EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE

Professor’s Name: Ms. Shana Gale Causaren | Professor’s Email: smcausaren@dlsud.edu.ph

LESSON 3: ROCKS AND MINERALS

MINERALS

● Naturally occuring, not man-made

● Inorganic
● Solid
● Definite chemical composition
● Ordered internal structure

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

LUSTER
quality and intensity of reflected light exhibited by the
mineral.
● Metallic- generally opaque and exhibit a
resplendent shine similar to a polished metal.
● Non-Metallic- vitreous (glassy), adamantine
(brilliant/diamond like), resinous, silky, pearl,
dull (earthy), greasy
CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS
1. metallic
2. metallic, earthy
3. dull; poor reflectivity
4. silky, fibrous
5. resinous, plastic
6. waxy
7. glassy, vitreous
8. pearly
HARDNESS- measure of resistance of a mineral to
abrasion
COLOR- Unique identifying property of minerals
(Malachite– green, Azurite– blue). Maybe a poor
indicator since many share the same color like quartz
STREAK- color of minerals in powdered form. The
color of a mineral could be different from its streak.
CRYSTAL FORM/HABIT- the form reflects the
supposedly internal structure (of atoms and ions) of
the crystal (mineral). It is the natural shape of
the mineral before the development of any cleavage or
fracture.
EX. octahedrons like magnetite crystals,
dodecahedrons like garnets, and cubes like
halite.
CLEAVAGE- The ability of a mineral to break along
planes of weak bonding. The tendency of minerals to
break along flat planar surfaces into geometries that
are determined by their crystal structure.
FRACTURE- Some minerals may not have cleavages
but may exhibit broken surfaces that are irregular and
non planar. Conchoidal, Splintery, Fibrous.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY- it is the ratio of the weight of a
mineral to the weight of an equal volume of water. A
bucket of silver (SG 10) would weigh 10 times more
than a buck of water (SG 1). It is a measure to express
the density (mass per unit volume) of a mineral. The
specific gravity of a mineral is numerically equal to
density.
OTHER PROPERTIES
Taste- salt
Odor- sulfur containing (rotten egg)
Magnetism- magnetite
Fluorescence- fluorite in UV
Radioactivity- uraninite
Reactivity- calcite in weak acid

ymg | 1
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

SILICATES ● Calcite, Dolomite.

● Minerals containing 2 of the most abundant
elements in the Earth’s crust, namely, Silicon
(28%) and Oxygen(47%).
● Over 90% of the rock-forming minerals belong to
this group.
● Other most common elements that make the
earth’s crust are Al (8.1%), Fe (5.0%), Ca
(3.6%), Mg (3.1%), Na (2.8%) and K (2.6%).
● Quartz, Mica, Amphibole, Pyroxene, Olivine.
OXIDES
● Minerals containing Oxygen anion (O2 - )
combined with one or more metal ions
● Hematite, Magnetite, Corundum, Ice
SULFATES
● Minerals containing Sulfur and Oxygen anion
(SO4) - combined with other ions.
● Gypsum, Anhydrite, Barite, Celestite.
CARBONATES
● Minerals containing the carbonate anion (CO3)
2- combined with other elements.
● Calcite, Dolomite.
HALIDES
● Minerals containing halogen elements combined
with one or more elements.
● Halogen elements include Cl, F, I, Br, At
● Halite, Fluorite, Sylvite.
NATIVE ELEMENTS
● Minerals that form as individual elements.
● Gold (Au), Silver (Ag), Platinum (Pt), Diamond
(C), Graphite (C), Sulfur (S), Copper (Cu)
METALS AND INTER-METALS- Minerals with high
thermal and electrical conductivity. Typically with metallic
luster, low hardness (Gold, Lead).
SEMI-METALS- Minerals that are more fragile than
metals and have lower conductivity (Arsenic, Bismuth).
NON-METALS- Non-conductive (Diamond, Sulfur)

HALIDES
● Minerals containing halogen elements combined
with one or more elements.
● Halogen elements include Cl, F, I, Br, At
● Halite, Fluorite, Sylvite.

SULFATES
● Minerals containing Sulfur and Oxygen anion
(SO4) - combined with other ions.
● Gypsum, Anhydrite, Barite, Celestite.

SULFIDES
● Minerals containing sulfur anion (S2) - combined
with one or more ions. Some sulfides are
sources of economically important metals such
as copper, lead and zinc.
● Galena, Sphalerite, Pyrite, Chalcopyrite,
Cinnabar.

