MIDTERMS REVIEWER

Earth Science

ROCKS AND MINERALS

MINERALS
 A naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical composition and an ordered internal
structure.
 Every mineral is unique, but they exhibit general characteristics

CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS
1. Naturally-occurring
 Minerals exist naturally
 Steel and synthetic diamonds are created artificially, and therefore, are not minerals

2. Inorganic
 Limited to substances formed through inorganic processes
 Exclude materials derived from living organisms which involved organic processes
 No carbon
 Coal, which is composed of remains of plants and other inorganic compounds, is not a
mineral

3. Solid
 All liquids and gases—even those that are naturally formed such as petroleum—are
not considered minerals
 Ice formed in the glaciers is considered a mineral, but water is not

4. Definite chemical composition

 The chemical composition of minerals should express the exact chemical formula with
the elements and compounds in specific ratios
 The only exception is atomic substitution, which is characteristic of certain materials

5. Ordered internal structure

 The atoms in minerals are organized in a regular, repetitive geometric patterns or
crystal structure
 Volcanic glass, even if it is formed naturally, is not considered a mineral because it is
amorphous and has no form
 Substances that fulfill all the requirements but do not have an ordered internal
structure are called mineraloids (amber, obsidian, opal, pearl)

COMPOSITION OF MINERALS
A. Silicates
 Composed primarily of silicon-oxygen tetrahedrons
 Major rock-forming minerals, including olivine and quartz

B. Oxides
 Consist of metal cations bonded to oxygen anions
 Common oxide materials are magnetite and hermatite

C. Sulfides
 Consist of metal cation bonded to sulfide
 Common ore minerals along with oxides since metals form a high proportion of the
mineral
 Examples of sulfides are galena and pyrite

D. Sulfates
 Consist of a metal cation bonded to the SO42- anionic group
 Usually precipitate out of water near Earth’s surface
  Example of sulfate is gypsum

E. Halides
 Composed of a halogen ion, such as chlorine or fluorine, which forms halite or rock
salt and fluorite

F. Carbonates
 Characterized by the presence of carbonic ion which bonds elements such as calcium
or magnesium to form calcite or dolomite

G. Native metals
 Consist of a single metal such as copper and gold

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

Crystal Form and Habit
 Since minerals have a definite chemical composition, it forms a definite structure which
crystallizes into a specific crystal form
 The outward appearance of the crystal form is its habit
 It can be described as granular, tabular, dendritic, acicular, massive, reniform, drusy, or
encrusting

Cleavage and Fracture

 The manner in which a mineral breaks is dependent on its molecular bonding and structure
 The tendency to break along planes of weakness is known as cleavage
 It can be described both in the number and directions of cleavage planes and its quality
(excellent, good, poor, or absent)
 Minerals with excellent cleavage will break into smooth, flat, parallel surfaces
 A good cleavage will result in small, smoth, step-like flat cleavage
 Minerals that do not have cleavage will fracture either in an irregular manner or as conchoidal
fracture (smooth, curved surfaces)

Luster
 Describes the appearance of light as it is reflected off its surface
 A mineral may be described as metallic, like that of a polished metal
 It may also be described as nonmetallic, which can be vitreous (like glass), resinous (like
resin), pearlescent, silky, greasy, earthy, and dull

Color and Streak

 Not a reliable feature for identifying minerals because it can be altered by chemical impurities
within its structure
 Streak is the color of a mineral in its powdered form—it can be obtained by rubbing the
mineral on an abrasive ceramic tile called streak plate
 Streak Test

Hardness
 Measurement of the strength of the chemical bonds in its structure
 Can be measured by scratching it with another mineral or reference material with known
hardness
 Mohs Scale of Hardness—a relative measure of hardness using common materials and
standard materials to represent a specific hardness value
 Softest mineral: Talc / Hardest mineral: Diamond

Density
 Specific gravity is a measure of the density of a mineral
 The weight of a mineral relative to the weight of an equal volume of water
 Common minerals have a specific gravity of 2.7, while gold has 19
 ROCKS
A naturally occurring, coherent aggregate of minerals or solid materials such as natural glass or
organic matter. Found in the lithosphere, which is derived from the Greek word lithos meaning “stone.”

