NABARD Master Notes 2

ARD
TOPIC – AGRICULTURE
MASTER NOTES PART II AS PER SYLLABUS
Problems of dry land agriculture; Seed production, seed processing, seed village;
Meteorology: weather parameters, crop-weather advisory;
You Tube Lectures on these topics can be accessed through following Links
• Dry land Agriculture: https://youtu.be/HTHXHYrSZj4

• Seed Production & Processing: https://youtu.be/GCh6mT_1E1k
• Crop Weather Advisory: https://youtu.be/A0FMTNkj0pM
• Crop Weather Parameters: https://youtu.be/dPPH88jZ9v4
1 Mail: Clarity4sure@gmail.com
Telegram: @Clarity4sure
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Contents
1 Dry Land Agriculture 4
1.1 What do you mean by term Dry Land Agriculture (DLA) 4
1.2 Distribution of Dry land agriculture in world 4
1.3 Characteristics of DLA 4
1.4 Suitable crops for DLA 5
1.4.1 AEROBIC RICE CULTIVATION 5
Principles of Aerobic Rice Cultivation System 5
Advantages of Aerobic Rice Cultivation 6
1.5 PROBLEMS IN DLA 6
1.6 Important Institutes related to Dry Land agriculture 6
1.7 Some facts 7
2 Seed Production 7
2.1 Some Landmarks in Development of seed production & Propagation 10
3 Classes of Seed 11
3.1 Breeder seed 11
3.2 Foundation seed 11
3.3 Registered seed 12
3.4 Certified seed 12
4 Types of seed 12
5 Model of seed generation 12
6 Isolation distance in seed production 14
7 Seed Replacement Rate 14
8 Seed Multiplication Ratio 15
9 Seed Tags 15
10 Seed Processing 16
10.1 Basic steps 16
10.2 Principle of seed processing: 16
11 Seed Village 17
11.1 Dhanya Laxmi Yojna 17
12 Meteorology 18
12.1 Layers of Atmosphere 18
Click You Tube
12.2 Climate Parameter 19
12.3 Scale of Climate 19
12.4 Climate classification 20
12.5 Meteorological subdivisions 20
12.6 Solar Radiation 21
12.7 Classification of plants based on light 21
12.8 Temperature based plant Injury 22
12.9 Clouds 23
12.10 Family of clouds 23
12.11 Types of Drought 24
13 Terminologies related to monsoon 25
14 Weather Forecasting & Advisory 25
14.1 Types of weather forecast 26
14.2 Synoptic Charts 26
14.3 Weather Calender 26
15 Locust Attack 27
16 Practice MCQ 29
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1 Dry Land Agriculture
1.1 What do you mean by term Dry Land Agriculture (DLA)

The sole criteria to differentiate between different forms of DLA is amount of rainfall
received.
TYPES CRITERIA
Dry farming Annual rainfall is less than 750 mm.

Dryland farming Annual rainfall above 750 mm
Rainfed farming Annual rainfall 1150 + mm rainfall
1.2 Distribution of Dry land agriculture in world
1.3 Characteristics of DLA

Drylands are areas with low soil moisture, high evapotranspiration which results in water
deficit prevailing throughout the year.
• Uncertain, ill-distributed and limited annual rainfall
• Occurrence of extensive climatic hazards like drought, flood etc.
• Undulating soil surface
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• Occurrence of extensive and large holdings
• Practice of extensive agriculture, i.e., prevalence of mono-cropping etc.
• Relatively large size of fields
• Similarity in types of crops raised by almost all the farmers of a particular region
• Very low crop yield
• Poor economy of the farmers
1.4 Suitable crops for DLA

• Ragi, Sorghum, Ber, Jackfruit, Pulses, Aerobic rice etc.
1.4.1 AEROBIC RICE CULTIVATION

• Paddy cultivation under dry cultivation – Direct seeded rice/ aerobic rice
cultivation
• In Direct seeded rice the major challenge is the number of weeds types, Unlike
conventional planting, direct sowing of paddy without land preparation post high
weed infestation. In direct seeded rice maintain weed free 15-45 days after sowing is
very important for higher yield.
Overall Process
• The aerobic rice cultivation system is the method of cultivation, where the rice crop
is established by direct seeding (dry or water-soaked seed) in non-puddle field and
un-flooded field condition
• This type of cultivation is called aerobic because the soil contains oxygen
throughout the growing season
• The areas which are suitable to grow aerobic rice includes:
o Upland areas and mid-upland where land is flat
o Deep soils, which can supply water to the crop between rainfall events
o Upper slopes or terraces in undulating areas
• A seed rate of 50 kg per hectare is recommended for aerobic rice. The seeds are
sown 20 cm between rows and 15 cm within rows with 3 to 5 cm depth
Principles of Aerobic Rice Cultivation System
There are set principles which need to be followed for Aerobic Rice cultivations system.
Discussed below is the same methodology same in brief:
• Direct seeding method of treated seed is used for this type of cultivation
• It can be rain-fed or fully irrigated or supplementary irrigated
• The water needs to be maintained at the soil saturation level only
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• Effective and timely weed control is mandatory for the successful cultivation
• 20 to 25cm of row spacing must be followed (20x15 cm)
Advantages of Aerobic Rice Cultivation
Since this type of cultivation is done in the soil type with ample oxygen, the amount of
water required is comparatively less for cultivation. Given below are a few other
advantages of the aerobic rice cultivation system:
• It is cost-effective and eco-friendly less methane production