CARBONATES
● Minerals containing the carbonate anion (CO3)
2- combined with other elements.
2
 ROCK TYPES

IGNEOUS ROCKS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

From when magma or lava cool to a solid form, either ● Formed at or near the surface of the Earth
glass or masses of tightly intergrown mineral crystal ● Forms when mineral crystals and clasts of
● MAGMA - molten rocks inside earth's crust plants, animals, or rocks are compressed or
● LAVA - magma that reaches the surface naturally cemented together.
● Forms when mineral crystals precipitate from
TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS water to form a rocky mass such as rock salt or
cave stalactites.
INTRUSIVE or PLATONIC: Formed from magma (inside ● Sedimentary processes include weathering,
the Earth) and tends to take a long time to solidify into erosion, transport, and deposition.
rock. Has Phaneritic textures. More crystals formed
since it takes longer TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
time to cool down.
CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
EXTRUSIVE OR VOLCANIC: Formed from lava and ● Formed from the eroded parts of other rocks
tends to solidify quickly. Common textures include ● Grains, matrix, and cement are the components
aphanitic and porphyritic. Less crystals are made of clastic rocks
since mas mabilis magcool down. ● Clastic rocks with volcanic origin (e.g.
pyroclastics) and may have undergone some
TEXTURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS stages in the sedimentary processes could be
classified as sedimentary rock (e.g.
PORPHYRITIC: Formed through two stages of volcanoclastic rocks)
crystallization. Magma partly cooled below the surface of ● Examples: Conglomerate, Breccia, Shate, Red
the earth providing time for the large crystals to grow Sandstone, Gray Sandstone
(phenocrysts). Before it is extruded to the surface
forming the fine-grained matrix (groundmass) — NON-CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Intrusive ● Evaporation and precipitation from solution or
lithification of organic matter
PHANERITIC: Coarse-grained, forming large ● Classified as evaporites (halite, gypsum, and
interlocking dolostone), precipitates (limestone), and
crystals, and intrusive (cooled down slowly) - Intrusive bioclastics (coal, coquina)
● Examples: Limestone, Chert, Halite.
APHANITIC: Fine-grained, too small to see, minerals
that are not visible to the naked eye, extrusive igneous METAMORPHIC ROCKS
rocks. — Extrusive
● Formed below earth’s surface
GLASSY: Natural glass with very few crystals — ● Process of metamorphism with the
Extrusive recrystallization of mineral in rocks
● Due to changes in pressure and temperature
PYROCLASTIC: Rock fragments primarily made up of conditions
volcanic materials — Extrusive ● Contact and Regional metamorphism

VESICULAR: Air bubbles trapped inside TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

CONTACT METAMORPHISM
● Heat and reactive fluids as main factors
● Pre-existing rock gets in contact with magma
(source of heat)
3
 ● Where metamorphic alterations and ● Creates foliated metamorphic rocks
transformations occur around the
contact/metamorphic aureole of the intruding
magma and the rock layers
● Creates non-foliated metamorphic rocks
● When magma intrudes, it burns the pre-existing
rock and changes it with contact metamorphism

REGIONAL METAMORPHISM
● Pressure as main factor
● Occurs in areas that have undergone
considerable amount of mechanical deformation
and chemical recrystallization during orogenic
event which are commonly associated with
mountain belts
● Occurs in a regional/large scale

LESSON 4: HAZARDS: HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL AND GEOLOGICAL PROCESS

Hydrometeorological phenomena ★ Amihan - Northeast Monsoon

★ Process or phenomenon of atmospheric,

hydrological or oceanographic nature Habagat

★ may cause loss of life, injury or other health ★ Warm and humid wind
impacts, property damage, loss of

☁️
livelihoods and services, socio economic ★ Cumulus Clouds (Individual cottony clouds
disruption, or environmental damage. like this )

1. Monsoon ★ Heavy Rains

★ Seasonal change of direction of the ★ Frequent Rainfall during this season

strongest winds of a region
★ STARTS: May
★ Causes wet & dry seasons in tropical areas.
★ ENDS: October
★ Blows wind from cold regions ➡ ️warm
regions.
Amihan
Monsoon Winds
★ Cold and dry
★ Habagat - Southwest Monsoon

4
 ★ Cirrus Clouds (whispy, feathery, composed
of ice crystals) - baha

★ Light rains
★ Tornado
★ Cold weather
- ipo-ipo / buhawi
★ Moderate temp
- whirling funnel shaped cloud
★ Little to no rainfall
- develops low heavy
★ Air from Siberia cumulonumbus clouds

★ STARTS: November - lasts for a few seconds but does a lot of

damage (not a flex tape reference T-T)
★ ENDS: February

2. Tropical Cyclone ● Storm Surge

★ Cyclone - storms formed in the Indian
Ocean & Southwest Pacific
★ Typhoon - forms in Northwest Pacific
★ Hurricane - forms in the Atlantic
- rising of the sea because of atmospheric
pressure changes and wind
- hits Tacloban shorelines
- rises up to 20 feet tall
- caused by strong hurricanes and storms

Damages
Tropical Cyclone
1. Human Consequences: Injury, Death,
★ Commonly used to describe cyclonic storms Health Related Problems
formed over tropical oceans
2. Economic Consequences: Damaged
★ Bagyo Properties

★ Accompanied by heavy rains 3. Environmental Degradation

★ May come with localized / widespread

flooding
STORM SURGE COLOR CODED WARNING
SYSTEMS:

TROPICAL CYCLONES MAY CAUSE: Red: TAKE ACTION - 3 meters above

- Catastrophic
★ Flood - Significant threat to life
- large amount of water covering an area of - Mandatory evacuation
land that’s usually dry
5
Orange: ALARM - 1.1 to 3 meters above
- Expected
- Could become life threatening
- Marine activities must be cancelled
- Follow evacuation guidelines from local
authorities
Yellow: ALERT: 0.5 to 1 meter
- Possible
- Stay away from the coast or beach
- Preparation measures must be carried out
Green: NO ALERT
- No action required
COLOR CODED RAINFALL ADVISORIES AND
CLASSIFICATIONS
RED: Torrential
- More than 30mm rain
- 8 gallons per square meter/hour
- Serious flooding expected (low lying areas)
- EVACUATE
ORANGE: Intense
- 15-30mm rain
- 4-8 gallons per square meter/hour
- Flooding is threatening
- ALERT (possible evacuation)
YELLOW: Heavy
- 7.5-15mm rain
- 2 gallons per square meter/hour
- Flooding is possible
- MONITOR the weather conditions
Moderate
- 2.5-7.5mm rain
- 2.5-7.5 liters per square meter/hour
- Flooding still possible in certain areas
Light
- Less than 2.5mm rain
- 2.5 liters per square meter/hour
- Flooding still possible in certain areas
WHAT TO DO DURING STORMS AND
STORM SURGES
- Evacuate if near shorelines
- Look for notice from news and warnings
- Prepare and practice evacuations plans
- Prepare for storm seasons
WHAT TO DO DURING STORMS
If in shorelines:
- Evacuate immediately to safe places and in
assigned evacuation centers
If in safe places:
- Stay in homes
- Watch or listen for further instructions and
announcements
WHAT TO DO AFTER A STORM
- Look for further announcements from
government
- If severely affected by the storm or
hurricane, look for relief goods if necessary.
- Look for help
- Check injuries
RECOMMENDATIONS
- Fundraising for the affected areas
- Voluntary works for relief operations
- Debriefing
-
Coastal Processes and hazards
- The Philippines has 7,107 islands and one
of the longest coastlines (36,289 km.)
- Coastlines are the natural boundary zone
between the land and ocean.
Coastline ecosystem is significant if it provides
the ff:
- Resources like marine plants, animals,
crude oil,minerals, natural gas, and more.
- Services like recreational, transportation,
shoreline protection, source for renewable
energy.
Processes
- Coastal regions have changes such as
erosion, submersion and salt intrusion.
6
- Erosion, The wearing away of rocks at the
crust. ( caused by waves or chemical
reaction)
- Submersion, wherein coastal sediments
migrate from a beach's visible section to its
submerged nearshore region and then back
to the beach's visible section.
- Salt intrusion, Is the movement of saline
water into freshwater aquifers.
LESSON 5: ORIGIN AND INTRODUCTION OF LIFE
BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
Biology-a science that studies and deals
with life.
Ecology- the study of organisms and how
they interact with the environment
Taxonomy- study of classifications of
organisms
Zoology-Study of animals
Ichthyology-study of fish
Cytology- study of Structure and
functions of cells
Genetics-study of genes and heredity
Biotechnology-uses of microbiology in
application to human lives and modify
cells and organisms
Embryology-study of the formation and
Structure of the embryo or fetus
Anatomy-study of organism’s bodies and
their parts
Physiology-study of functions of body
parts
Mitigation
- Political, Through legislation( proper zoning,
land use planning and more.)
- Structural,The use of hard and soft
structures. ( Breakwater, seawall, and
groynes)
Coastal vegetation
- Used to muddy coastals or tidal zones of
estuaries.
Microbiology-Study of microscopic
organisms
Virology-study of viruses and viral
diseases
Molecular biology-study of structure,
composition, and function of cellular
molecules
Parasitology-study of parasites
Ornithology-study of birds
Entomology-study of insects
Mycology-study of fungi
Morphology-study of the forms of living
organisms
THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF LIFE
Divine creation theory-based on the
book of genesis, it states that all created
by god. Life was put on earth by divine
forces.
Cosmozoic or interplanetary theory-life
was created by the very cosmos or life
7
was created by life from another planets
where life existed previously.
Abiogenesis or spontaneous
combustion- This theory states that
organisms Evolved and originated from
inanimate or nonliving objects
Big bang theory/physicochemical or
cosmological theory-heavenly bodies,
including the earth, originated from a hot
rotating ball of gas and life was formed
from chemical evolution
MODERN CELL THEORY
● single circular DNA molecule (not
associated w/histone proteins).
● No true sexual reproductio
Eukaryotes
● Defined nucleus
● DNA stored as chromosomes (w/
histone proteins)
● Chromosomes regularly divide by
Mitosis
● Flagella & cilia have 9-plus-2
pattern of microtubules
● Specialized organelles
● Integrated multicellularity
● Sexual reproduction (different
types)

1. All living things are made up of one

or more cells
2. Cell are the basic units of life and
all the chemical reactions of life
occur in cells
3. All cells arise from pre-existing
cells
CELL FRACTIONATION AND
DIFFERENTIAL CENTRIFUGATION
PROKARYOTES
BACTERIA
● occur in THREE basic shapes
● Spherical coccus
● Rod-shaped bacillus
● Spiral spirillum (if rigid) or
spirochete (if flexible)
Cell Envelope includes:
● Plasma membrane - lipid bilayer
with imbedded and peripheral
protein
● Cell wall - maintains the shape of
the cell
EUKARYOTES

