PERALTA, KEANU GYBS C.

BSN 2 -I

THEORIES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), an Australian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis,
offered the first real theory of personality development. He described child development as being
a series of psychosexual stager in which a child’s sexual gratification becomes focused on a
particular body part.
Infant (Birth to 1 year)
Freud termed the infant period “oral phase” because infants are so interested in oral stimulation
or pleasure during this time. According to this theory, infants suck for enjoyment or relief of
tension, as well as for nourishment.
Toddler (1 to 3 years)
Freud described the toddler period as the “anal phase” because during this time, children
interests focus on the anal region as they begin toilet training. Elimination takes on new
importance for them. Children find pleasure in both the retention of feces and defecation. This
anal interest is part of toddlers’ self-discovery, a way of exerting independence, and probably
accounts for some of the difficulties parents may experience in toilet-training children age.
Pre-schooler (3 to 6 years)
During the preschool period, children’s pleasure zone appears to shift from the anal to genital
area. Freud called this period the “phallic phase.” Masturbation is common during this phase.
Children may also show exhibitionism, suggesting they hope this will lead to increased
knowledge of the two sexes.
School-Age Child (6 years to puberty)
Freud saw the school-age period as “latent phase,” a time in which children’s libido appears to
be diverted into concrete thinking. He saw no developments as obvious as those in earlier periods
appearing during this time.
Adolescent (Puberty to adult)
Freud termed the adolescent period the “genital phase.” Freudian theory considers the main
events of this period to be the establishment of new sexual aims and the finding of new love
objects.
Criticisms of Freud’s Theory
To construct his theory, Freud relied on his knowledge of people with mental illness or looked at
circumstances that led to mental illness. This “looking at illness” rather than “looking at
wellness” perspective limits the applicability of the theory as a health promotion measure,
although the behaviors he discussed are as observable as ever.

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson (1902-1996) was trained in psychoanalytic theory but later developed his own
theory of psychosocial development, a theory that stresses the importance of culture and society
in development of the personality. Erikson describes eight developmental stages covering the
entire life span. At each stage, there is a conflict between two opposing forces. The resolution of
each conflict, or accomplishment of the developmental task of that stage, allows the individual to
go on the next phase of development.
The Infant (trust versus mistrust)
This stage begins at birth and lasts through around one year of age. The infant develops a
sense of trust when interactions provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to
mistrust.
The Toddler (autonomy versus shame/doubt)
This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately age two to three years. The
infant develops a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.
Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities
within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure. Success leads to feelings of
autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
The Pre-schooler (initiative versus guilt)
This stage occurs during the preschool years, between the ages of three and six. The child
begins to assert control and power over their environment by planning activities, accomplishing
tasks and facing challenges. Success at this stage leads to a sense of purpose. If initiative is
dismissed or discourages, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt.
The School-Age Child (industry versus inferiority)
This stage occurs during childhood between the ages of six and twelve. It is at this stage that the
child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major source of the child’s
self-esteem. The child is coping with new learning and social demands. Success leads to a sense
of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.

The Adolescent (identity versus role confusion)

The fifth stage occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. Teenagers explore who they
are as individuals, and seek to establish a sense of self, and may experiment with different roles,
activities, and behaviors. According to Erikson, this is important to the process of forming a
strong identity and developing a sense of direction in life.
The Young Adult (intimacy versus isolation)
This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 19 and 45.
During this period, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with
other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and
isolation.
The Middle-Aged Adult (generativity versus stagnation)
This stage takes place during middle adulthood between the ages of approximately 45 and 65.
People experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees
or creating positive changes that will benefit other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness
and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.
The Older Adult (integrity versus despair)
This stage takes place after age 65 and involves reflecting on one's life and either moving into
feeling satisfied and happy with one's life or feeling a deep sense of regret. Success at this stages
leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
Criticism of Erikson’s Theory
Erikson’s main contribution to human development was the creation of stages so that
development can be broken down into separate phases for study. A criticism of his theory is that
life does not occur easily divided stages, and trying to divide it that way can create superficial
divisions.
References:
Pillitteri, Adele. Maternal and Child Health Nursing. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2006.
McLeod, S. A. (2018, May 03). Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. Simply
Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html