• Cultivation cost is also low and so are the labour charges
• Direct Seeding
• Efficient utilization of rainwater and improves soil health
• This type of cultivation improves soil health
1.5 PROBLEMS IN DLA

• Inadequate and uneven distribution of rainfall
• Late onset and early cessation of rains
• Prolonged Dry spells during the crop period
• Low moisture retention capacity
• Low Fertility of Soils
• Low yield
• Poor dry land technologies
1.6 Important Institutes related to Dry Land agriculture

Institutes About
CRIDA - Hyderabad • The Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture or CRIDA is
an institute under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research. It
was formed in 1985
• An all India co-ordinated research project for Dryland Agriculture
was launched by ICAR in 1970 in collaboration with Government
of Canada and later Central Research Institute for Dryland
Agriculture (CRIDA) was established at Hyderabad
NRAA - Delhi • National rainfed area Authority, 2006
NIASM – Baramati, • National Institute of Abiotic Stress Management
Maharastra
ICRISAT - Hyderabad • The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
is an international organization which conducts agricultural
research for rural development, headquartered in Patancheru
with several regional centers and research stations
IRI - Roorkee • Irrigation Research Institute
IWMI – Colombo • International Water Management Institute

Srilanka
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CAZRI -Jodhpur • Central Arid Zone Research Institute
CEDA • A Center of Excellence on Dryland Agriculture (CEDA) already

established will now expand to a co-hosted China and CGIAR
international conference on dryland agriculture in 2020 in China.
• The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas
(ICARDA), the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS)
and ICRISAT have a joint MoU for CEDA located within the Institute
of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture
(IEDA), China
1.7 Some facts

• Rainfed agriculture contributes to 60 per cent of the value of agriculture GDP of
India,
• While farmers in irrigated areas earn 60 per cent of their income from agriculture,
their counterparts in rainfed areas earn only 20-30 per cent from farm-related
activities,” said Ashok Dalwai, CEO of the National Rainfed Area Authority (NRAA),
• “While the average yield in rain-fed areas is about 1.1 tonnes per hectare, that in
irrigated areas is about 2.8 tonnes per hectare,” said the NRAA chief said
• Account for 89 per cent of millets production, 88 per cent of pulses, 73 per cent of
cotton, 69 per cent of oilseeds and 40 per cent rice production in the country.
• Rain-fed areas support 64 per cent of cattle, 74 per cent of sheep and 78 per cent
of goat population in the country.
• About 61 per cent of India’s farmers rely on rain-fed agriculture and 55 per cent of
the gross cropped area is under rain-fed farming.
2 Seed Production
Seed production is a vast chapter and overall a course is offered to Bsc Agri students for
this. Studying everything wil not be beneficial rather we will limit our discussion to important
concepts in it like SMR, SRR, Generation system, Seed classes and Tags.
What is Seed?
Or
How do you botanically/biologically define a seed?
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A seed is a fertilized ovule containing the plant embryo, enclosed in seed coat.
How Seed is formed?

Though seed formation is a complex process which is outside the scope of NABARD
examination, in simple words seed is formed by transfer of pollen grains from anther (male
part) to stigma (female part). This process is called as pollination.
There are two types of pollination:
• Self-Pollination (Autogamy)
• Cross-Pollination (Allogamy)
The process by which pollen grains are transferred from anthers to stigma is referred as
pollination. Pollination is of two types: viz. 1) Autogamy or self pollination and 2) Allogamy
or cross pollination.
I. Autogamy
Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of same flower is known as autogamy
or self pollination. Autogamy is the closest form of inbreeding. Autogamy leads to
homozygosity. Such species develop homozygous balance and do not exhibit significant
inbreeding depression.
Mechanism promoting self-pollination
1. Bisexuality Presence of male and female organs in the same flower is known as
bisexuality. The presence of bisexual flowers is a must for self pollination. All the self
pollinated plants have hermaphrodite flowers.
2. Homogamy. Maturation of anthers and stigma of a flower at the same time is called
homogamy. As a rule, homogamy is essential for self-pollination.
3. Cleistogamy. When pollination and fertilization occur in unopened flower bud, it is known
as cleistogamy. It ensures self pollination and prevents cross pollination. Cleistogamy has
been reported in some varieties of wheat, barley, oats and several other grass species.
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4. Chasmogamy. Opening of flowers only after the completion of pollination is known as
chasmogamy. This also promotes self pollination and is found in crops like wheat, barley,
rice and oats.
5. Position of Anthers. In some species, stigmas are surrounded by anthers in such a way
that self pollination is ensured. Such situation is found in tomato and brinjal. In some
legumes, the stamens and stigma are enclosed by the petals in such a way that self
pollination is ensured. Examples are greengram, blackgram, soybean, chickpea and pea.
II. Allogamy
Transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one plant to the stigma of another plant is
called allogamy or cross pollination. This is the common form of out-breeding. Allogamy
leads to heterozygosity. Such species develop heterozygous balance and exhibit
significant inbreeding depression on selfing.
Mechanism promoting cross-pollination
1. Dicliny. It refers to unisexual flowers. This is of two types: viz. i) monoecy and ii) dioecy.
When male and female flowers are separate but present in the same plants, it is known as
monoecy. In some crops, the male and female flowers are present in the same
inflorescence such as in mango, castor and banana. In some cases, they are on separate
inflorescence as in maize. Other examples are cucurbits, grapes, strawberry, cassava and
rubber. When staminate and pistillate flowers are present on different plants, it is called
dioecy. It includes papaya, date palm, spinach, hemp and asparagus.
2. Dichogamy. (from the Greek dikho-apart and gamous-marriage) It refers to maturation