Domain Eukarya includes:

● Protist
PROKARYOTES VS EUKARYOTES
● Fungi
Prokaryotes ● Plants
● All Bacteria ● Animals
● No membrane bound organelles
● No microtubules Cells contain:
● No 9 plus 2 flagella, flagella are ● Membrane-bound nucleus that
single filaments houses DNA

8
 ● Specialized organelles
● Plasma membrane
● Much larger than prokaryotic cells
● Some cells (e.g., plant cells) have
a cell wall
HYPOTHESIZED ORIGIN OF EUKARYOTIC
CELLS
Eukaryotic Cells: Organelles
● Eukaryotic cells are
compartmentalized
● They contain small structures
called organelles
● Perform specific functions
● Isolates reactions from
others
7 well as prokaryotic cells. Located outside
● Two classes of organelles:
● Endomembrane system:
● Organelles that communicate
with one another
● Via membrane channels
● Via small vesicles
● Energy related organelles
● Mitochondria & chloroplasts
● Basically independent &
self-sufficient
OSMOSIS
OSMOSIS in plant and animal cells
1. Isotonic solution - there is the same
concentration of solute and solvent inside
the cell as outside. Note: molecular
movement tries to achieve a dynamic
equilibrium.
2. Hypotonic solution - the fluid outside
has a higher concentration of water
molecules ( or a lower concentration of
solute) than inside the cell so water will
flow into the cell
3. Hypertonic solution - the fluid outside
has a lower concentration of water
molecules ( or a higher concentration of
solute) than inside the cell so water will
flow out of the cell
THE CELL BOUNDARY
• Plasma Membrane - selectively
permeable membrane that is too thin to
see with compound microscope.
• Cell Wall - structure found around plant
cells, fungi cells, and certain protists, as
of the plasma membrane and is composed
primarily of cellulose (in plants).
• Extracellular Matrix - composed of
molecules that serve to bind adjacent
cells. The material is a protein called
collagen and elastin in animals
INTERNAL STRUCTURES OF CELLS
• Plasma Membrane - selectively
permeable membrane that is too thin to
see with compound microscope.
9
 • Cell Wall - structure found around plant
cells, fungi cells, and certain protists, as
well as prokaryotic cells. Located outside
of the plasma membrane and is composed
primarily of cellulose (in plants).
UNIFYING THEORIES OF BIOLOGY:
● CELL THEORY - All living organisms are
composed of one (unicellar) or more cells
(multicellar)
● BIOGENESIS - Life comes only from life
● HOMEOSTASIS - Internal environment
remains within a normal range
● EVOLUTION - All living things have a
common ancestor
● GENE - Organisms contain coded
information that ditches their structure,
function and behavior.
• Extracellular Matrix - composed of
molecules that serve to bind adjacent
cells. The material is a protein called
collagen and elastin in animals
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING
THINGS/LIFE
● Metabolism - involves the sum of all
chemical reactions within an organism.
● Homeostasis - Living organisms maintain
internal stability by regulating their internal
environment.
● Heredity - the passing of physical or mental
characteristics genetically from one
generation to another.
● Reproduce - Living organisms have the
ability to reproduce, producing offspring that
are similar to themselves.
● Growth - Living organisms undergo growth,
which involves an increase in size or
number of cells.
● Cellular - Living things are composed of
cells, which are the basic structural and
functional units of life.
● Respond - Living things can respond to
stimuli from their external environment.
10
 LESSON 6: GENETICS

GENETICS

GENETICS- It deals with the structure of genes, their hereditary functions, and their role in genetic variations in
living organisms.
The scientific study of genes and heredity—of how certain qualities or traits are passed from parents to
offspring as a result of changes in DNA sequence.

MENDELIAN GENETICS AND LAWS

Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) - He is an Austrian ● Genotype of an organism refers to the

monk and was the first to elucidate the mechanism genetic makeup for a single trait of an
of heredity of traits. organism.

- HEREDITY is the genetic transmission of

traits from parents to offspring which can be
found in the ovum and sperm. ● Phenotype is the physical manifestation of
the combination of alleles
- CROSS POLLINATION- the process in
which Mendel removed the male organ of
the flower and dusted off pollen from
another flower. HYBRIDS- are true-breeding plants of different
characteristics
- DIPLOID (2N)- organism contains two
copies of each chromosomes ● Monohybrid Cross is when the two parent
plants differ from one another by one trait
- HAPLOID(N)- one set of chromosomes.
only.
- ALLELES- coded characteristics in genes
of genes in which it can exist in alternative
forms. ● Dihybrid Cross is one that crosses parents

- LOCUS- a pair of alleles resides in a differing in two traits rather than one

specific part of chromosomes. MENDELIAN GENETICS

CHROMOSOMES- genes that are packaged in experimental findings of Mendel on monohybrid

bundles. (XX- FOR WOMEN, XY FOR MEN) and dihybrid crosses to formulate basic principles.

