Forging N

Forging
1. Introduction
2. Types of forging dies
3. Open- and closed-die forging
4. Pre-shaping operations
5. Forging equipments
6. Forging in plain strain
7. Forging defects
8. Residual stresses
Suez Canal University

Dr. Eng. Sabbah Ataya Faculty of Petroleum and Mining Eng.
1
Introduction

2
Large forged parts
4140 steel shaft 2 ft Shaft
Forged cover

3
Forging: Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages compared to machining from solid stock:

- Higher production rates
- Metal saving (less waste)
- Higher strength
- Favorable grain orientation in the metal.
-Limitations:
- Not capable of close tolerances
- Machining often required to achieve accuracies and
features needed, such as holes, threads, and mating
surfaces that fit with other components

4
Pre-shaping operations
Edging dies are used to shape the

ends of the bars and to gather metal.
The metal is confined by the die from
flowing in the horizontal direction but
it is free to flow laterally to fill the die.
Fullering is used to reduce the cross-

sectional area of a portion of the stock.
The metal flow is outward and away
from the center of the fullering die.
The reduction in cross section of the

work with concurrent increase is
length is called drawing out.

5
Pre-shaping operations Continue.
Swaging it is a drawing-
down operation carried out
with concave dies to
produce a bar of smaller
diameter.
Other operations which can

be achieved by forging are
bending, twisting,
extrusion, piercing
punching and indenting.

6
Types of forging processes: Open-die forging
F
Open-die forging
Upper die
Workpiece
Lower die
Open-die forging: Workpiece is

compressed between two flat
dies, allowing metal to flow
laterally without constraint

7
Open-die forging – cont.

The simplest open die forging process is:
the compression test
• Compression of work with cylindrical cross-section
between two flat dies
• Deformation operation reduces height and increases
diameter of work
• Common names include upsetting or upset forging
• If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces,
then deformation occurs, so that radial flow is uniform
throughout workpiece height and true strain is given by:
ho Where: ho=starting height

ε = ln h =height at some point during
h compression

8
Closed-die forging
Often open-die forging is used to prepare

the workpiece to closed-die forging.

9
Types of closed-die forging

v, F Flash and Flash-less forging
Punch
Flashless forging: piece is
Workpiece completely constrained in die and
no excess flash is produced
Die (stationary)
Impression-die forging: die contains a

cavity or impression that is imparted
to workpiece. Because of constraining
of metal flow - flash is created

10
About Flashes
Because it is difficult to put just the right amount of metal
in the correct places during fullering and edging it is
customary to use a slight excess of metal.
The excess metal squirts out of the cavity as a thin ribbon

of metal called flash.
In order to prevent the formation of a very wide flash, a

ridge, known as a flash gutter, is usually provided. The
final step in making a closed-die forging is the removal of
the flash with a trimming die.
11
Forging load vs. forging stroke curve for closed die forging
The trick in designing the flash is to

adjust its dimensions so that the
extrusion of metal through the narrow
flash opening is more difficult than
the filling of the most intricate detail
in the die.
Very high forging loads lead to die

wear and breakage.
The ideal is to design for the

minimum flash needed to do the job.

12
Flashless forging
v, F
v, F
Punch
Starting
Workpiece Finished part
Die
1. Starting workpiece volume must equal die cavity volume within

very close tolerance
2. Process control more demanding than impression-die forging
3. Best suited to part geometries that are simple and symmetrical
4. Often classified as a precision forging process

13
Forging Hammers: A- Board hammers

Board hammers: In which the upper die and ram
are raised by friction rolls gripping the broad.
Gravity drop hammers: impact energy from falling
weight of a heavy ram
• The force is supplied by a falling weight or ram

by dissipation of the kinetic energy to the
workpiece.
• Most commonly used for impression-die
forging
• Rate: 60 and 150 blows per minute depending
on size and capacity
Disadvantages: impact energy transmitted

through anvil into floor of building. So that a
counter blow hammer is used to avoid heavy
vibration of the building.

14
Forging Hammers: B- Power hammers
• Power hammer in which the ram is
accelerated on the down stroke by
steam or air pressure in addition to
the gravity (on raising the upstroke).
- The height and the power of the

strike is controllable than in broad
hammer.
- The cheapest way to get high

hammering load.
- very short contact time with the

workpiece ( 1 ~ 10 m sec).

15
Forging presses: A) Mechanical forging presses
Apply gradual pressure to accomplish

compression operation.
1. Mechanical presses converts rotation of

drive motor into linear motion of ram.
2. Hydraulic presses: hydraulic piston

actuates ram.
3. Screw presses: screw mechanism drives

ram.
Most mechanical presses utilize an eccentric crank

16
Forging presses: A) Hydraulic forging presses
Load restricted machines

in which the hydraulic
press moves a piston in a
cylinder.
The main feature that the

full press load is available
at any point during the full
stroke of the ram.