of anthers and stigma of the same flowers at different times. Dichogamy promotes cross
pollination even in the hermaphrodite species. Dichogamy is of two types: viz. i) protogyny
and ii) protandry. When pistil matures before anthers, it is called protogyny such as in pearl
millet. When anthers mature before pistil, it is known as protandry. It is found in maize,
sugarbeet and several other species.
3. Heterostyly. When styles and filaments in a flower are of different lengths, it is called
heterostyly. It promotes cross pollination, such as linseed.
4. Herkogamy. Hinderance to self-pollination due to some physical barriers such as

presence of hyline membrane around the anther is known as herkogamy. Such membrane
does not allow the dehiscence of pollen and prevents self-pollination such as in alfalfa.
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5. Self incompatibility: The inability of fertile pollens to fertilize the same flower is referred to
as self incompatibility. It prevents self-pollination and promotes cross pollination. Self
incompatibility is found in several crop species likeBrassica, Radish, Nicotiana, and many
grass species. It is of two types sporophytic and gametophytic.
6. Male sterility: In some species, the pollen grains are non functional. Such condition is
known as male sterility. It prevents self-pollination and promotes cross pollination. It is of
three types: viz. genetic, cytoplasmic and cytoplasmic genetic. It is a useful tool in hybrid
seed production.
Mode of pollination and Examples of crop plants
reproduction
A. Autogamous Species
1. Seed Propagated Rice, Wheat, Barley, Oats, Chickpea, Pea, Cowpea, Lentil, Green
gram, Black gram, Soybean, Common bean, Moth bean, Linseed,
Sesame, Khesari, Sunhemp, Chillies, Brinjal, Tomato, Okra, Peanut,
etc.
2. Vegetatively Propagated Potato
B. Allogamous Species
1. Seed Propagated Maize, Pearlmillet, Rye, Alfalfa, Radish, Cabbage, Sunflower,
Sugarbeet, Castor, Red clover, White clover, Safflower, Spinach,
Onion, Garlic, Turnip, Squash, Muskmelon, Watermelon, Cucumber,
Pumpkin, Kenaf, Oilpalm, Carrot, Coconut, Papaya, etc.
2. Vegetatively propagated Sugarcane, Coffee, Cocoa, Tea, Apple, Pears, Peaches, Cherries,
grapes, Almond Strawberries, Pine apple, Banana, Cashew, Irish,
Cassava, Taro, Rubber, etc.
C. Often Allogamous Species Sorghum, Cotton, Triticale, Pigeonpea, Tobacco.
Some times two more terms are used they are

Geitonogamy is the type of self-pollinations where the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther to the stigma takes place between different flowers in the same plant. Though it
seems like cross-pollination and takes place with the help of pollinator, both the gametes
have the same plant as their origin.
Xenogamy is the cross-pollination where the pollen grain transfer occurs across flowers of
two different plants. In other words, the transfer of pollen from the anther of one plant to
the stigma of another plant.
2.1 Some Landmarks in Development of seed production & Propagation

• 1876 - A hand book on seed testing was published The World’s first Seed Testing
Station was established by Prof.F.Nobbe in Tharandt, Saxony, Germany
• 1916 - Supply of quality vegetable seeds was introduced by M/s. Sutton and Sons at
Kolkata, India.
• 1924 - International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) was established in Norway.
• 1961 - The first Seed Testing laboratory was established in IARI, New Delhi.
• 1963 - National Seeds Corporation was established to develop Indian Seed Industry.
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• 1966 - Indian Seeds Act was passed by Government of India with a view to regulate
quality of seeds on 29th December.
• 1967 - The first Horticultural Research Institute in the country established by the Indian
Council of Agriculture Research was called as Indian Institute of Horticultural
Research
• 1968 - The Seed Rules were framed in India in consultation with ISTA.
• 1970 - All India Co-ordianted Vegetable Improvement Project (AICVIP) was
established at IARI, New Delhi.
• 1971 - First Indian vegetable hybrid - Pusa Meghadoot in Bottle gourd was developed
and released by the IARI, New Delhi.
• 1974 - National Seed Project was launched by Govt. of India with the assistance of
World Bank to develop seed production infrastructure.
• 1983 - Enactment of Seed Control Order- Seeds was declared an essential
commodity.
• 1988 - Announcement of New Seed Policy called New Liberalized Seed Policy by
Govt. of India on seed development on 16th September.
• 2001 - The protection of plant varieties and Farmers’ Rights bill was formulated to
establish an effective system for protection of plant varieties, the rights of farmers and
plant breeders and to encourage the development of new varieties of plants
• 2002 - National Seed Policy – to provide appropriate climate for seed industry,
safeguarding the interest of Indian farmers and conservation of agro biodiversity.
• 2019 – New draft seeds Bill
3 Classes of Seed
The four generally recognized classes of seeds are: Breeder's seed, Foundation seed,
Registered seed and Certified seed. The Association of Official Seed Certifying Agencies
(AOSCA) has defined these seed classes as follows:
3.1 Breeder seed

The seed or vegetatively propagated material directly controlled by the originating or the
sponsoring breeder or institution which is the basic seed for recurring increase of foundation
seed.
3.2 Foundation seed

