolved so Mountbatten had appointed
Sir Cyril Radcliff to head a boundary
commission to establish the new borders
particularly in Bengal and Punjab. These
called Direct Action Day.
 Muslim league passed a resolution
declaring that it should prepare for the
final struggle against both the British and
Congress So direct Action Day was
observed in order to make a struggle
towards partition.
 DAD was a way to show the strength of
Muslim feelings and solidarity as Muslims
were not willing to make any compromise
on the demand of separate home land.
rd
Why did the British grant partition in 3 June
plan?
 All previous transfer of power programs
rd
failed so through 3 June plan British
presented a different approach that was
partition.
 Interim government showed that there
were less chances of having any
cooperation between the two
communities as they did not cooperate
with each other in interim govt. so it was a
total failure hence the British decided to
rd
form two separate states in 3 June plan
in order to avoid administrative issues.
 DAD caused a lot of communal violence so
British decided to maintain peace in the
region by granting separate home lands
rd
for both communities through 3 June
plan.
The Independence Act
On 15 July 1947 the Indian Independence Act was
passed. The Act stated that from 15 August British
Indian would be partition into two dominion
states- India and Pakistan. Each state would have
complete freedom to pass any law wished. The
Government of India Act would be the provisional
constitution until the states devised their own.
Why were Radcliffe awards unfair?
 Muslim majority areas like Gurdaspur was
given to India as a result Indian got a way
towards Kashmir so Kashmir issue started.
 Ferozpur was also given to India which was
a Muslim majority area in which there
were headworks of the canals as a result
26
awards had four assistants, two from
League and two from Congress. It was
th
send on 16 August 1947.
canal water dispute between India and
Pakistan started.
 Calcutta was the only industrial area in
Bengal which was given to India so
economic issues started in E. Pakistan.
 Chittagong hills were given to Pakistan, a
Hindu majority area so they got annoyed.
27