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
A. Igneous Rocks
 Rocks formed from volcanic activity
 From cooling and solidification of magma or lava
 Latin word igneus which means “fiery” or “on fire”
 Intrusive Igneous Rocks — formed when magma never erupts and cools slowly
in the ground
 Extrusive Igneous Rocks —formed from erupted lava, much of the sea floor is
extrusive igneous rocks
 Crystalline — from cooled magma and lava
 Pyroclastic — made up of consolidated eruption products like volcanic ash

1. Crystalline Textures
 differ depending on the rate of cooling and where it took place
 Intrusive or Plutonic Rocks
o Form from slowly cooled magma
o Has phaneritic texture (with visible crystals) or pegmatitic texture (with
very large crystals)
o Gabbro, granite, diorite, dunite
 Extrusive or Volcanic Rocks
o Form from rapidly cooled magma
o Usually exhibit aphanitic textures (with visible crystals)
o Andesite, basalt, rhyolite, obsidian
 Porphyritic Texture
o Magma body in shallow depth near Earth’s surface crystallizes slowly
o Subsequent volcanic activity extrudes it = speeds up rate of cooling

2. Pyroclastic
 Result from lithification of erupted volcanic materials / explosive volcanic eruption

COMPOSITION / COLOR INDEX OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

Felsic
 Light color
 Rich in silica

Mafic / Ultramafic
 Dark color
 Poor in silica but rich in iron and magnesium

Intermediate
 Gray or with equal parts of dark and light mineral

B. Sedimentary Rocks
  Rocks are eroded and washed away by wind and water; accumulated sediment is pressed
together to form sedimentary rock (Compacting & Cementing)
 Clastic — from lithification of rock and mineral fragments, may be described
based on size (quartz, feldspar, clay)
 Crystalline / Nonclastic — precipitate out of solution (dolomite, halite, gypsum)
 Bioclastic — formed from the accumulation of organic material or biologic activity
(may contain remnants of plants, corals, or fossils)
 Clastic: rounded / Nonclastic: angular

C. Metamorphic Rocks
 Heat and pressure can change rocks into different types
 Foliated — dominant agent is pressure, have distinct banding or layers that
formed perpendicular to pressure
 Non-foliated — dominant agent is heat, crystals with blocky shapes and do not
have banding

1. Platy or Elongated Minerals

 Align themselves parallel to the axis of pressure, resulting in a layered appearance or
foliation
 Slaty
o Minerals are microscopic, may not appear foliated to the naked eye
o Tendency to separatte along parallel planes
 Phyllitic
o Barely visible to the naked eye
o Alignment results in an obvious but not clearly-defined foliation
 Schitose
o Visible to the naked eye
o Layering is more distinct
o Usually composed of platy minerals like graphite, chlorite, etc.
 Gneissic
o Visible and elongated
o Coarsely-branded appearance

2. Crystalline Textures
 Parent rock is exposed with enough heat; induces recrystallization of the existing
minerals
 Usually composed of only one type of mineral
ENERGY RESOURCES

RENEWABLE RESOURCES
 Resources that can be replenished or regenerated on a human time scale
 Geothermal, flowing water, wind, solar, and biomass

NONRENEWABLE RESOURCES
 Cannot be replenished or regenerated on a human time scale
 There is an increasing need to lessen the dependence on nonrenewable sources due to issues on
global warming
 Fossil fuels, coal, petroleum, nuclear
 FOSSIL FUELS
 Presently the world’s primary energy source
 Provides most of the energy that supports transportation, electricity production, heating and cooling
of buildings, and various industrial activities
 Derived from the remains of prehistoric plants and animals that died millions of years ago and were
buried under the right conditions to form fossils