It is the progeny of breeder seed. The seed stock handled to maintain specific identity and
genetic purity, which may be designated or distributed and produced under careful
supervision of an agricultural experiment station. This seed is the source of all other certified
seed classes either directly or through registered seed.
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3.3 Registered seed
The progeny of the foundation seed so handled as to maintain its genetic identity and purity
and approved and certified by a certifying agency. It should be of quality suitable to
produce certified seed.
3.4 Certified seed

It is the progeny of the foundation seed. Its production is so handled to maintain genetical
identity and physical purity according to standards specified for the crop being certified. It
should have the minimum genetical purity of 99%. Certified seed may be the progeny of
certified seed , provided this reproduction does not exceed two generations beyond
foundation seed and provided that if certification agency determines the genetic and
physical purity, if not be significantly altered. In case of highly self pollinated crops
certification of one further generation may be permitted.
4 Types of seed
➢ Orthodox seeds are capable of being dried to internal seed moisture of less than 12%
water, stored at freezing temperatures, and surviving.
➢ Recalcitrant seeds cannot be stored in a conventional freezer as they cannot survive
after drying and/or freezing at -20°C.
➢ Intermediate seeds tend to age faster than orthodox seeds and may have only a 5
year lifespan when stored at -20°C. They have greatest longevity when dried
between 45 and 65% RH.
5 Model of seed generation

Generation system of seed multiplication is nothing but the production of a particular class
of seed from specific class of seed up to certified seed stage. The choice of a proper seed
multiplication model is the key to further success of a seed programme.
This is basically depends upon,
i. The rate of genetic deterioration

ii. Seed multiplication ratio and
iii. Total seed demand
(i) THREE Generation model: - Breeder seed - Foundation seed - Certified seed
(ii) FOUR Generation model:- Breeder seed - Foundation seed (I) Foundation seed (II)
– Certified seed
(iii) FIVE:- Generation model -Breeder seed - Foundation seed (I) - Foundation seed
(II) – Certified seed (I) - Certified seed (II)
➢ Three Generation model - (BS-FS-CS) - FOR CROSS POLLINATED CROPS

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➢ Four Generation model - (BS-FSI-FS II-CS) - FOR SELF POLLINATED CROPS
Example
For paddy and wheat , certified seed produced from certified seed is eligible for
certification by NSC up to two generations from foundation seed
Foundation seed - Certified seed (I) - Certified seed (II)
For barley, garden pea ,ground nut, soyabean, certified seed produced from certified
seed is eligible for certification up to 3 generations from foundation seed
Foundation seed - Certified seed (I) - Certified seed (II) - Certified seed (III)
Breeder
Foundation I
Foundation
seed (II)
Certified seed
(I) Certified seed
(II)
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6 Isolation distance in seed production
Isolation distance is the minimum separation required between two or more varieties of
the same species for the purpose of keeping seed pure.
TYPE Distance (Foundation seed)

Certified seed
SELF POLLINATED CROPS 3mtr 3mtr
Rice, Wheat,
Ragi, Groundnut,
Greengram, Cowpea,
Tomato
CROSS POLLINATED CROPS Foundation seed Certified seed
Maize n Mustard 400 200
Pearl millet 1000 25
Onion 1000 400
Sunflower 1000 500
OFTEN CROSS POLLINATED
Pigeon pea 100 50
Cotton 50 30
Chilli, Bhindi 400 200
Brinjal 200 100
7 Seed Replacement Rate

Seed Replacement Rate is the rate at which the farmers replace the seeds instead of
using their own seeds.
In terms of %
Crop SRR (%)

• Brinjal 63.4 • Melons 89.2
• Cabbage 100 • Okra 92.4
• Cauliflower 86.4 • Tomato 99.3
• Chilli 83.7 • Beans 62.2
• Gourds 73.5 • Onion 87.3
• Peas 93.5
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8 Seed Multiplication Ratio
SMR is nothing but the number of seeds to be produced from a single seed when it is sown
and harvested, which can be altered by adoption of proper seed and crop management
techniques.
Crop Seed Multiplication Crop Seed Multiplication

Ratio Ratio
➢ Wheat 1:20 Lucerne 1:25
➢ Paddy 1:80 (Varieties) Oats 1:15
1:100 (Hybrids) Bhendi 1:100
➢ Maize 1:80 (Varieties) Tomato 1:400
➢ 1:100 (Hybrids) Brinjal 1:450
➢ Sorghum 1:100 Chillies 1:240
➢ Bajra 1:200 Watermelon 1:100
➢ Ragi 1:80 Pumpkin 1:160
➢ Gram 1:10 Bittergourd 1:41
➢ Blackgram 1:40 Bottlegourd 1:99
➢ Greengram 1:40 Ridgegourd 1:83
➢ Cowpea 1:40 Cucumber 1:200
➢ Horsegram 1:40 French bean 1:9
➢ Moth bean 1:40 Clusterbean 1:50
➢ Red gram 1:100 Peas 1:19
➢ Cole crops 1: 433 Onion 1:171
➢ Potato 1:4 Radish 1:100
➢ Groundnut 1:8 Carrot 1:83
➢ Linseed 1:50 Mustard and 1:100
rape
➢ Cotton 1:50 Soybean 1:16
➢ Jute 1:100 Sunflower 1:50
➢ Mestha 1:40 Sesame 1:250
➢ Sunhemp 1:30 Safflower and 1:60
castor
➢ Berseem 1;10 Lucerne 1:25
9 Seed Tags
➢ Nucleus Seed - This is the hundred percent genetically pure
seed with physical purity and produced by the original
breeder/Institute /State Agriculture University (SAU) from basic No colour
nucleus seed stock. A pedigree certificate is issued by the specified
producing breeder.
➢ Breeder Seed – golden yellow tag, the seed provided by the
breeder of the new plant variety. (100% pure)
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➢ Foundation seed – white tag, Progeny from Breeder seed is
the Foundation class, or one generation removed from Breeder
seed (99.5% pure) [NABARD 2017 M]
➢ Registered seed - The Registered class is progeny of Foundation