● Genome is a complete set of DNA ( IT HAS 3 SECTIONS:)

necessary to build and maintain an
1. RULE OF DOMINANCE two forms of
organism
alleles, control the expression of a trait.
11
 ● DOMINANT- Prevailing trait
● RECESSIVE- Hidden in this 3. Co-Dominance
generation. - The phenotype is affected by two
2. LAW OF SEGRAGATION- the two alleles dominant alleles in distinct, separate
for a trait separate from one another. ways.

3 BASIC TYPES OF SEGRAGATION:

4. Multiple Alleles
- Homozygous dominant - Most genes have more than two
- Heterozygous dominant allelic variants in populations.
- Homozygous recessive

3. LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT 5. Pleiotropy

two or more traits are inherited, the genes - A characteristic of most genes is

for each trait independently separate from their many phenotypic effects.

one another. Multiple symptoms of some

hereditary disorders, like sickle-cell
METHODS IN PREDICTING HEREDITY
disease and cystic fibrosis, are
1. Punnet Square Method caused by pleiotropic alleles.
- By Reginald Punnett (1905)
- English biologist
6. Epistasis
- Method to predict the probabilities of
genotypes and phenotypes of the - A gene at one locus changes the
offspring of a particular cross expression of a gene at a second
locus in terms of phenotype.
2. Fork Method
- Another way to predict genotype and
phenotype ratios in dihybrid 7. Polygenic Inheritance
problems - Multiple gene variations can impact
a single phenotype.
PATTERN OF INHERITANCE (VIC)

1. Complete Dominance 8. Sex-Influenced Traits

- When the dominant homozygous - Are on autosomal chromosomes,
and heterozygous phenotypes are however the extent of which the
the same. genes can be expressed varies
depending on the sex of the
2. Incomplete Dominance organism.
- The phenotype of F1 hybrids lies in
between that of the two parental 9. Sex- linked Traits
kinds.

12
 - Are encoded by genes with sex 2. Transcription
chromosomal locations. - the process of using DNA as a
template to synthesize messenger
RNA (mRNA).
10. Sex- limited Traits - DNA - mRNA
- Are expressed only in one sex and
3. Translation
are coded by autosomes.
- process of using information from
mRNA to synthesize protein.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) - mRNA - Protein

● James Watson and Francis Crick

proposed the structure of DNA as two GENETIC ENGINEERING
chains of nucleotides that interact through
The modification of an organism’s genetic
their nitrogenous bases; Adenine, composition using biotechnology.
Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine.
● Double Helix is the twisted ladder structure Genetically modified or Transgenic organisms

with antiparallel directions (opposite). - contain genes from at least one unrelated
● Protein-synthesis Instructions have to be organism. (ex. Virus, bacteria, plant or
copied into RNA because only RNA can animal).
cross the barrier between the Nucleus
and the Cytosol and is the only format that
protein-making units use called
Ribosomes.

RNA
● Ribonucleic Acid
● Single strand
● Uses the same nitrogenous bases, but
instead of Thymine (T), it uses Uracil (U)
after transcription.

CENTRAL DOGMA

1. Replication
- process of copying the specific
structure of DNA to division
- DNA - DNA

13
 APPLICATION OF RECOMBINANT DNA
TECHNOLOGY
1. Agriculture and Industry - Improves plant
growth by increasing nitrogen
efficiencies, by cloning bacterial genes, and
inserting them into plant cells. Other plants
have been engineered to be resistant to
caterpillar, pests, and viruses by inserting
resistant genes into plant genomes.
2. Medicine and Research - Involves using
enzymes and various laboratory techniques to
manipulate and isolate DNA segments of
interest. This method can be used to combine
(or splice) DNA from different species or to
create genes with new functions. The resulting
copies are often referred to as recombinant
DNA.
3. Human Genome – Uses enzymes and various
laboratory techniques to manipulate and isolate
DNA segments of interest. This method can be
used to combine (or splice) DNA from different
species or to create genes with new functions.
The resulting copies are often referred to as
recombinant DNA.
4. Detection and Diagnosis of Diseases - The
identification of molecular defects in man that
account for heritable diseases,
mutations associated with neoplasia,
acquired infectious disease. Thus recombinant
DNA technology has rapidly expanded our
ability to diagnose disease.
5. Gene Therapy - A medical approach that treats
or prevents disease by correcting the
underlying genetic problem, The use of rDNA
fixation technology in conjunction with humans and
other mammals is referred to as gene therapy.
Gene therapy can be classified into two
categories, germinal and somatic.
● Somatic gene therapy: transfer of a section
of DNA to any cell of the body that doesn't
produce sperm or eggs.
● Germline gene therapy: transfer of a section
of DNA to cells that produce eggs or sperm
6. Pharmacogenetics - The identification of gene
variants (alleles) that influence drug metabolism is
one of the goals of pharmacogenetics, a field of
study focused on understanding the genetic basis
for differences in drug response among individuals.
The appeal of pharmacogenetics lies in the
possibility of personalized medicine.
SYSTEMS OF THE BODY
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
In charge of protecting our body from the
ambient surroundings.
Cutaneous breathing – prevents microorganisms
from coming in.
somatic
and PARTS OF INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
1. Invertebrate Integument – consists of plasma
membrane that separates them from their aqueous
environment
● Epidermis- layered type of
integument with the appearance.
14
 ● Procuticle and epicuticle- for
insect or arthropod.
2. Vertebrate Integument – have two distinct
layers in their integuments: thin outer and thick
layer.
● Dermis – thick layer compromised mostly
of fibrous connective tissue.
● Epidermis – acts as a barrier that
protects the body from ultraviolet
● Keratin- the cells in the outermost layer.
● Melanin- most common animal pigment is
black or brown
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
It is responsible for the exchange of carbon
dioxide and oxygen in the human body.
THE UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT begins with
the sinuses and nasal cavity, both of which are in
the area behind the nose.
- Nasal cavity- the area directly behind the
nose that allows outside air into the body.
- Sinuses - help to regulate air temperature
as you breathe.
- The pharynx or throat- allows for the
passage of air from the nasal cavity.
- The larynx, or voice box - for us to speak
and make sounds.
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
air enters the larynx, it continues down into the
lower respiratory tract, which begins with the
trachea.
- trachea, or windpipe- is the passage that
allows air to flow directly to the lungs .
- bronchi or tubes- lead into each lung.
These bronchi then continue to branch off
into smaller bronchioles.
- alveoli, or air sacks that are responsible
for the exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
● Provides a basic foundation that allows for
both hydrostatic and rigid movement.
- Hydrostatic - the muscles
surrounding the coelom and the
bodily fluids of soft-bodied animals.
- Rigid - contains rigid components
that act as muscle attachment
points.
15