COAL
 A black, combustible rock made up of elemental carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and
varying amounts of sulfur
 Formed from the remains of plants that once grew in swamps and adjacent forests millions of
years ago
 The amount of energy released when coal is burned is directly proportional to the amount of
carbon within the coal
 Anthracites produce the most energy

PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS

 Petroleum is a naturally occurring liquid composed of complex hydrocarbons, and is found in
geological formations underneath the Earth’s surface
 A fossil fuel derived from microscopic aquatic organisms such as algae and planktons
 The remains of the organisms settle to the seabed and transform into waxy material known as
kerogen
 Forms within a specific depth, pressure, and temperature range known as oil window
 Natural gas is a hydrocarbon mostly made up of methane (simple chemical compound), is
lighter than air, and highly flammable

FOSSIL FUELS AND THE CARBON CYCLE

—Deposits of fossil fuels are carbon storage areas. When fossil fuels are burned, the stored carbon is
released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, which leads to global warming and climatic changes.
NUCLEAR ENERGY
 Nuclear reactions occur when atoms of one species of chemical element are transformed into
atoms of another species by nuclear change.
 Fission — splitting of heavy atoms into lighter atoms
 Fusion — combination of two light atoms to form a heavier atom
 When an atom is hit by a neutron, it releases heat and fragments that form new and lighter
elements to eject neutron from the nucleus. These neutrons strike other fissionable atoms, creating
a continuous chain reaction.
 If the reaction occurs in a controlled manner, it could provide useable energy; if not, atomic
explosion may occur.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

1. The fuel rod should maintain a certain temperature; otherwise, it could generate
temperature high enough to cause meltdown or explosion of radioactive materials
2. Generation of radioactive wastes. It needs to be stored in deep underground chambers for a
very long period of time

1976 Bataan Nuclear Power Plant

o Morong, Bataan
o Never operated due to safety and potential geologic hazard issues
 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
 One source of energy in Earth’s system is its internal heat
 There are radioactive elements concentrated on Earth’s upper layer that also generate heat as
they decay
 A type of renewable energy taken from the Earth’s core
 It comes from heat generated during the original formation of the planet and the radioactive decay
of materials
 This thermal energy is stored in rocks and fluids in the centre of the earth

GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS use steam to produce electricity. The steam comes from reservoirs
of hot water found a few miles or more below the earth’s surface. The steam rotates a turbine that
activates a generator, which produces electricity.

For additional information:

https://docs.google.com/document/d/1oa3Jrd-PyJudGMmExQR_-3vJqgwDa1IkoeCEbc8AOzo/edit?
usp=sharing

 Cold areas such as Iceland, geothermal heat is used directly

 Water heated by volcanic rocks is used for heating household interiors, growing vegetables during
winter, aquaculture, heating human-made pools
 Household using ambient geothermal system in temperate areas
 Utilizing and active geothermal system in volcanic areas
 Steam produced is used to run turbines and generate electricity
HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY
 Gravity is essential
 Object at rest in a high elevation = gravitational potential energy
 Lower elevation = kinetic energy
 Hydropower = generated by the energy from falling or fast running water
 Dams were built to allow water to move from higher to lower elevations

The potential of conventional hydroelectric dam depends on the amount of water stored and the
difference in height between the source and the water’s outflow (height difference is called head)
 Water enters intake and flows through a large pipe called penstock to reach the turbine
 Amount of water can be controlled at the intake
 Water pressure causes turbine to rotate = electricity
 Excess water flows through the spillway
 The higher the dam, the stronger the pressure, the greater the energy
 Large dams can generate several hundred megawatts of electricity; however, these dams and
reservoir still have limited lifetimes