seed, and two generations removed.
[NABARD 2017M]
➢ Certified seed - The final class is Certified, and it may be the

progeny of Registered seed or Foundation seed or progeny of
itself. This is the seed most generally available to farmers. (Min.
purity 99%)
10 Seed Processing
The process of removal of dockage in a seed lot and preparation of seed for marketing is
called seed processing. The price and quality of seed is inversely related to dockage, which
should not exceed a maximum level permitted for different crops for seed certification.
10.1 Basic steps

Sequence of operations are based on characteristics of seed such as shape, size, weight,
length, surface structure, colour and moisture content. Because each crop seed
possesses individually seed structure. Therefore, sequence of operation will be applied
proper equipments. However, It is also involved stages following as
➢ Drying
➢ Receiving
➢ Pre-cleaning
➢ Conditioning
➢ Cleaning
➢ Separating or Upgrading
➢ Treating (Drying)
➢ Weighting
➢ Bagging
➢ Storage or Shipping
10.2 Principle of seed processing:

The processing operation carried out based on the principle of physical differences found
in a seed lot.
Physical difference Suitable machineries
Seed size – varied from small to bold Air screen cleaner cum grader
Density- ill filled, immature to well Matured light Specific gravity separator
weight to dense seed
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Shape – round to oval and different shapes Spiral separator
Surface texture – smooth to wrinkled and rough Roll mill / dodder mill
Colour of the seed – light color to dark colors Electronic color shorter
Conductivity of seed – low to high Electronic separator
11 Seed Village
Info. Detail
Genesis 2005-06
Aim To upgrade the quality of farmer-saved seed which is about

80-85% of the total seed used for crop production programme,
it is proposed to provide financial assistance for distribution of
foundation/certified seed at 50% cost of the seed of crops for
production of certified /quality seeds only and to provide
training on seed production and technology to the farmers.
Implementing Agency The implementing agencies will be State Departments of

Agriculture, State Agriculture Universities, Krishi Vigyan
Kendras, State Seeds Corporation, National Seeds
Corporation, State Farms Corporation of India (SFCI), State
Seeds Certification Agencies, Department of Seed
Certification
Cluster Approach Suitable responding/willing minimum 50 farmers for same crop

will be identified/selected preferably in compact area/cluster
approach in consultation with the concerned State
Department of Agriculture by the implementing agencies. The
number of farmers may be more than 50 also subject to a
maximum of 150.
Seed Storage In order to encourage farmers to develop storage capacity of

appropriate quality, assistance will be given to farmers for
making/procuring of Pusa Bin/Mud bin/Bin made from paper
pulp for storing of seed produced by the farmers on their farms.
11.1 Dhanya Laxmi Yojna

Union Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman has announced a 16-point program to double
the income of farmers. While presenting the budget, the Finance Minister has said that our
government has taken several steps to double the income of farmers by 2022. One of these
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steps is the launch of Dhanya Laxmi Yojana for women farmers. Under this scheme, women
will be mainly added to seed related schemes. Women farmers will be specially trained
about the quality of seeds and their scientific way of farming.
12 Meteorology
Greek word “Meteoro” means ‘above the earth’s surface’ (atmosphere) “logy” means
‘indicating science’. Branch of science dealing with that of atmosphere is known as
meteorology.
• Climate: Long term regime of atmospheric variables of a given place or area. Eg.
Cold season
• Weather: Physical state of the atmosphere at a given place and given time. Eg.
Cloudy day.
12.1 Layers of Atmosphere

Layer Feature
Troposphere • Avg ht. 16km,

• Seat of weather phenomeno -cloud, thunderstorm etc.
• Decrease of temperature with increasing elevation at a mean
lapse rate of about 6.5°C per km.
Stratosphere • 50-55km, “Seat of photochemical reaction”
Mesosphere • There is a maximum concentration of ozone between 30 and
60 km above the surface of the earth and this layer is known
at the ozonosphere
• Also called ‘Chemosphere”
• In this layer the temperature increases with height at the rate
of 5°C per km.
• Temperature at its heightest point ie mesopause is -95c
coolest.
Thermosphere • 80-400km
Exosphere • 400-1000km
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12.2 Climate Parameter
CLIMATE
Latitude Altitude Precipitation Topography Vegetation
Tropical Arid
Sub tropical Semi arid
Temperate Sub arid
Polar Humid
Climate depends upon many factors as mentioned in chart, from examination point of view
Latitude and precipitation are important and their further classification.
• Latitude: Tropical, Sub tropical, Temperate, Polar
• Precipitation: Arid, Semi-Arid, Sub Humid and Humid
• ARID - Less than 500 mm

• SEMI-ARID -500 – 750 mm
• SUB-ARID - 750-1000 mm
• SUB-HUMID More than 1000 mm
12.3 Scale of Climate
Scale
Macro Meso Micro
Type Range Range Range
1. MACRO Climate Horizantal scale Vertical Time Scale