Two Types of Rigid Skeleton
● Exoskeletons - Often seen in invertebrates.
Outermost region of the body, serving as
both an anchor point for internal
muscles and a shield against harm to the
organism.
● Endoskeletons - Usually seen in
echinoderms and vertebrates.
Two main division:
● Axial Skeleton - skull, vertebral column and
ribs.
● Appendicular Skeleton - lower limbs
(pelvic girdle), and upper limbs (pectoral
girdle).
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
● Molecular level through the actin-myosin
system of contractile proteins.
- Actin - is the cytoskeletal support.
- Myosin - is the motor protein that
binds to actin.
Amoeboid Movement
- the crawling motion observed by unicellular
creatures like amoebas. This kind of
mobility makes use of the cytoplasm's
protrusion into structures known as
pseudopodia.
Cilia and Flagella
- Numerous small, hair-like protrusions called
cilia are present on the cell's surface and
beat constantly. Each cell's pole has
structures called flagella, which resemble
whips. It is also in charge of motion that
resembles waves.
Muscles
- Is in charge of the majority of multicellular
creatures' bodily movement. It is made up of
cardiac, smooth, and skeletal muscles.
Types of Muscles:
1. Skeletal Muscle
- Arranged into large bundles and
joined to the skeleton.
2. Cardiac Muscle
- The tissue found inside the walls of
the heart resembles skeletal muscle
in structure, with a few intercalated
discs.
3. Smooth Muscle
- Smaller than cardiac and skeletal
muscles. Usually present in
supporting structures that require
long, gentle motions.
16
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - Large intestine
- 5 to 7ft long muscular tube
- Digestive tract - Connects small intestine to the
- Long twisting tube that starts from the rectum
mouth and ends at the anus
8. Rectum
- Made up of muscles that coordinates the - 8 inch chamber
food and other cells that produce enzymes - Connects colon to the anus
and hormones to aid in the breakdown of
9. Anus
food - Large part of the digestive tract
- consists of the muscles that line the
Parts of the Digestive System pelvis (pelvic floor muscles)
- consists also of 2 other muscles
called “anal sphincters” (internal and
1. Mouth
external
- Beginning of the digestive system
- Digestion starts here before you
Accessory Digestive Organs
even take the first bite
- Smell of food triggers the salivary
1. Pancreas
glands in your mouth to secrete
- Chief factory for digestive enzymes
saliva, causing your mouth to water
that are secreted into the duodenum
- These enzymes break down protein,
2. Pharynx
fats, and carbohydrates
- receives from the mouth
2. Liver
3. Esophagus
- Purifies this blood of many impurities
- Carries food to the stomach
before travelling to the rest of the
body
- Main Function: make and secrete
4. Trachea or Windpipe
an important substance called bile
- carries air to the lungs
- Main Function: to process the
blood coming from the small
5. Stomach
intestine containing the nutrients just
- Secretes acid and powerful enzymes
absorbed
that continue the process of
breaking the food down and
changing it to a consistency of liquid
3. Gallbladder
or paste
- Storage sac for excess bile
- If the intestine doesn't need it, the
bile travels into the gallbladder,
6. Small Intestine
where it awaits the signal from the
- ‘Workhorse’ of digestion
intestines that food is present
- Where most nutrients are absorbed
- Main Purpose: helps absorb fats in
- Made up of 3 segments
the diet
- Duodenum, jejunum, and ileum