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
 Altering river ecosystems, displacing communities living in the area that will be converted into a
reservoir
o Barrage: a dam built in the tidal inlet where water is allowed to enter during high tides
 Water is released during low tide. As the water flows, the turbine at the bottom generates
electricity.
WIND ENERGY
 Wind is the movement of air caused by differences in atmospheric pressure.
 Air moves from higher to lower pressure because of uneven heating from the sun
 Hot air arises, cool air moves down = wind currents
 Mechanical power can be produced from wind flows
 Wind power is harnessed using mounted turbines attached to towers from 20m to 100m
o Three long blades that spin and cause the turbine to generate electricity
 Collection of individual turbines = wind farm
 o Clean energy source
o No fuel burned
o Serious effect can be bird and bat mortality only (turbine designs have been improved to
address this)
SOLAR ENERGY
 Energy coming from the sun
 Solar energy every hour can suffice for a year
 Plants directly use this for photosynthesis
 Animals and humans consume plants and absorb vitamin d
 Directly used in greenhouses to allow plant growth
 Direct solar energy supplies heat just below the boiling point of water
 Converting solar energy into electricity requires solar collector

CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

 Involves mirrors, lenses, and tracking system that focuses light into a receiver and generates
heat
 Heat is used to generate electricity from conventional steam-driven turbines

PHOTOVOLTAIC OR SOLAR CELL

 Direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level
 Consists of semiconductor materials made into wafer
 Form an electric field, positive on one side and negative on the other
 Complicated

 Significant costs
 Solar power will make a home independent from the power grid
 Solar cells are very efficient and require low power input
 No air or water pollution, but manufacturing of photovoltaic cells can produce toxic materials
BIOMASS
 The oldest source of energy ever since prehistoric man discovered fire
 Biological material derived from living or recently deceased organisms which may include both
plant life, including fuel, wood, animal dung, and agricultural wastes
 Takes carbon out of the atmosphere while it is growing, and returns it as it is burned
 Properly managed biomass maintains a closed carbon cycle, with no net increase in CO 2 levels

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH BIOMASS

 Soil degradation
 Erosion
 Desertification
 Biofuels may not replace as much
oil as they use
 THE PEDOSPHERE
SOIL
 Soil ecosystem is called “The Pedosphere” (from the root word pedology, the study of soil)
 The Ideal Soil

COMPONENTS OF SOIL
Air
o Pore spaces for the exchange of gases
o About 25%

Water
o Stored in the soil for plant use.
o Contains important nutrients for plant growth.
o About 25%

Organic Matter
o Organic materials and biological life that is
incorporated into the soil
o About 5%

Minerals
o Rocks and soil particles that made up soil solids
o About 45%

 Good soil is good for farmers, especially for their livestock

 Good soil will give more benefits

FACTORS THAT AFFECT SOIL FORMATION

1. Parent Material
o Any material from which soil is formed
o Starting point for soil development
o Will determine the soil that will be formed
o Deposited by gravity, wind, and water

2. Climate
o The average weather patterns for a region that occur over a number of years
o Affect the pattern and intensity of soil-forming processes
o Soil types vary depending on climate
 3. Topography
o The slope of the land that determines the type of soil that is formed
o Affects water flow and erosion
o Soil found at sloped land such as hills are usually eroded

4. Biological Factors
o Living organisms that influence the development of the soil and soil profile
o Mixing of soil through burrowing
o Affect nutrient and chemical exchanges between roots and soil

5. Time
o The amount of time the soil has been forming
o 200 to 400 years to develop 1cm of soil in moderate climates
o Rate is faster in tropical climates, longer in dry and cold climates
o The length of time the other soil forming factors have been in place changing the
nature of the soil is an important component to how the soil appears today

SOIL PROCESSES
Translocation
 The movement of water within the soil
 Can be either up or down

Transformations
 One component changes to another
 Leaching is the loss of water-soluble plant nutrients from the soild, due to rain and irrigation

SOIL PROFILE
LAYERS OF A SOIL PROFILE
1. Duff
o Made up of leaf filter and other organic materials lying on the surface of the soil (not
always present in a profile)

2. Topsoil
o The fertile layer of soil below the duff later, and above the subsoil. The fertile layer that
has organic matter incorporated within it and contains many nutrients

3. Subsoil
o The layer of soil in a soil profile that is below the topsoil

4. Bedrock
o A solid layer of rock beneath some soils
SOIL TEXTURE
—jey