Scale
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1a. Planetry scale 2000-5000 & more km 10 km 200-400 hr
1b. Synoptic scale 500 – 200 km 10 km 100 hr
2. MESO Climate 1-100 km 1-10 km 1-10 hr
3. MICRO Climate <100 mtr 200 mtr 6-12 min
12.4 Climate classification

Major classification has been done by
Type Criteria
• Thorn Thwaite Precipitation & Potential
Evapotranspiration
• Troll Humid Month
• ICAR Moisture Deficit Index
Thorn Thwaite Troll ICAR

Type Moisture Index Type No. of % area Type MDI
100 x(P-PE/PE) humid of India 100 x (P-
months PET)/PET
Per Humid 100 n above Sub- 0 to 33.3
humid
Humid 20-100 Arid <2 17
Moist-Sub 0-20 Semi-arid -33.3 to -

Semi-Arid 2-4.5 57 66.6
humid
dry
Dry-sub -33.3to 0
humid Semi-Arid 4.5-7 12 Arid >-66.6
Semi Arid -66.7 to -33.3 wet
Humid >7 1.10

Arid -100 to -66.7
12.5 Meteorological subdivisions

• 36 Metrological Subdivisions of India
• India gets 70% of its annual rainfall in the monsoon
• Average annual rainfall 1100-1200mm

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12.6 Solar Radiation
The light can be divided into following categories based upon wavelength.
Reflection occurs when incoming solar radiation bounces back from an object or surface
that it strikes in the atmosphere, on land, or water, and is not transformed into heat. The
proportion of incoming solar radiation that is reflected by the Earth is known as its albedo.
Albedo - It is the percentage of reflected radiation to the incident radiation. Pure water –
5-20%, clouds 55%.
Solar constant is the energy received on a unit area at the outer most boundary of the
earth (atmosphere) surface held perpendicular to the sun’s direction, at the mean distance
between the sun and the earth. Value: Solar Constant - 2 cal / cm2 / min
12.7 Classification of plants based on light

Intensity of Light Duration of Light
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• Sciophytes (shade loving plants): • Day neutral plants / Indeterminate -
The plants grow better under Tomato
partially shaded
• Conditions. (eg) Betel vine, buck

wheat etc.
• Hetrophytes (Sun loving): Many • SDP-The plants which develop

species of plants produce normally when the photoperiod is less
maximum dry matter under high than the critical maximum (less than
light intensities when the moisture is 12 hours). Rice, Sorghum, cotton,
available at the optimum level. Sunflower
(eg) Maize, sorghum, rice etc.
• LDP-The plants which develop and

produce normally when the
photoperiod is greater than the
critical minimum (greater than 12
hours). eg. Potato, Sugarbeet, Wheat,
Barley
12.8 Temperature based plant Injury

TEMPERATURE based Plant Injuries
• Thermal death point –

• The temperature at which the plant cell gets killed when the temperature ranges
from 50-60°C
• Sun clad
• Injury caused on the barks of stem by high temperature during day time and low
temperature during the night time.
• Stem griddle
• The stem at ground level scorches around due to high soil temperature. It causes
death of plant by destroying conductive tissues Ex cotton in sandy soil
• Chilling injury
• Plants which are adapted to hot climate, if exposed to low temperature for
sometime, are found to be killed or severely injured or development of chloratic
condition(yellowing) (eg.) cholratic bands on the leaves of sugarcane, sorghum
and maize inwinter months when the night temperature is below 20°C.
• Freezing injury
• This type of injury is commonly observed in plants of temperate regions. When the
plants are exposed to very low temperature, water freezes into ice crystals in the
intercellular spaces of plants. The protoplasm of cell is dehydrated resulting in the
death of cells. (eg.) Frost damage in potato, tea etc
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• Heaving
• This is a kind of injury caused by lifting up of the plants along with soil from its normal
position.
12.9 Clouds
• The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) classified the clouds according to
their height and appearance into 10 categories. From the height, clouds are
grouped into 4 categories (viz., family A, B, C and D) as stated below and there are
subcategories in each of these main categories.
• The 4 clouds families, which are in different heights of the troposphere are-
• High level clouds (altitudes of 5-13 km)
• Medium level clouds (2-7 km)
• Low level clouds (0-2 km) and
• Clouds with large vertical extending (0-13 km)
12.10 Family of clouds

Family A Family B Family C Family D
The clouds in this The clouds in this The clouds in this These clouds form
category are high. category are middle category are lower due to vertical
The mean lower clouds. Middle level clouds. The height of development i.e.,
levelis 7 kilometers clouds are those these clouds due to convection.
and the mean clouds that develop extends from The mean low level is
upper level is 12 in the middle layers ground to upper 0.5 and means upper
kilometers in tropics of the atmosphere. level of 2.5 km in level goes up to 16
and sub-tropics. In The mean lower tropics and sub- kilometers. Two Sub
this family there are level is 2.5 kilometers tropics. Three Sub Categories-
three subcategories and the mean Categories- ➢ Cumulus
➢ Cirrus upper level is 7 ➢ Strato- ➢ Cumulonimbus
➢ Cirrocumulus kilometers in tropics cumulus ➢ Nimbo-Stratus
➢ Cirrostratus and sub-tropics. Two ➢ Stratus
Sub Categories ➢ Nimbo-Stratus
➢ Altocumulus
➢ Alto-Stratus
As per WMO
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12.11 Types of Drought
Types of drought:
The term drought has been classified in two broad categories.