7. Colon
17
 - Main Purpose: carries waste from
the liver that cannot go through the
kidneys
Feeding and Digestion
1. Particulate Feeding
- Once food particles are in the
mouth, mucus shoots out to trap and
convey the food into its digestive
tract
a. Filter Feeding
- Used by animals possessing
filtering structures in their
mouths
- ex. Giant Clam
b. Deposit Feeding
- Employed by some animals
that feed on disintegrated
organic materials called
detritus
- ex. Crab
2. Bulk Feeding
- Primary need to obtain food by the
most effective means has served as
a major driving force in evolution
a. Mastication (chewing)
- Process of crushing and
grinding food with the use of
teeth
b. Incisors
- Front teeth, with sharp and
thin edges adapted for
cutting food
c. Canines
- Used for grasping and
piercing the food
d. Premolars & Molars
- Flat surface
- Are used for grinding food
into smaller pieces
3. Fluid Feeding
- Used by parasites to procure food
a. Endoparasites
- Live inside their hosts and
absorb the nutrients in its
location
b. Ectoparasites
- Have specialized structures
to pierce or rasp the skin in
order to draw blood from the
host
- ex. Leeches and Mosquitoes
Steps in Digestion
1. Ingestion
- Involves the structures that
specialize in procuring food and
swallowing, primarily the mouth
- Enclosing the buccal cavity and the
pharynx of throat
- Tongue manipulates the food for
mastication as well as swallowing
- Trachea is the tube that leads to the
lungs and is closed by a thin flap
cartilage called “epiglottis”
2. Conduction
- Masticated food
- ‘Bolus’
- Conducted towards the stomach
through esophagus
3. Digestion
- begins in the mouth with the initial
breakdown of carbohydrates by the
salivary enzymes such as amylase
- In the stomach where bolus is
mixed with digestive juices and is
churned continually to produce a
soup-like mass called “chyme”
18
 4. Absorption
Direct exchange of Exchange of materials
- Small intestine is a coiled structure materials between through capillaries
that functions to complete the tissues and blood. embedded in the
digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, tissues.
and fats
- To absorb the nutrients obtained Circulating fluid is Circulating fluid is
called hemolymph called blood.
from these molecules for transport to
(mix of fluid plasma
other tissue and hemocytes; no
RBC)
5. Elimination
- Colon is tasked with recovering the
water that has been used as solvent Parts of the Circulatory System
in the digestive juices
1. Arteries

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM - these carry blood that is rich in

oxygen from the heart and through
- it is also know as the Cardiovascular
the body.
System, and it is a vast network of organs
and blood vessels.
Open and Closed Circulatory System
2. Veins
- these cary blood that is poor in
1. Open Circulatory System
oxygen and leads them back to the
- common to Molluscs and
heart.
Arthropods.
- pumps blood into a hemocoel with
3. Heart
the blood diffusing back to the
- a muscular organ which has four
circulatory system between cells.
chambers
- it is located behind and slightly left
2. Closed Circulatory System
of the breastbone.
- common to Vertabrates and some
Invertebrates
- blood is pumped by a heart through
4. Aorta
vessels
- main artery that carries oxygenated
blood from the heart to the rest of
OPEN CIRCULATION CLOSED the body.
CIRCULATION

Blood flows at low Blood flows apidly due

velocity and low to pressence of
pressure. muscles and contractile
blood vessels.