17
Forging in plane strain

Equilibrium of forces in x-direction
σ x h − (σ x + dσ x ).h − 2τ yx .dx = 0
dσ x −2τ yx
= (1)
dx h
Yielding criterion for plain strain
σ 1 − σ 3 = σ o− = p − σ x
By differentiation From eqs. (1) and (2)
dp dσ x dp −2τ xy
= (2) = (3)
dx dx dx h
18
Relating shear stress to the normal stress τ xy = µp and substituting in equ. (3)
dp µp dp 2µ
= −2 or = − dx
dx h p h
−2 µx
2 µx or
ln p = − + ln c p = c.e h
h
From the boundary conditions: at x = a , p = σ’o
2 µa
−
2 µa '
ln c = ln σ o + or c = σ o .e h
h
2 µ ( a− x )
p = σ o' .e h
(4)
19

2 µ ( a−x )
The forging pressure distribution p = σ .e ' h
(4)
o
' e −1
2 µa / h
' pdx
a
The mean forging pressure is: p =∫ = σ o  2 µa / h  (5)
0 a  
'
The total forging load: F = p (2a.w) Where w is the width
From the expansion of the series ey

e y = 1 + y + y 2 / 2!+ y 3 / 3!+ ......
Equ. (4) becomes
 2µ (a − x) 
p ≈ σ ó  1 +  (6) (The forging pressure distribution)
 h 
20
Friction hill in forging
 2 µ (a − x) 
p ≈ σ ó  1 + 
 h 
At x= 0 (at the middle) P =Pmax
 2µa 
pmax ≈ σ ó 1 + 
 h 
At x = a (at the edge)
pmax = σ o'
Distribution of the deformation resistance on the workpiece L=2a.

Neutral surface passes through the center at a = 0 (no displacement).
At x = a no friction, deformation resistance will be equal the flow stress.
21
Forging defects
The limited deformation to a certain depth of the workpiece

especially on using light rapid hammers, so the depth will
stay having cast dendritic structure.
Quality control examinations : dendritic structure, segregation.
A large hydraulic presses for the forging with large surface area.
Surface cracking: as a result of excessive working at too

low temperature or due to hot shortness. High sulfur
content at high temperature results in hot shortness of
steel and nickel (FeS Tm = 1204°C)

22
Forging defects continue
Cracking at the flash of closed-die forging
It is another surface defect where the crack penetrates into
the body of the forging when the flash is trimmed off.
The cracks appears more in the small thin flashes.
Increasing the flash thickness. Hot trimming of the flash.
Design of the flash position in non critical positions in the
forgings. Removing the flash after removing the residual
stresses.

23
Cold-shut or fold
When two surfaces of metal fold against each other without
complete welding.
-Metal flow past part of the cavity, partial filling of the

cavities, sharp corners, excessive chilling or high friction.
- Accumulation of loose scales or residual lubricant in the

deep races resulting in incomplete filling or scale pockets.

24
Secondary tensile stresses:
This results in internal cracking of the forging.
Round cracking during upsetting of cylinder due to the
circumferential tensile stresses.
Application of concave dies to decrease the secondary

tensile stresses, decreasing the buckling of the of the
workpiece (Note: this defect is not found in the closed-dies)
F
Die
Workpiece

25

Directionality of the forging microstructure:
Orientation of the second phases and nonmetallic inclusions
parallel to the direction of the greatest deformation.
Quality control examinations : flow lines and fibers at low

magnification.
Fibers structures lower the tensile ductility and fatigue

properties in the transverse direction.
- To achieve an optimum balance between the ductility in

the longitudinal and transverse directions of a forging, it is
often necessary to limit the amount of deformation to 50 %
or 70 % reduction in cross section
26
Residual stresses
• Hot forging decreases the residual stresses.
• Quenching after forging leads to residual stresses.
• Warping can occur in heat treatment of steel forgings.
• Thermal stresses due phase transformation in large

forgings.
• Controlled cooling (very slow cooling) is essential.

Burying the forging in ashes for periods up to several
weeks.

27
Residual stresses - continue

•Large forgings are subject to the formation of small cracks,
or flakes at the center of the cross section (associated with
the high hydrogen content). Flaking is usually present in
steel ingots of large size, coupled with the presence of
residual stresses.
• The use of vacuum degassed steel largely eliminates

problems with flaking.

28

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Forging

Suez Canal University

Suez Canal University

4140 steel shaft 2 ft Shaft

Suez Canal University

Forging: Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages compared to machining from solid stock:

Suez Canal University

Edging dies are used to shape the

Fullering is used to reduce the cross-

The reduction in cross section of the

Suez Canal University

Pre-shaping operations Continue.

Other operations which can

Suez Canal University

Open-die forging: Workpiece is

Suez Canal University

Open-die forging – cont.

ho Where: ho=starting height

Suez Canal University

Often open-die forging is used to prepare

Suez Canal University

Types of closed-die forging

Impression-die forging: die contains a

Suez Canal University

The excess metal squirts out of the cavity as a thin ribbon

In order to prevent the formation of a very wide flash, a

The trick in designing the flash is to

Very high forging loads lead to die

The ideal is to design for the

Suez Canal University

1. Starting workpiece volume must equal die cavity volume within

Suez Canal University

Forging Hammers: A- Board hammers

• The force is supplied by a falling weight or ram

Disadvantages: impact energy transmitted

Suez Canal University

- The height and the power of the

- The cheapest way to get high

- very short contact time with the

Suez Canal University

Forging presses: A) Mechanical forging presses

Apply gradual pressure to accomplish

1. Mechanical presses converts rotation of

2. Hydraulic presses: hydraulic piston

3. Screw presses: screw mechanism drives

Most mechanical presses utilize an eccentric crank

Suez Canal University

Load restricted machines

The main feature that the

Suez Canal University

Forging in plane strain

Forging in plane strain

From the expansion of the series ey

At x= 0 (at the middle) P =Pmax

Distribution of the deformation resistance on the workpiece L=2a.

The limited deformation to a certain depth of the workpiece

Quality control examinations : dendritic structure, segregation.

Surface cracking: as a result of excessive working at too

Suez Canal University

Suez Canal University

Forging defects continue