01. Soil Drought:
• It often leads to atmospheric drought; mainly resulting due to soil
• If both combine, it becomes disastrous
• Otherwise, the struggle for the plants soil drought is more serious/ difficult than that
for the atmospheric drought.
More over, the water deficiency in the soil may be physical or physiological in nature.
a. Physical Soil Drought

In this case, there is an actual shortage of water due to limited or non-availability of water
from various sources like rainfall and irrigation.
b. Physiological Soil Drought

In this case, water is available in plenty in the soil but the plants growing in such environment
can not be able to avail or absorb the water due to the physiological reasons such as
presence of excessive salts, pH alterations etc.
02. Atmospheric Drought

This drought occurs due to low atmospheric humidity, high wind velocity and high
temperature which cause a plant to lose most of its water by transpiration, thus resulting in
water deficit situations.
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OR
Classification of Drought
Droughts are broadly divided into 3 categories based on the nature of impact and spatial
extent.
i. Meteorological Drought
If annual rainfall is significantly short of certain level (75 per cent) of the climatologically
expected normal rainfall over a wide area, then the situation is called meteorological
drought. In every state each region receives certain amount of normal rainfall. This is the
basis for planning the cropping pattern of that region or area.
ii. Hydrological drought
This is a situation in which the hydrological resources like streams, rivers, reservoirs, lakes,
wells etc dry up because of marked depletion of surface water. The ground water table
also depletes. The industry, power generation and other income generating major sources
are affected. If Meteorological drought is significantly prolonged, the hydrological drought
sets in.
iii. Agricultural Drought
This is a situation, which is a result of inadequate rainfall and followed by soil moisture deficit.
13 Terminologies related to monsoon

• Average rainfall or the long-period average (LPA) is the average of rainfall between
1951 and 2000, which is 88 cm.
• A normal monsoon is one when rainfall is between 96% and 104% of the LPA.
• Above normal” monsoon occurs when rainfall remains between 104% 110% of the
LPA.
• If the rainfall is more than 110% of the LPA, then it is called “excess”.
• Rainfall is considered “deficient” when it is less than 90% of the LPA.
14 Weather Forecasting & Advisory
The climatic normals are the average value of 30 years (or the case may be) of a particular
weather element. The period may be week, month and year. The crop distribution,
production and productivity depend on the climatic normals of a place. If the crops are
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selected for cultivation based on the optimum climatic requirements it is likely that the crop
production can be maximized.
14.1 Types of weather forecast
14.2 Synoptic Charts

An enormous volume of meteorological data is being collected from all over the world
continuously round the clock through various telecommunication channels. To assess,
assimilate and analyse the vast data, they have to be suitably presented. For this purpose,
the observations are plotted on maps instandard weather codes. These maps are called
‘Synoptic maps or charts’.
14.3 Weather Calender

In order to provide the farmers with an efficient weather service, it is essential that the
weather forecaster should be familiar with the crops that are grown in a particular
agroclimatic zone. The type of forewarnings to be given depend on the stages of the crop.
In case of farmers, they should become familiar with weather bulletins and learn how to
interpret. To meet the above requirement, the detailed information collected from the
agricultural departments has been condensed by the IMD and presented in a pictorial form
known as crop weather calendar. This calendar has three parts as follows.
Part Information
BOTTOM Bottom part provides the activities related to crop or information related to
phenological stages of the crop and the months.
MIDDLE Middle part gives information regarding normal weather condition required
for active crop growth. It is divided into different sections according to
rainfall, rainy days, minimum temperature, maximum temperature, pan
evaporation and sunshine hours.
TOP Top part gives information related to the weather abnormalities or to take
precautionary measures. Top part is divided into different sections
according to dry spell length, high wind, heavy rainfall and cloudy weather.
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15 Locust Attack
• India has the world’s oldest desert locust control programme. The British government
established the Locust Warning Organisation (LWO) in 1939 in Karachi following a
deadly locust plague between 1926 and 1931.
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• A locust is a large, mainly tropical grasshopper with strong powers of flight. They differ
from ordinary grasshoppers in their ability to change behaviour (gregarize) and form
swarms that can migrate over large distances.
• Locusts are generally seen during the months of June and July as the insects are
active from summer to the rainy season.
• Four species viz. Desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria), Migratory locust (Locusta
migratoria), Bombay Locust ( Nomadacris succincta) and Tree locust (Anacridium
sp.) are found in India.
• Locust Warning Organization
• Spread of Locust Attack
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16 Practice MCQ
Q1. National organization involved in seed production is
a. ISST b. TDC c. TUCAS d. NSC e. None
Q2. Indian Society of Seed Technology (ISST) established during

a. 1971 b.1975 c. 1970 d. 1976 e. None
Q3. Central Potato Research Institute was located at

a. New Delhi b. Shimla c. Varanasi d. Solan
Q4. Seed replacement rate of tomato

a. 89.2 % b. 92.4 % c. 99.3 % d. 62.2 % e.None
Q5. The seed replacement rate of hybrids

a. 40% b. 75% c. 50 % d. 100% e. None
Q6. The seed multiplication ratio of brinjal

a. 40% b. 45% c. 50% d. 100% e. None
Q7. Foundation seed is the progeny of

a. .TFL Seeds b. Foundation Stage –1 c. Nucleus Seed d. Breeder Seed e. None
Q8. The colour of certified seed tag

a. Blue b. red c. Green d. white e. none
Q9. METEOROLOGY is derived from greek word Meteoro meaning?
a. Earth Science b. Above earth surface c. Atmosphere d. Sourrounding e. None
Q10. "The stem at ground level scorches around due to high soil temperature. It causes
death of plant by destroying conductive tissues" The above italicised lines refers to
a. Sun clad b. stem death c. Thermal death d. Stem Girddle e. Heaving
Q11. If Precipitation is between 750-1000mm then it is reffered as?
a. Arid b. Semi-Arid Desert c. Sub-Arid d. Sub Humid
Q12. Synoptic Time scale for Macro climate is?
a. 100 hr b. 200hr c. 150 hr d. 75 hr e. None of the above
Q13. Im values are- 1. 25; 2.15; 3. -30 4. -70