19
 5. Superior and Inferior Vena Cava
- main veins that carry deoxygenated
blood from the upper and lower parts
of your body to the heart.
- Superior = UPPER BODY; Inferior
= LOWER BODY
- Inferioir Vena Cava is the largest
vein in your body.
6. Blood
- is a specialized body fluid
- It has four main components:
plasma, red blood cells, white
blood cells, and platelets.
- transporting oxygen and nutrients to
the lungs and tissues. forming blood
clots to prevent excess blood loss.
Formed Elements of the Blood
1. Red Blood Cell
- Biconcave disc; no nucleus; contains
hemoglobin, which colors the cell
red; 6.5-8.5 μm (micrometers) in
diameter.
- transports oxygen and carbon
dioxide
2. White Blood Cells
- spherical cells with nucleus
- five types with specific functions
Granulocytes
a. Neutrophil
- Nucleus with two or four
lobes connected by thin
filaments; cytoplasmic
granules stain a light
pinkish/reddish purple;
10-12 μm in diameter.
- phagotcytizes
microorganisms and other
substances
b. Basophil
- Nucleus with two distinct
lobes; cytoplasmic granules
stain blue-purple, 10-12 μm
in diameter.
- releases histamine, which
promotes inflammation, and
heparin, which prevents
clot formation
c. Eosinophil
- Nucleus often bilobed,
cytoplasmic granules stain
orange-red or bright red;
11-14 μm in diameter.
- participates in inflammatory
response of allergic
reactions and asthma;
attacks certain worm
parasites.
Agranulocytes
a. Lymphocyte
- Round nucleus, cytoplasm
forms a thin ring around
the nucleus, 6-14 μm in
diameter.
- produces antibodies and
other chemicals responsible
20
 for destroying
microorganisms, contributes
to allergic reactions, graft
rejection, tumor control
and regulation of immune
system.
b. Monocyte
- Round, kidney-shaped, or
horseshoe-shaped;
contains more cytoplasm
than lymphocyte, 12-20 μm
in diameter
- phagocytic cell in the blood,
leaves the blood and
becomes a macrophage
which fights foreign
microorganisms, dead
cells, cell fragments, and
other debris.
3. Platelets
- Cell fragment surrounded by a
plasma membrane and containing
granules; 2-4 μm in diameter
- forms platelet plugs, releases
chemicals necessary for blood
clotting.
Chambers of the Heart
(sequenced; deoxygenated blood - oxygenated
blood)
1. Right Atrium/Auricle
- collects deoxygenated blood from
various parts of the body with the
help of Vena Cava and pours the
same into the right ventricle.
2. Right Ventricle
- receives deoxygenated blood
from Right Atrium and transports it
to the lungs for oxygenation.
3. Left Atrium
- receives oxygenated blood from
the lungs through the Pulmonary
Vein and transports it to the Left
Ventricle.
4. Left Ventricle
- received oxygenated blood from
Left Atrium and pumps it back to
the body through the Aorta.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Nervous system - The nervous system has two
major parts: the central nervous system (CNS)
and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
● The central system is the primary
command centre for the body, and
comprises the brain and spinal cord.
- The brain is protected by the skull (the
cranial cavity) and the spinal cord travels
from the back of the brain, down the center
of the spine, stopping in the lumbar region
of the lower back.
21
 ● The peripheral nervous system consists
of a network of nerves that connects the
rest of the body to the CNS.
The PNS can also be subdivided into smaller
components: the somatic and autonomic
systems.
- The somatic involves parts of the body a
person can command at will, and the
autonomic helps run involuntary functions
such as pumping blood.
IMMUNE SYSTEM
- Is a complex network of cells and proteins
that defends the body against infection. It
keeps record of every germ (microbe) is has
ever defeated so it can recognize and
destroy the microbe quickly if it enters the
body again.
- Abnormalities of the Immune System can
lead to allergic reactions.
Parts of the Immune System
1. White Blood Cells
- they are the key players in the
Immune System.
- made in the Bone Marrow and are
part of the Lymphatic System
- they move through blood and
tissue throughout the body, looking
for invaders and other foreign
microorganisms.
- launches immune attacks when
encountering foreign objects.
- they include lymphocytes such as
B-cells, T-cells, and many other
types of immune cells.
2. Antibodies
- proteins that protect you when an
unwanted substance enters your
body.
- they bind to these unwanted
substances in order to eliminate
them from your system.
3. Complement System
- a system of plasma proteins that
can be activated directly by
pathogens or indirectly by
pathogen-bound antibody, leading
to a cascade of reactions that
occurs on the surface of pathogens
and generates active components
with various effector functions.
4. Lymphatic System
- is a network of delicate tubes
throughout the body.
- it’s functions are: manage the fluid
levels in the body, react to bacteria,
deal with cancer cells, deal with cell
products that would result in
disease, and absorb some of the
fats in our diet.
Lymph Nodes
- also called lymph glands which trap
microbes.
Lymph Vessels
22
 - tubes that carry lymph, a colorless fluid that
bathes your body’s tissues and contains
infection-fighting WBC.
5. Spleen
- blood-filtering organ that removes
microbes and destroys old or
damaged red blood cells.
6. Bone Marrow
- soft, fatty tissue inside of the
bones in your body.
- contains cells that produce blood
cells and platelets and it is
responsible for making billions of
new blood cells each day
7. Thymus
Immune Responses in the Body
Skin
- a waterproof barrier that secrets oil with
bacteria-killing properties.
Lungs
- mucous in the lungs (phlegm) traps foreign
particles, and cilia wave the mucous
upwards to it can be coughed out.
Autoimmune Diseases
- where the Immune System mounts a
response against normal components of the
body.
- Autoimmune diseases range from common
to rare. They include multiple sclerosis,
autoimmune thyroid disease, type 1
diabetes, systemic lupus erythematosus,
rheumatoid arthritis and systemic vasculitis.
1. Arise as a result of Medical Treatment
- this can occur due to medications
such as corticosteroids or
chemotherapy.
2. Caused by other diseases
- diseases such as HIV/AIDS or
certain types of cancer.
3. Allergic Diseases
- where the Immune System makes
an overly strong response to
allergens.
- Allergens can include food,
medications, or stinging insects
- responses include anaphylaxis
(life-threatening allergy), hay fever
(allergic rhinitis), sinus disease,
asthma, hives (urticaria), dermatitis
and eczema.
- An underactive immune system does not
function correctly and makes people
vulnerable to infections. This can be
caused by smoking, alcohol, poor
nutrition, and through diseases that target
the Immune system such as AIDS.
- Immunoglobulins (antibodies) are used to
treat people who are unable to make
enough of their own, or whose antibodies
23
 do not work properly. This is known as
Immunoglobulin Therapy.

- Immunization works by copying the

body’s natural immune response. A
vaccine (a small amount of a specially
treated virus, bacterium, or toxin) is injected
into the body. The body then learns and
makes antibodies to combat it in the
future. If a vaccinated person is exposed to
the actual virus, bacterium, or toxin, they
won’t get sick because their Immune
System is able to recognize it and is
prepared to fight it off without expending
much energy.

carbon dioxide and oxygen in the human body.

24