The value in 1,2,3 & 4 represents?
a. 1-humid b. 2-Moist Sub Humid c. 3- Dry Sub Humid d. 4-arid e. all are
correct
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Q14. The values of Moisture Defecit Index (MDI) are (1) 30, (2) -50, (3) -70. Then 1,2,3 refers
to
a. Subhumid>Semiarid>Arid b. Arid>Subhumid>semiarid c.
semiarid>arid>Subhumid d. can't be decided e. None of the above
Q15. Luke Howard classification of Clouds is based on?
a. Genera b.Spcies c.Varities d.Mother clouds e.All of these
Q16. The National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) is a Centre
of Excellence in Weather and Climate Modelling under the Ministry of Earth Sciences.It has
its headquter located in?
a. Delhi b.Pune c.Hyderabad d.Noida e.Kanyakumari
Q17. Now casting in weather forecasting refers to time period of?
a. 0-2 hr b.0-1-hr c.0-6 hr d.0-8 hr e.None of the above
Q18. India has the world's oldest desert locust control programme, it was started in year?
a. 1920 b. 1935 c. 1939 d. 1949 e. 1954
Q19. Central Headquater for locust warning organization is in?
a. Jodhpur b. Jaipur c. Faridabad d. Bikaner e. Delhi
Q20. Schistocerca gregaria is
a. Normal locust b. Grey Locust c. Desert Locust d. Migratory locust

e. None
NEXT – PART III

Precision Farming, System of Crop Intensification, organic farming; Soil and Water
Conservation : Major soil types, soil fertility, fertilisers, soil erosion, soil conservation,
watershed management
Feedback can be submitted to E-Mail: Clarity4sure@gmail.com
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MASTER NOTES PART II AS PER SYLLABUS

• Dry land Agriculture: https://youtu.be/HTHXHYrSZj4

1.1 What do you mean by term Dry Land Agriculture (DLA)

Dry farming Annual rainfall is less than 750 mm.

1.2 Distribution of Dry land agriculture in world

1.3 Characteristics of DLA

• Uncertain, ill-distributed and limited annual rainfall

• Occurrence of extensive climatic hazards like drought, flood etc.

• Undulating soil surface

• Practice of extensive agriculture, i.e., prevalence of mono-cropping etc.

• Relatively large size of fields

• Very low crop yield

• Poor economy of the farmers

1.4 Suitable crops for DLA

1.4.1 AEROBIC RICE CULTIVATION

Principles of Aerobic Rice Cultivation System

Advantages of Aerobic Rice Cultivation

• It is cost-effective and eco-friendly less methane production

1.5 PROBLEMS IN DLA

1.6 Important Institutes related to Dry Land agriculture

IWMI – Colombo • International Water Management Institute

CEDA • A Center of Excellence on Dryland Agriculture (CEDA) already

1.7 Some facts

How do you botanically/biologically define a seed?

How Seed is formed?

Mechanism promoting cross-pollination

2. Dichogamy. (from the Greek dikho-apart and gamous-marriage) It refers to maturation

4. Herkogamy. Hinderance to self-pollination due to some physical barriers such as

Some times two more terms are used they are

2.1 Some Landmarks in Development of seed production & Propagation

3.1 Breeder seed

3.2 Foundation seed

3.4 Certified seed

5 Model of seed generation

This is basically depends upon,

i. The rate of genetic deterioration

➢ Three Generation model - (BS-FS-CS) - FOR CROSS POLLINATED CROPS

Foundation seed - Certified seed (I) - Certified seed (II)

TYPE Distance (Foundation seed)

7 Seed Replacement Rate

Crop SRR (%)

Crop Seed Multiplication Crop Seed Multiplication

➢ Registered seed - The Registered class is progeny of Foundation

➢ Certified seed - The final class is Certified, and it may be the

10.1 Basic steps

10.2 Principle of seed processing:

Aim To upgrade the quality of farmer-saved seed which is about

Implementing Agency The implementing agencies will be State Departments of

Cluster Approach Suitable responding/willing minimum 50 farmers for same crop

Seed Storage In order to encourage farmers to develop storage capacity of

11.1 Dhanya Laxmi Yojna

12.1 Layers of Atmosphere

Troposphere • Avg ht. 16km,

Latitude Altitude Precipitation Topography Vegetation

• Latitude: Tropical, Sub tropical, Temperate, Polar

• Precipitation: Arid, Semi-Arid, Sub Humid and Humid

• ARID - Less than 500 mm

12.3 Scale of Climate

Macro Meso Micro

Type Range Range Range

1. MACRO Climate Horizantal scale Vertical Time Scale

1b. Synoptic scale 500 – 200 km 10 km 100 hr

2. MESO Climate 1-100 km 1-10 km 1-10 hr